ATOM

An atom is made up of:

a) Electrons (negatively charged, move round the nucleus)
b) Protons (positively charged, found in the nucleus)
c) Neutrons (neutral, found in the nucleus)

ION
NB: 1. Atomic number, Z is the number of protons or electrons in a atom. (Z= P or E)
2. Mass number, A is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. (A
= P+N)

Nuclear Isotopes

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Isotopes are atoms of the same element with same atomic number (Z) but different mass number
(A).
Examples: 126C , 136C , 146C∧11 H , 21H , 31 H
A =P + N
Z = P or E

Radioactivity
The stability of a nucleus determines whether a nuclide (isotope) is stable or unstable. Most of the
isotopes with low atomic numbers are stable while most of isotopes with Z greater than 82 are
unstable.
Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclide. Examples of radioactive
elements are Uranium-238, Thorium-234, Carbon-14, Tritium.

Types of Radioactive radiation

a) Beta () particles decay
The emission of a β-particle from the nucleus occurs when a neutron turns into a proton.
Characteristics
 They are negatively charged particles (electrons)
 Deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
 They have low ionization power

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  Penetrate through piece of paper but stopped by aluminum foil.

b) Alpha () particles decay

The α-decay occurs when a radioactive nucleus gets smaller by spitting out a helium nucleus.
Characteristics
 Positively charged particles i.e. +2e..
 Mass is about 4 times that of hydrogen ion. [4He2+)
 Deflected by electric and magnetic fields,
 has limited penetration in air and in material (can be stopped by a piece of paper)
 Has high ionizing power.

c) Gamma (γ) rays decay

It is released when the nucleus of an atom doesn't change size at all, but instead just rearranges
how its protons and neutrons are packed together.
Characteristics
 have negligible mass,
 carry no charge,
 undeflected by electric and magnetic fields,
 have high penetration in solid materials (stopped by lead and concretes)
 low ionizing power.
They are electromagnetic waves. Emission of γ -rays does not affect atomic or mass number but
generally follows a particle emission.

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Decay Constant and Half-Life
Rate of decay of a radioactive element follows an exponential law illustrated in figure below.
The number of atoms disintegrating per second is directly proportional to the number
of atoms present at that instant.

where λ is a constant known as decay constant.

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The half-life, τ, of a radioactive element is defined as the time taken for the atoms to disintegrate to
half their initial number i.e No  No/2.

Relationship between the decay constant and half-life

0.693
τ 1 /2 =
λ

Application of radioactive substances

Medicine
1) Small amounts of a radioisotope added to the body enable physicians to study things like the
fate of normal metabolites, the action of drugs, pathogens e.t.c.
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2) I-131 is used in the study of thyroid physiology to detect hyperthyroidism and to locate tumours
in the thyroid.
3) Na-24 injected into the bloodstream helps locate blood clots or venous blockage in the body.
4) I-131 labelled serum, introduced in the bloodstream, helps locate brain tumours.

Industry
1) Radioisotopes with long half-lives and emitting β-rays measure the thickness of dense opaque
bodies to determine the location of hidden defects.
2) β-ray gauges used to control the thickness of paper, plastic and rubber.
3) Gamma ray sources like Co-60 are used to measure soil density for building purposes.
4) Fast neutron source used to measure soil moisture content for building purposes.
5) Radioisotopes used in environmental studies e.g. SO2 pollution from industries.

Agriculture
1) Preservation of perishable foods.
2) Destruction of bacteria and insects.
3) P-32 for studies of plant nutrition.
4) Ca-45 for plant calcium nutrition.
5) C-14 and 0-18 for photosynthesis studies.

Nuclear Energy
Through nuclear reactions: fission and fusion a lot of energy is given out which is used in peaceful
or destructive ways e.g. nuclear reactors, bombs e.t.c.
Nuclear fission is a reaction in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller
nuclei. The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of
energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay.

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Nuclear Fusion reactions power the Sun and other stars. In a fusion reaction, two light nuclei
merge to form a single heavier nucleus. The process releases energy because the total mass of the
resulting single nucleus is less than the mass of the two original nuclei.

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