Journal of Coastal Research SI 75 507-511 Coconut Creek, Florida 2016

Hydraulic and Sediment Dynamics at times of Very Shallow Water

on Intertidal Mudflats: The Contribution of Waves
Qian Zhang †, Zheng Gong†*, Changkuan Zhang†, Zeng Zhou†, Ian Townend‡
‡
†StateKey Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Ocean and Earth Sciences
Engineering University of Southampton www.cerf-jcr.org
Hohai University Southampton, U.K.
Nanjing, China

ABSTRACT

Zhang Q.; Gong Z.; Zhang C.K.; Zhou Z., and Townend I., 2016. Hydraulic and sediment dynamics at times of very
shallow water on intertidal mudflats: the contribution of waves. In: Vila-Concejo, A.; Bruce, E.; Kennedy, D.M., and
McCarroll, R.J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 14th International Coastal Symposium (Sydney, Australia). Journal of
Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 75, pp. 507-511. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

www.JCRonline.org
Intertidal mudflats are often characterized by a special “very shallow water” environment, with a water depth in the
order of 10 cm. High-resolution data including water depth, wave parameters, velocity profiles (within 3-6 cm above
the mudflat surface with a vertical resolution as fine as 1 mm), stratified suspended sediment concentration (SSC)
and bed deformation over the intertidal mudflat during August 8-10, 2013 were measured using a self-designed
measuring system. High-resolution stratified velocities near the bottom under different tide and wave conditions were
compared to the Karman-Prandtl model. Results suggest that the vertical structure of velocity profiles within 55 cm
above the bed maintain a logarithmic distribution even when waves were relatively large. In addition, bed shear
stresses under current and wave alone and combined current-wave conditions were calculated to evaluate the
contribution of waves. This suggests that waves do not induce a significant rise in the bed shear stress, but have a
pronounced impact on the sediment suspension. This is particularly the case for very shallow flows during both the
early-flood period and the late-ebb period. These periods were characterized by “surges” in velocity and SSC, which
are enhanced when waves become larger. Even small waves cannot be overlooked for their contribution to sediment
re-suspension and vertical mixing. We conclude that waves strengthen the response of micro-topography deformation
due to flow conditions. They enhance the forcing during the “surges” at times of very shallow water, to sculpt the
micro-topography of the bed.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: wave effect, velocity profile, bed shear stress, very shallow water, SSC surge.

INTRODUCTION
Waves and tidal currents are important hydrodynamic forces
that influence the turbulent mixing of the water column,
sediment suspension and transport, bed form evolution, as well
as various biochemical processes (Grant and Madsen, 1986). To
explore the bottom boundary layer (BBL) characteristics under
combined current-wave action, previous research has examined
the thickness of the BBL, apparent roughness length, friction
velocity or bed shear stress, eddy viscosity, vertical velocity
distribution, sediment transport, etc. (e.g., Mathisen and
Madsen, 1996; Nielsen, 1992; Wang et al., 2006).
Previous work indicates that the interaction between current
and waves is non-linear. Grant and Madsen (1979) suggested
that in the BBL, with combined wave and tidal current influence,
the vertical velocity structure maintains a logarithmic
distribution. However, Nielsen (1992) pointed out that a linear
distribution can better describe the velocity profiles, while Li
(2003) suggests that the influence of waves can result in a
structure that no longer has a logarithmic profile.
As waves approach shallower water, the interaction between
____________________
DOI: 10.2112/SI75-102.1 received 15 October 2015; accepted in
revision 15 January 2016.
*Corresponding author: gongzheng@hhu.edu.cn
© influence of waves on the near-bed velocity structure; (2) to
Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc. 2016
waves and currents becomes more intense (Rosales et al., 2008).
The bed shear stress (BSS) associated with the wave motion
may be an order of magnitude larger than that induced by tidal
currents of comparable magnitude (Grant and Madsen, 1979).
Waves directly contribute to the bottom sediment suspension,
inducing sediment transport even when the tidal currents are
weak.
Previous research has also considered the current-induced
sediment transport and erosion process on mudflats or
saltmarshes (Leonard et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2007). However,
related studies under combined current-wave action are limited,
primarily because it is difficult to arrange joint observation of
current and waves on tidal flats (Callaghan et al., 2010; Shi et
al., 2012). In addition, it is a challenge to obtain effective wave
data during the very shallow water period, when waves easily
break and the development of wave height is limited by water
depth.
In this study, a field investigation was carried out on the
intertidal mudflats. High-resolution data including water depth,
wave parameters, velocity profiles, stratified suspended
sediment concentration (SSC) and bed deformation were
obtained. The overall goal was to explore the wave contribution
to the BBL parameter and to the very shallow water
environment. In detail, our objectives include: (1) to explore the
discuss the wave contribution to the bed shear stress; (3) to
 Hydraulic and Sediment Dynamics at times of Very Shallow Water on Intertidal Mudflats
examine the significance of wave action on the sediment motion
during the very shallow water period.
Background
Jiangsu coast is situated between the north bank of the
Yangtze estuary and Shandong Peninsula. Along this 954 km-
long coastline, muddy tidal flats occupy more than 90% of the
coast. The width of the intertidal mudflats is 2-6 km and the
average slope is as gentle as 0.01 % - 0.03 % (Zhang, 1992).
Our study area was the muddy tidal flats located in the south
of the Chuandong River, Yancheng City (Figure 1). The
landscape here shows clear zonation (Zhu et al., 1986), and the
grain size of the bottom sediment tends to be coarser towards the
sea. Accordingly, the tidal flats can be divided into zones across
the shoreface comprising salt marshes (Spartina angelica and
Spartina alterniflora marshes), mudflats, mixed sand–mud flats
and sand flats seaward (Gao, 2009). The tide in this area is
irregular semi-diurnal with an average tidal range of 3.7 m
(Gong et al., 2013). The flood tidal wave propagates from
northwest to southeast along the West Xiyang Trough and hence
the tidal current on the tidal flats is rectilinear nearly parallel to
the shoreline (Ren et al., 1984). The flow velocity during the
flood is generally larger than that during the ebb, while the
duration of the flood is usually less than that of the ebb,
indicating a flood dominant asymmetric tide locally. Sheltered
by the offshore radial sand ridges, wave action in the study area
is relatively weak (Wang et al., 2012), with the significant wave
height commonly less than 1 m in the winter and 0.5 m in other
seasons.
Figure 1. Location of the study area. The inset (a) shows Jiangsu coast
area in the middle part of the Chinese east coastline. Our study area is
indicated by the red point in panel (b), and the observation site is
indicated by star and denoted A in panel (c).
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 75, 2016
508
In this area, ten benchmarks have been established to observe
the surface elevation variation of the mudflats since September
2012: S1 to S9 in Figure 1c (Gong et al., 2014). The field
investigation was carried out from August 8th to 10th during the
spring tidal period and lasted for three tidal cycles. Site A,
where we arranged the measurement, is located between point
S7 and S8. The surrounding tidal flats have no vegetation, and
there were no distinct tidal creeks in the vicinity at the time of
the measurements. The bottom sediment mainly consists of silt
FOD\DQGVLOWZLWKWKHPHGLDQJUDLQVL]HRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\ȝP
The weather was fine during the three tidal cycles, and the
significant wave height was less than 0.25 m.
METHODS
Simultaneous water depth, high-resolution velocity and
stratified SSC process were obtained by a self-designed “Bottom
Boundary Layer Hydrodynamic and Suspend Sediment
Concentration Measuring System” (Figure 2).
A Nortek Vectrino Profiler, with the transducer set 10 cm
above the flat surface, was used to capture the velocity profiles
4-7 cm in front of the probe. The sampling frequency was 25 Hz
and the vertical resolution of the measured velocity can be as
fine as 1 mm. Velocities of the upper water column were
obtained using a 600 kHz RiverRay ADCP (RD
INSTRUMENTS) buried upwards in the flat with the transducer
surface 10 cm higher than the flat surface. Because of the blind
area, the velocities could be recorded only when the water depth
was larger than 35 cm. The minimum resolution was 10 cm and
the sampling frequency was 1-2 Hz, which were both set
automatically by the instrument.
Meanwhile, stratified suspended sediment concentration was
measured using five OBS at heights of 10 cm, 30 cm, 60 cm,
100 cm and 200 cm. Water depth and wave parameters
including wave height and wave period were recorded by a RBR
Company Tide Wave Recorder-2050.
Figure 2. Site photo of the measuring system.
The OBSs were calibrated using water samples from the field.
Results show a satisfactory linear relationship between the
measured voltage or electric current data and the suspended
sediment concentration, with correlation coefficients over 0.9.
 Hydraulic and Sediment Dynamics at times of Very Shallow Water on Intertidal Mudflats
Further details of the measuring system and SSC calibration
are given in Zhang et al (2016).
In the lower part of the bottom boundary layer, the Karman-
Prandtl equation is often used to describe the vertical structure
of the velocity profiles (Soulsby, 1995).
u* z
u ln
N z0
Where u is the measured velocity at height z above the flat
surface, z 0 is the roughness length, N is van Karman’s constant
usually taken as 0.4, and u * is the friction velocity.
The friction velocity u * and roughness length z 0 can be
estimated by fitting the measured velocity u and the
corresponding height z to equation (1). Accordingly, the bed
shear stress W F is easily calculated:
Wc Uu*2
Since the measured velocity used in equation (1) is the
minute-average velocity, the bed shear stresses obtained by
equation (2) are considered to be the current-induced ones,
without taking wave effect into account.
To compare the wave effect with tidal current, the wave-
induced bed shear stress W Z is calculated using (Fagherazzi and
Mariotti, 2012; Shi et al., 2015):
WZ   UIZ 8 Z (3)
issues. A criterion of 95% correlation coefficient was adopted,
and profiles with r > 95% were considered to be logarithmically
Significant wave height (m)
3 0.3
Significant Wave Height
Water depth (m)
Water Depth
(1) 2 0.2
1 0.1
0 0.0
2013/8/8 21:00 2013/8/9 09:00 2013/8/9 21:00 2013/8/10 09:00
Figure 3. Water depth and significant wave height during the
observation period.
distributed. The correlation coefficients are illustrated in Figure
(2) 4a and velocity profiles of five characteristic moments during
the third tide are shown in Figure 4c. Results indicate that nearly
all the velocity profiles near the bed were logarithmically
distributed (386 out of 387 profiles). In the second tide, with
negligible wave impact, velocity profiles can be described
logarithmically throughout the tidal cycle, except during the
flood slack period (Zhang et al., 2016). The wave action may
influence the flow speed and direction, and so contribute to the
vertical distribution of the velocity.
Where f w is the wave friction factor, f w 1.39 A z 0 0.52 , A is the
4 1.00

Correlation coefficient (r)

orbital amplitude of wave motion at the bed, A U wT 2S , 8 Z is a
Water depth (m)

3
Burst 190 Burst 242
the bottom wave orbital velocity and T is the period of waves.
2 0.95
The bed shear stress under combined wave and current Burst 71

conditions cannot be calculated by simply adding the shear 1

stress for wave-alone and current-alone, since the interaction Burst 1 Burst 387
0 0.90
between waves and currents is non-linear. 1.5
b
For simplicity of calculation, a formula proposed by Soulsby
Flow speed (m/s)

3cm 6cm
1.0
35cm 45cm 55cm
(1995) is adopted here:
0.5
ª § Ww ·
3.2
º
W W c «1  1.2¨¨ ¸¸ » (4) 0.0
«¬ ©W c  W w ¹ »¼ -0.5
21:30 22:30 23:30 00:30 01:30 02:30 03:30 04:30 05:30
in which W F and W Z are the bed-shear stresses induced by the c
Time
Burst 1 Burst 71 Burst 190 Burst 242 Burst 387
0.6 .6 6
current alone and by the wave alone, respectively.
Height above bottom (m)

0.5 .5
0.4 .4 4
RESULTS 0.3 .3
Water depth and significant wave height during the 0.2 .2
observation period are shown in Figure 3. Wave heights were 0.1 .1
the smallest and nearly negligible during the second tidal cycle 0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0 0.5 10 0.1 0.20.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.2 0.4
with the maximum less than 0.05 m, while in the other two tidal Velocity (m/s) Measured velocity Fitting line

cycles, waves were more significant with peaks approaching
0.25 m. Since the velocity data collected during the first tidal
cycle were not continuous, data from the third tidal cycle was
used to study the wave effect compared with that of the second
tidal cycle (as an approximate surrogate for the no-wave case).
The water depth during the third tidal cycle is shown in
Figure 4a. The stratified flow speeds measured below 55 cm
(Figure 4b) above the bed were fitted to equation (1). The data
from the ADCP was not continuous because of some operational
Figure 4. (a) Water depth of the third tidal cycle and the correlation
coefficients (r) of the logarithmic fitting. The blue dots correspond to r •
0.95 and the red ones r < 0.95; (b) Stratified flow speed used for fitting.
The velocity during the flood is positive while that during the ebb is
negative. Speed data at 35 cm, 45 cm and 55 cm above the bed was not
continuous because of some operational issue; (c) Measured velocity
profiles and fitting lines at five typical moments represented by the
green dots in panel (a).

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 75, 2016

509
 Hydraulic and Sediment Dynamics at times of Very Shallow Water on Intertidal Mudflats

In order to study the wave contribution, the hydrodynamic,
suspended sediment, bed deformation and bed shear stress
processes of the second and third tidal cycles are compared.
During the second tidal cycle, the biggest water depth in our
study area was 2.93 m, and the maximum flow speeds at 3 cm
above the bed of the flood and the ebb were 0.74 and 0.26 m/s,
respectively (Figure 5a). Comparatively, the tidal current was
weaker during the third tide, with the largest water depth only
reaching 2.57 m, with maximum flow speeds on the flood and
ebb of 0.54 and 0.3 m/s respectively (Figure 5b).
However, the measured suspended sediment concentrations
show the opposite tendency (Figure 5c and 5d). The SSC surged
to 9.31 kg/m3 at the beginning of the flood during the third tide,
while in the second tide, the SSC only peaked to 6.15 kg/m3. In
addition, during the slack period when the current speed was
around zero, the SSC measured at 10 cm level above the bed
increased and reached 3.5 kg/m3 due to the prevailing influence
of waves.
1.0 3 1.0
a b
Flow speed (m/s)
average value respectively during the flood, which were much
larger than that during the ebb with the corresponding value of
1.25 and 0.52 N/m2. Notably, the wave-induced BSS was only
0.03 N/m2 on average during the second tidal cycle.
Comparatively, the tide-induced BSS during the flood phase of
the third tide was smaller than that during the second tide, and
the maximum only reached 5.33 N/m2. However, the wave-
induced BSS was 0.54 N/m2 on average; one order of magnitude
larger than that during the second tide.
DISCUSSION
Based on the results shown above, the influence of waves on
SSC processes was remarkable. During the slack period when
the flow direction was changing, sediment tended to drop back
to the bed. As a result, the suspended sediment concentration in
the upper water column decreased rapidly, while that in the
lower layers slightly increased during the second tidal cycle
(Figure 5c). During the third tidal cycle, the increase of the SSC
in the lower layer was much larger (Figure 5d) and is more
3
evident near the bed, where the SSC at 10 cm and 30 cm above
Flow speed
the bed both exceeded 3 kg/m3 during that period. This reflects

Water depth (m)

Water depth
0.5 2 0.5 2 the influence of the waves. During the slack tide period the
currents are weak and sediment carrying capacity over the water
0.0 1 0.0 1
column as a whole declines. However, the stirring effect of the
-0.5 0 -0.5 0 waves keeps the sediment in suspension.
10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00
10 10
10cm
Additionally, the bed was more sensitive to the
c d
8 8 30cm hydrodynamics with waves present, especially during the ebb
SSC (kg / m3)

60cm
6 6 1m phase. At around 2:00 on 10th August, the current-induced bed
4 4 2m shear stress increased, the sediments were re-suspended and the
2 2 bed elevation decreased immediately. The SSC increased later
0
10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00
0
22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 due to the phase lag (Postma, 1961). Later on, the SSC reduced
Distance from bottom (m)

12 0.1312 0.13 and siltation occurred as the BSS decreased. In contrast, during
Bed shear stress (N/m2)

Distance from bottom

10 e 0.1210 f 0.12
8 0.11 8 0.11
the second tide, the SSC, as well as the distance from the probe
6 0.10 6 0.10 to the flat surface appears to be only weakly responsive to the
Wave-induced BSS
4 0.09 4 Tide-induced BSS 0.09 bed shear stress. Besides, during the flood phase (from about
2 0.08 2 Combined BSS 0.08 10:20 to 12:20 in 9th August and 22:30 to 00:20 in 10th August),
0 0.07 0 0.07
10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00 the measured SSC and the bed deformation tendency does not
9th August Time 10th August
correspond well with the high bed shear stress. In the second
Figure 5. (a) Water depth and flow speed at 3 cm above the bed during
the second tide and (b) the third tide; (c) Stratified SSC during the tide, the bed deformation data (the blue dot-line in Figure 5e)
second tide and (d) the third tide; (e) Calculated bed shear stress and the from 10:22 to 11:35 was abnormally small, hence was not
bed deformation during the second tide and (f) the third tide. included. Data during the same period in the third tide was also
relatively disordered. High concentration of suspended sediment
close to the bed disturbed the boundary discrimination of the
Table 1. Bed shear stress during the 2nd and the 3rd tide instrument, but was not detected by the OBS fixed on about 10
The 2nd tide The 3rd tide cm above the bed. It could be that the high SSC during this
Bed shear stress (N/m2)
Flood Ebb Flood Ebb period is the result of high bed shear stress causing an overall
IJ Max 6.82 1.25 5.33 1.93 movement of the sand ripples, so that a large amount of coarser
Tide-induced
IJ Ave 2.53 0.52 2.3 0.82
IJ Max 0.34 1.1
sediment was re-suspended into the lower water column.
Wave-induced Particularly, waves also contribute much to the very shallow
IJ Ave 0.03 0.54
IJ Max indicates the maximum bed shear stress whileIJ Ave indicates the water period. During the early-flood period and the late-ebb
average bed shear stress. period, when the water depth was less than the order of 10 cm
(usually called the very shallow water period), there exit a
Bed shear stress (BSS) provides a useful means of evaluating “surge” feature. This is a short-lived occurrence of elevated
sediment suspension and deposition. The BSS for current and velocity or SSC (Zhang et al., 2016) and this was strengthened
wave alone were calculated using equations (2) and (3). The by wave actions. The increase of the measured velocities was
results shown in Figure 5e, 5f and Table 1 indicate that the more obvious at the very shallow water stages. Sediments were
current-induced BSS correlates well with the flow speed, and is suspended during the passage of the tidal front during the third
significantly asymmetric during the flood and the ebb. In the tide far more than during the second tide, despite the fact that
second tide, the BSS were 6.82 and 2.53 N/m2 for the max and tidal current was weaker during the third tide. Notably, the

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 75, 2016

510
 Hydraulic and Sediment Dynamics at times of Very Shallow Water on Intertidal Mudflats
distance from the bottom was obviously increased at the initial
stage of the flood (around 22:00 in Figure 5f), indicating an
effective erosion caused by the tidal front under the wave action.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the hydrodynamic and sediment process
measurements during different tidal cycles, the wave effects on
the near-bed flow structure and the sediment responds were
explored. And the conclusions drawn are as follows:
(1) The vertical velocity structure within 55 cm above the flat
surface obeys the logarithmic law through the whole tidal cycle
under the influence of waves.
(2) During the slack period, wave motion prevents the
sediment depositing back to the bed and hence leads to an
increase in the suspended sediment concentration.
(3) Evident “surge” features of the velocity and SSC during
the early-flood and late-ebb periods were strengthened by waves.
(4) The contribution of the waves to the combined bed shear
stresses is limited. However, the stirring effect of waves
enhances the sensitivity of the bed evolution to the
hydrodynamic forcing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Cai Hui, Zhu Shanpeng, Jin Chuang
and Li Huan for their concerted efforts in the field investigation.
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51379003, 51179067), the Fundamental
Research Funds for the Central Universities (2015B15814,
2015B25614, 2015B24814), and also supported by Program for
New Century Excellent Talents in University (NCET-12-0841).
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