3 General forced response

• So far, all of the driving forces have

been sine or cosine excitations
• In this chapter we examine the
response to any form of excitation such
as
– Impulse
– Sums of sines and cosines
– Any integrable function

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 Linear Superposition allows us to
break up complicated forces into sums of
simpler forces, compute the response and
add to get the total solution

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3.1 Impulse Response Function

F(t)
Impulse excitation

τ−ε τ−ε
τ
ε is a small positive number
Figure 3.1
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From sophomore dynamics The
impulse imparted to an object is equal to the
change in the objects momentum

F(t) i.e. area

under
pulse

τ−ε τ+ε
τ
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We use the properties of impulse to
define the impulse function:
Dirac Delta
Equal
F(t) function
impulses

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The effect of an impulse on a
spring-mass-damper is related to its
change in momentum. Just after Just before
impulse impulse

Thus the response to impulse with zero IC is equal to

the free response with IC: x0=0 and v0 =FΔt/m

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Recall that the free response to
just non zero initial conditions is:
The solution of:
+ kx 0 =
mx + cx = x(0) x0 x (0) v0
=
in underdamped case: (pages 25 and 26)

( v0 + ζωn x0 ) + ( x0ωd )
2 2
x0ωd
x(t ) e-ζωnt sin(ωd t + tan −1 )
ωd v0 + ζωn x0

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Next compute the response to
x(0)=0 and v(0) =FΔt/m

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So for an underdamped system the
impulse response is (x0 = 0)

x(t) m
1

0.5 k
c
h(t)

-0.5

-1
0 10 20 30 40
Time
Response to an impulse at t = 0, and zero initial
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The response to an impulse is
thus defined in terms of the
impulse response function, h(t).

So, the response to δ (t ), unit impulse function, is given by h(t ).

e −ζωnt
h(t ) = sin ωd t (3.8)
mωd
What is the response to a unit impulse applied
at a time different from zero?
The response to δ (t -τ ) is h(t -τ ).
This is given on the following slide

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 1
τ=0
0
h1
For example: If two -1
0 10 20 30 40
pulses occur at two 1
different times then τ=10
0
h2

their impulse
-1
responses will 1
0 10 20 30 40
superimpose
h1+h2

-1
0 10 20 30 40
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 Consider the undamped
impulse response

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Example 3.1.2 Design a camera mount with a
vibration constraint

Consider example 2.1.3 of the security camera

again only this time with an impulsive load

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Using the stiffness and mass parameters of Example 2.1.3,
does the system stay with in vibration limits if hit by a 1 kg
bird traveling at 72 kmh?
The natural frequency of the camera system is

From equations (3.7) and (3.8) with ζ = 0, the impulsive response is:

The magnitude of the response due to the impulse is thus

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 Next compute the momentum of the
bird to complete the magnitude
calculation:
km 1000 m hour
mb v 1=
kg  72   20 kg m/s
hour km 3600 s

Next use this value in the expression for the

maximum value:

This max value exceeds the camera tolerance of

0.01 m
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 Example 3.1.3: two impacts, zero
initial conditions (double hit).

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Example 3.1.3 two impacts and initial conditions

Note, no need to redo constants of integration

for impulse excitation (others, yes)

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 Computation of the response
to first impulse:

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Total Response for 0< t < 4

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 Next compute the response to
the second impulse:

Here the Heaviside step function is used

to “turn on” the response to the impulse
at t = 4 seconds.
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To get the total response add
the partial solutions:

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3.2 Response to an Arbitrary Input
The response to general force, F(t), can be viewed as a series
of impulses of magnitude F(ti)Δt
Response at time t due to the ith impulse zero IC

xi(t) = [F(ti)∆t ].h(t-ti) for t>ti xi

F(t) ti t
Impulses

F(ti)

(3.12)
t1,t2 ,t3 ti t
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Properties of convolution integrals: It
is symmetric meaning:

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The convolution integral, or Duhamel
integral, for underdamped systems
is:

•The response to any integrable force can be computed with

either of these forms
•Which form to use depends on which is easiest to compute

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Example 3.2.1: Step function input

Figure 3.6 Step function To solve apply (3.13):

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Integrating (use a table, code or
calculator) yields the solution:

Fig 3.7

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Example: undamped oscillator
under IC and constant force
For an undamped system: F0

The homogeneous solution is t1 t2

Good until the applied force acts at t1, then: x(t) m

0
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Next compute the solution
between t1 and t2

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Now compute the solution for
time greater than t2

0 0

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 Total solution is superposition:

0.3
Displacement x(t)

0.2

0.1

-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
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Example 3.2.3: Static versus
dynamic load

This has max value of , twice the static load

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 Numerical simulation and
plotting
• At the end of this chapter, numerical
simulation is used to solve the problems of
this section.
• Numerical simulation is often easier then
computing these integrals
• It is wise to check the two approaches against
each other by plotting the analytical solution
and numerical solution on the same graph

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3.3 Response to an Arbitrary Periodic Input

• We have solutions to sine and

cosine inputs. 2

• What about periodic but non- 1.5 T

harmonic inputs? 1
• We know that periodic functions

Displacement x(t)
0.5
can be represented by a series of
sines and cosines (Fourier) 0

• Response is superposition of as -0.5

many RHS terms as you think are -1
necessary to represent the
forcing function accurately -1.5

-2
0 2 4 6
Time (s)
Figure 3.11
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Recall the Fourier Series
Definition:

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The terms of the Fourier series
satisfy orthogonality conditions:

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Fourier Series Example
F(t)

F0 Step 1: find the F.S.

and determine how
many terms you need
0 t1 t2=T

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 Fourier Series Example
1.2

1
F(t)
2 coefficients
0.8 10 coefficients
100 coefficients
0.6
Force F(t)

0.4

0.2

-0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (s)

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Having obtained the FS of input
• The next step is to find responses to
each term of the FS
• And then, just add them up!
• Danger!!: Resonance occurs whenever
a multiple of excitation frequency equals
the natural frequency.
• You may excite at 100rad/s and
observe resonance while natural
frequency is 500rad/s!! Backwards?
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 Solution as a series of sines
and cosines to
The solution can be written as a summation

Solutions calculated
from equations of
motion (see section
Example 3.3.2)
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 3.4 Transform Methods
An alternative to solving the
previous problems, similar to
section 2.3

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 Laplace Transform
•Laplace transformation

Laplace transforms are very useful because they change

differential equations into simple algebraic equations

•Examples of Laplace transforms (see page 244) in

book)
f(t) F(s)

Step function, u(t) 1/s

e-at 1/(s+a)
sin( t )  / ( s2 +  2)
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 Laplace Transform
•Example: Laplace transform of a step function u(t)
u(t)

t
•Example: Laplace transform of e-at

e-at

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Laplace Transforms of Derivatives
•Laplace transform of the derivative of a function

Integration by parts gives,

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 Laplace Transform Procedures
•Laplace transform of the integral of a function

Steps in using the Laplace transformation to

solve DE’s
•Find differential equations
•Find Laplace transform of equations
•Rearrange equations in terms of variable of interest
•Convert back into time domain to find resulting
response (inverse transform using tables)
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 Laplace Transform Shift
Property
Note these shift properties in t and s
spaces...

thus

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Example 3.4.3: compute the forced
response of a spring mass system to a step input
using LT

Compare this to the solution given in (3.18)

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 Fourier Transform wn=2 and M=1
• From Fourier series of non- 0.1
periodic functions
• Allow period to go to infinity 0.05

• Similar to Laplace Transform

h(t)
0
• Useful for random inputs
-0.05

-0.1
• Corresponding inverse transform 0 1 2
Time (s)
3 4

Fourier
Transform
20

Normalized H(ω) (dB)

10
• Fourier transform of the unit
impulse response is the frequency 0
response function
-10

-20
0 1 2 3 4 5
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