BEHAVIORISM THEORY

Overview of Behaviorism
Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy,
methodology, and theory. It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to
mentalistic psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that could be
tested using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet of behaviorism, as
expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that
psychology should concern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals,
not with unobservable events that take place in their minds. The behaviorist school of
thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without
recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as
thoughts and beliefs. From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school
of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and
Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the
mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were
Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning although he did not necessarily
agree with behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who
rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental
methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning. In the
second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the
cognitive revolution. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought
may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical
therapeutic applications, such as in cognitive–behavioral therapy that has demonstrable
utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and addiction. In
addition, behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream of
behavior from the birth of a human to their death. Behaviorism focuses on one particular
view of learning: a change in external behavior achieved through a large amount of
repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and the discouragement of bad
habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of repetitive actions,
praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes. In the field of
language learning this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method,
characterized by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and
immediate correction. Behaviorism is one of the three primary learning theories. The
primary goal of behaviorism is to form a relationship between a stimulus and a
response’s is  Formally founded by John B. Watson in 1913.Behaviorism equates
learning with behaviors that can be observed and measured. Reinforcement is key to
successful transfer through behavioristic learning. Strong emphasis on the stimulus, the
response and the relationship between them. It is a learning theory that only focuses on
objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind.
Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior
based on environmental conditions.
History of behaviorism.
Behaviorism started as a reaction against introspective psychology in the 19th century,
which relied heavily on first-person accounts. J.B. Watson and B.F. Skinner rejected
introspective methods as being subjective and unquantifiable. These psychologists
wanted to focus on observable, quantifiable events and behaviors. They said that
science should take into account only observable indicators. They helped bring
psychology into higher relevance by showing that it could be accurately measured and
understood, and it wasn’t just based off opinions.
Watson and Skinner believed that if they were given a group of infants, the way they
were raised and the environment they put them in would be the ultimate determining
factor for how they acted, not their parents or their genetics.
Pavlov’s Dogs is a popular behaviorism experiment. A group of dogs would hear a bell
ring and then they would be given food. After enough time, when the bell would ring the
dogs would salivate, expecting the food before they even saw it. This is exactly what
behaviorism argues—that the things we experience and our environment are the drivers
of how we act.
The stimulus-response sequence is a key element of understanding behaviorism. A
stimulus is given, for example a bell rings, and the response is what happens next, a
dog salivates or a pellet of food is given. Behavioral learning theory argues that even
complex actions can be broken down into the stimulus-response.
Discussion
Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process.
There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioral
pattern:
Types of Conditioning
1.Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. We are
biologically “wired” so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. One of
the more common examples of classical conditioning in the educational environment is
in situations where students exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of failure, fear
of public speaking and general school phobia.
2. Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is
reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or
reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more
probable in the future. For example, leading behaviorist B.F. Skinner used
reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball in a mini-alley.
- Behaviorism or the behavioral learning theory is a popular concept that focuses on
how students learn. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned
through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are
learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little
influence on behavior.
A common example of behaviorism is positive reinforcement. A student gets a small
treat if they get 100% on their spelling test. In the future, students work hard and study
for their test in order to get the reward.
Behaviorism is key for educators because it impacts how students react and behave in
the classroom, and suggests that teachers can directly influence how their students
behave. It also helps teachers understand that a student’s home environment and
lifestyle can be impacting their behavior, helping them see it objectively and work to
assist with improvement.
Behaviorism learning theory.
In the classroom, the behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to motivate
and help students. Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response
to the right stimulus. Students are a passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers
are giving them the information as an element of stimulus-response. Teachers use
behaviorism to show students how they should react and respond to certain stimuli.
This needs to be done in a repetitive way, to regularly remind students what behavior a
teacher is looking for.
Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive
reinforcement, students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear
to be working. For example, if students are supposed to get a sticker every time they
get an A on a test, and then teachers stop giving that positive reinforcement, less
students may get A’s on their tests, because the behavior isn’t connected to a reward
for them.

Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning

theory. Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and
having the positive reinforcement come to show students why they should continue
that behavior.

Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative

reinforcement can be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives
praise for a good test score is much more likely to learn the answers effectively than a
student who receives no praise for a good test score. The student who receives no
praise is experiencing negative reinforcement—their brain tells them that though they
got a good grade, it didn’t really matter, so the material of the test becomes unimportant
to them. Conversely students who receive positive reinforcement see a direct
correlation to continuing excellence, completely based on that response to a positive
stimulus.
Behaviorist teaching strategies.
Teachers can implement behavioral learning strategy techniques in their classroom in
many ways, including:
•Drills. Teachers may practice skills using drill patterns to help students see the
repetition and reinforcement that behavioral learning theory uses.
•Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a
response,
gradually getting harder with questions to help students.
•Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through
problems to give them the reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to
follow.
•Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back
over material and giving positive reinforcement will help students retain information
much better.
•Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly.
This can be in the form of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added
privileges, and more.
Behaviorism criticisms.
While behaviorism is a great option for many teachers, there are some criticisms of
this theory. Behaviorism is best for certain learning outcomes, like foreign languages
and math, but aren’t as effective for analytical and comprehensive learning.
Other critics of behavioral learning say that the theory doesn’t encompass enough of
human learning and behavior, and that it’s not fully developed. Other theories have
come forward that take behaviorism further, implying that there are many additional
factors to consider when evaluating behavior.
If you are hoping to one day become a teacher, it’s important to get the right degree
and credentials to help you be prepared for success. It’s also important to understand
learning theories to be ready to take on students and the classroom. When you
understand more about psychology and how students learn, you’re much more likely to
be successful as an educator.
COGNITIVISM OR COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
Cognitivism
In the late 1950’s, learning theory began to make a shift away from the use of
behavioral models to an approach that relied on learning theories and models from the
cognitive sciences. Psychologists and educators began to de-emphasize a concern
with overt, observable behavior and stressed instead more complex cognitive
processes such as thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and
information processing (Snelbecker, 1983). Within the past decade, a number of
authors in the field of instructional design have openly and consciously rejected many
of ID’s traditional behavioristic assumptions in favor of a new set of psychological
assumptions about learning drawn from the cognitive sciences. Whether viewed as an
open revolution or simply a gradual evolutionary process, there seems to be the
general acknowledgment that cognitive theory has moved to the forefront of current
learning theories (Bednar et al., 1991). This shift from a behavioral orientation (where
the emphasis is on promoting a student’s overt performance by the manipulation of
stimulus material) to a cognitive orientation (where the emphasis is on promoting
mental processing) has created a similar shift from procedures for manipulating the
materials to be presented by an instructional system to procedures for directing student
processing and interaction with the instructional design system (Merrill, Kowalis, &
Wilson, 1981).
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received,
organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information
processer, like a computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behaviour,
viewing learning as internal mental processes. In this view, learners are actively
involved in the way they process information. Knowledge, memory, thinking, and
problem solving are areas for development.
History
Cognitivist theory developed as a reaction to Behaviorism and gained credence in the
1950s. Cognitivists objected to behaviorists because they felt that behaviorists thought
learning was simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that thinking plays an
important role. Although many researchers contributed to the development of the
learning theory (e.g. Bruner, Vygotsky, Bloom, Ausubel), Piaget’s views had a
tremendous impact. Spurred by the work of Piaget (Constructivism), knowledge is
viewed as symbolic mental constructs, or schemata. When a learners' schemata are
changed, learning takes place. As neuroscientists continue to discover more about how
the brain works, cognitive psychologists and educators are concerned with how to use
that knowledge in the classroom.
HOW DOES LEARNING OCCUR?
Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures
and, as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower &
Hilgard, 1981). Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge
rather than with changes in the probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the
conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the issues of how
information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning is
concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and
how they come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as
a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner
is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process.
WHICH FACTORS INFLUENCE LEARNING?
Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions play
in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative examples
and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding student
learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective feedback.
Up to this point, little difference can be detected between these two theories. However,
the “active” nature of the learner is perceived quite differently. The cognitive approach
focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and
acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational
strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues” and
instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an
instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to,
code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts, beliefs,
attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the learning process
(Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by
encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF MEMORY?
As indicated above, memory is given a prominent role in the learning process. Learning
results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful manner.
Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing that information
in some optimal way. Designers use techniques such as advance organizers,
analogies, hierarchical relationships, and matrices to help learners relate new
information to prior knowledge. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information from
memory because of interference, memory loss, or missing or inadequate cues needed
to access information.
HOW DOES TRANSFER OCCUR?
According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in
memory (Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in
different contexts, then transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being
composed of a knowledge base in the form of rules, concepts, and discriminations
(Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to establish boundary constraints
for identifying the similarities and differences of novel information. Not only must the
knowledge itself be stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific
instructional or real-world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must
believe that the knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it.
WHAT TYPES OF LEARNING ARE BEST EXPLAINED BY THIS POSITION?
Because of the emphasis on mental structures, cognitive theories are usually
considered more appropriate for explaining complex forms of learning (reasoning,
problem-solving, information processing) than are those of a more behavioral
perspective (Schunk, 1991). However, it is important to indicate at this point that the
actual goal of instruction for both of these viewpoints is often the same: to communicate
or transfer knowledge to the students in the most efficient, effective manner possible
(Bednar et al., 1991). Two techniques used by both camps in achieving this
effectiveness and efficiency of knowledge transfer are simplification and
standardization. That is, knowledge can be analyzed, decomposed, and simplified into
basic building blocks. Knowledge transfer is expedited if irrelevant information is
eliminated. For example, trainees attending a workshop on effective management skills
would be presented with information that is “sized” and “chunked” in such a way that
they can assimilate and/or accommodate the new information as quickly and as easily
as possible. Behaviorists would focus on the design of the environment to optimize that
transfer, while cognitivists would stress efficient processing strategies.

WHAT BASIC ASSUMPTIONS/PRINCIPLES OF THIS THEORY ARE RELEVANT TO

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN?
Many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by cognitivists are also
emphasized by behaviorists, yet usually for different reasons. An obvious
commonality is the use of feedback. A behaviorist uses feedback (reinforcement) to
modify behavior in the desired direction, while cognitivists make use of feedback
(knowledge of results) to guide and support accurate mental connections (Thompson,
Simonson, & Hargrave, 1992).
Learner and task analyses are also critical to both cognitivists and behaviorists, but
once again, for different reasons. Cognitivists look at the learner to determine his/her
predisposition to learning (i.e., How does the learner activate, maintain, and direct
his/her learning?) (Thompson et al., 1992). Additionally, cognitivists examine the
learner to determine how to design instruction so that it can
be readily assimilated (i.e., What are the learner’s existing mental structures?). In
contrast, the behaviorists look at learners to determine where the lesson should begin
(i.e., At what level are they currently performing successfully?) and which reinforcers
should be most effective (i.e., What consequences are most desired by the learner?).
Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design
include the following (possible current ID applications are listed in italics and
brackets following the listed principle):
Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process
[learner control, metacognitive training (e.g., self-planning, monitoring, and
revising techniques)]
Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships
[cognitive task analysis procedures]
Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal
processing [use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries, synthesizers,
advance organizers, etc.]
Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make
connections with previously learned material [recall of prerequisite skills; use of
relevant examples, analogies]
HOW SHOULD INSTRUCTION BE STRUCTURED?
Behavioral theories imply that teachers ought to arrange environmental conditions so
that students respond properly to presented stimuli. Cognitive theories emphasize
making knowledge meaningful and helping learners organize and relate new
information to existing knowledge in memory. Instruction must be based on a student’s
existing mental structures, or schema, to be effective. It should organize information in
such a manner that
Cognitivism is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received,
organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information
processer, like a computer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond observable behaviour,
viewing learning as internal mental processes. In this view, learners are actively
involved in the way they process information. Knowledge, memory, thinking, and
problem solving are areas for development.
Key principles and classroom implications
The main principles underpinning the cognitive learning theory are: Learning is a
process of organizing information into conceptualized models. Instructions should be
organized, sequenced and presented in a manner that is understandable and
meaningful to the learner. Retention and recall is important to build schema’s in the
brain. Memory is supported by organizing learning material. Teachers must provide
tools that help learner’s brain process information.

CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY
What is constructivism?
Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds that people actively construct or
make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the experiences of the
learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000, p. 256).In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998)
states that constructivism believes in personal construction of meaning by the learner
through experience, and that meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior
knowledge and new events.
Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning
What are the principles of constructivism?
•Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed.
-Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners
build new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning.
This prior knowledge influences what new or modified knowledge an individual will
construct from new learning experiences (Phillips, 1995).
•Learning is an active process
-The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process.  The

passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with

knowledge,

whereas constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through active
engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving).
Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come
from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and
the processes involved in learning.
•All knowledge is socially constructed
- Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each
other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938).
For example, Vygotsky (1978), believed that community plays a central role in the
process of "making meaning." For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow
up will influence how they think and what they think about.
Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially
constituted knowledge.
For example, Vygotsky (1978) states cognitive development stems from social
interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as
children and their partner's co construct knowledge.
•All knowledge is personal
-Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge
and values.
This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different learning by
each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ.
This principle appears to contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed.
Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a) that although individuals have their own personal history
of learning, nevertheless they can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although
education is a social process, powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless
cultures are made up of sub cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-
cultures of one. Cultures and their knowledge base are constantly in a process of
change and the knowledge stored by individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially
constructed template. In learning a culture, each child changes that culture.
•Learning exists in the mind
-The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind,
and that it does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000).
Learners will be constantly trying to develop their own individual mental model of the
real world from their perceptions of that world.
As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually update their own
mental models to reflect the new information, and will, therefore, construct their own
interpretation of reality.
What are the three main types of constructivism?
Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories: Cognitive
constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the
work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism.
According to the GSI Teaching and Resource Center (2015, p.5):
Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by
learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to
their stage of cognitive development.
Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to
existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their
existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information.
According to social constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge
develops from individuals' interactions with their culture and society. Social
constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, p. 57) who suggested that,
Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level
and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological).
The notion of radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and
states that
all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses.
Learners construct new knowledge on the foundations of their existing knowledge.
However, radical constructivism states that the knowledge individuals create tells us
nothing about reality, and only helps us to function in your environment. Thus,
knowledge is invented not discovered.
The humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified and interacting to fit
ontological reality, although it can never give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994, p. 8)
Constructivist approaches to teaching
Constructivist learning theory underpins a variety of student-centered teaching
methods and techniques which contrast with traditional education, whereby
knowledge is simply passively transmitted by teachers to students.
What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?
The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving
environment where students become active participants in their own learning.
From this perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor.
The teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions,
and guides the activity to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).
Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts
the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance.
In the classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues,
and adapting material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).
What are the features of a constructivist classroom?
Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning
environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching
strategies:

1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

2) Teachers and students will share authority.
3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.
4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Honebein (1996) summarizes the seven pedagogical goals of constructivist learning

environments:

1) To provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students

determine how they will learn).
2) To provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation of
alternative solutions).
3) To embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).
4) To encourage ownership and a voice in the learning process (student

centered learning). 5) To embed learning in social experience (collaboration).

6) To encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, (video, audio text,

etc.) 7) To encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process

(reflection, metacognition).  Brooks and Brooks (1993) list twelve descriptors of

constructivist teaching behaviors: 1. Encourage and accept student autonomy and

initiative. (p. 103)

2. Use raw data and primary sources, along with manipulative, interactive, and
physical materials. (p. 104)
3. When framing tasks, use cognitive terminology such as “classify,” analyze,”
“predict,” and “create.” (p. 104)
4. Allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional strategies, and alter

content. (p. 105) 5. Inquire about students’ understandings of the concepts before

sharing [your] own

understandings of those concepts. (p. 107)

6. Encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and with one
another. (p. 108)
7. Encourage student inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and
encouraging students to ask questions of each other. (p. 110)
8. Seek elaboration of students’ initial responses. (p. 111)
9. Engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to their initial
hypotheses and then encourage discussion. (p. 112)
10. Allow wait time after posing questions. (p. 114)
11. Provide time for students to construct relationships and create metaphors. (p.

115) 12. Nurture students’ natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning cycle

model. (p. 116

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY

Background
Social constructivism is a variety of cognitive constructivism that emphasizes the
collaborative nature of much learning. Social constructivism was developed by post-
revolutionary Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Vygotsky was a cognitivist, but rejected
the assumption made by cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry that it was possible to
separate learning from its social context. He argued that all cognitive functions originate
in (and must therefore be explained as products of) social interactions and that learning
did not simply comprise the assimilation and accommodation of new knowledge by
learners; it was the process by which learners were integrated into a knowledge
community. According to Vygotsky (1978, 57),
Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological)
and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary
attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions
originate as actual relationships between individuals.
Vygotsky’s theory of social learning has been expanded upon by numerous later
theorists and researchers.
Social constructivism teaches that all knowledge develops as a result of social
interaction and language use, and is therefore a shared, rather than an individual,
experience. Knowledge is additionally not a result of observing the world, it results from
many social processes and interactions. We therefore find that constructivist learning
attaches as much meaning to the process of learning as it does to the acquisition of
new knowledge. In other words, the journey is just as important as the destination.
The process of learning requires that the learner actively participate in creative
activities and self organization. Teachers should allow their students to come up with
their own questions, make their own theories, and test them for viability. Moreover,
those who practice constructivist theory find that imbalance facilitates learning, in the
sense that contradictions between the learner’s current understanding and experiences
create an imbalance, which leads the learner to inquire into his or her own beliefs and
then try out new ideas. Instructors should therefore encourage errors resulting from the
learners’ ideas, instead of minimizing or avoiding them.
View of Knowledge
Cognitivists such as Piaget and Perry see knowledge as actively constructed by
learners in response to interactions with environmental stimuli. Vygotsky emphasized
the role of language and culture in cognitive development. According to Vygotsky,
language and culture play essential roles both in human intellectual development and in
how humans perceive the world. Humans’ linguistic abilities enable them to overcome
the natural limitations of their perceptual field by imposing culturally defined sense and
meaning on the world. Language and culture are the frameworks through which
humans experience, communicate, and understand reality. Vygotsky states (1968, 39),
A special feature of human perception … is the perception of real objects … I do not
see the world simply in color and shape but also as a world with sense and meaning. I
do not merely see something round and black with two hands; I see a clock …
Language and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of language
are essentially social phenomena. As a result, human cognitive structures are,
Vygotsky believed, essentially socially constructed. Knowledge is not simply
constructed, it is co-constructed.
View of Learning
Vygotsky accepted Piaget’s claim that learners respond not to external stimuli but to
their interpretation of those stimuli. However, he argued that cognitivists such as
Piaget had overlooked the essentially social nature of language. As a result, he
claimed they had failed to understand that learning is a collaborative process.
Vygotsky distinguished between two developmental levels (85):

The level of actual development is the level of development that the learner has already
reached, and is the level at which the learner is capable of solving problems
independently. The level of potential development (the “zone of proximal development”)
is the level of development that the learner is capable of reaching under the guidance of
teachers or in collaboration with peers. The learner is capable of solving problems and
understanding material at this level that they are not capable of solving or
understanding at their level of actual development; the level of potential development is
the level at which learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures that are still in
the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance of or in
collaboration with others.
View of Motivation
Whereas behavioral motivation is essentially extrinsic, a reaction to positive and
negative reinforcements, cognitive motivation is essentially intrinsic — based on the
learner’s internal drive. Social constructivists see motivation as both extrinsic and
intrinsic. Because learning is essentially a social phenomenon, learners are partially
motivated by rewards provided by the knowledge community. However, because
knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, learning also depends to a significant
extent on the learner’s internal drive to understand and promote the learning process.

Implications for Teaching

Collaborative learning methods require learners to develop teamwork skills and to see
individual learning as essentially related to the success of group learning. The optimal
size for group learning is four or five people. Since the average section size is ten to
fifteen people, collaborative learning methods often require GSIs to break students into
smaller groups, although discussion sections are essentially collaborative learning
environments. For instance, in group investigations students may be split into groups
that are then required to choose and research a topic from a limited area. They are
then held responsible for researching the topic and presenting their findings to the
class. More generally, collaborative learning should be seen as a process of peer
interaction that is mediated and structured by the teacher. Discussion can be promoted
by the presentation of specific concepts, problems, or scenarios; it is guided by means
of effectively directed questions, the introduction and clarification of concepts and
information, and references to previously learned material.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
What is Social Learning Theory?
Social learning theory suggests that social behavior is learned by observing and
imitating the behavior of others. Psychologist Albert Bandura developed the social
learning theory External link  as an alternative to the earlier work of fellow psychologist
B.F. Skinner, known for his influence on behaviorism. While behavioral psychology
focuses on how the environment and reinforcement affect behavior, Bandura put forth
that individuals can learn behavior through observation.
The social learning theory External link has four mediational processes that help
determine whether a new behavior is acquired:
1.Attention: The degree to which we notice the behavior. A behavior must grab our
attention before it can be imitated. Considering the number of behaviors we observe
and do not imitate daily indicates attention is crucial in whether a behavior influences
imitation.
2.Retention: How well we remember the behavior. We cannot perform the behavior if
we do not remember the behavior. So, while a behavior may be noticed, unless a
memory is formed, the observer will not perform the behavior. And, because social
learning is not immediate, retention is vital to behavior modeling.
3.Reproduction: The ability to perform the behavior. This is the ability to reproduce a
behavior we observe. It influences our decision about whether to try performing the
behavior. Even when we wish to imitate an observed behavior, we are limited by our
physical abilities.
4.Motivation: The will to emulate the behavior. This mediational process is referred to
as vicarious reinforcement. It involves learning through observing the consequences of
actions for other people, rather than through direct experience.
In addition to the behavior, rewards and punishment that follow will be studied by the
observer. If
the observer perceives the rewards to be greater than the costs (punishment) then
they will most likely imitate the behavior. If, however, the vicarious reinforcement is
not valued enough by the observer, they will not model the behavior.
History of Social Learning Theory
In 1961 and 1963, Albert Bandura External link conducted a series of experiments to
determine whether social behaviors (aggression) could be accrued by observation and
imitation. The research that entailed children observing a model punch an inflatable
doll looked to support the idea that children emulate their behavior by watching others.
These experiments were collectively known as the Bobo doll experiments.

Supported by his findings in the Bobo doll experiments, Bandura developed the
social learning theory in 1977. The theory later evolved into the social cognitive
theory in 1986 which postulates that learning takes place in a social framework with
an ever-changing and shared interaction between the person, environment and
behavior.
Assumptions of Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory is grounded by several key assumptions External link :
People learn through observation. Learners can acquire new behavior and
knowledge by merely observing a model.
Reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on behavior and learning. People
form expectations about the potential consequences of future responses based on
how current responses are reinforced or punished.
Mediational processes influence our behavior. Cognitive factors that contribute to
whether a behavior is acquired or not.
Learning does not necessarily lead to change. Just because a person learns
something does not mean they will have a change in behavior.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Social Learning Theory
One of the primary strengths of social learning theory is its flexibility in explaining the
differences in a person’s behavior or learning, i.e., when there is a change in a
person’s environment, the person’s behavior may change.
An additional strength of the social learning theory is that it allows for different ways of
learning. A person can learn through observation or direct experiences.

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY

What is experiential learning?
Learning by doing. This is the basis for the experiential learning theory. Experiential
learning focuses on the idea that the best ways to learn things is by actually having
experiences. Those experiences then stick out in your mind and help you retain
information and remember facts.
For teachers, creating opportunities for students to have experiences based on the
things they are learning about is key. Teachers can help create environments where
students can learn and have experiences at the same time.
If you’re a current teacher, or studying to become one, it’s important to get a degree that
will give you qualifications and knowledge for your career, and help prepare you to be
licensed. Additionally, it’s key to understand how different students learn and
understand how different learning theories impact education. Teachers who understand
learning theories can better optimize their classroom and help more students learn in
ways that work for them. Being a successful teacher means focusing on how best to
help students succeed.
Kolb’s experiential learning theory
David Kolb is best known for his work on the experiential learning theory or ELT. Kolb
published this model in 1984, getting his influence from other great theorists including
John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and Jean Piaget. The experiential learning theory works in
four stages—concrete learning, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization,
and active experimentation. The first two stages of the cycle involve grasping an
experience, the second two focus on transforming an experience. Kolb argues that
effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle, and that they can
enter into the cycle at any time.
Concrete learning is when a learner gets a new experience, or interprets a past
experience in a new way.
Reflective observation comes next, where the learner reflects on their experience
personally. They use the lens of their experience and understanding to reflect on what
this experience means.
Abstract conceptualization happens as the learner forms new ideas or adjusts their
thinking based on the experience and their reflection about it.
Active experimentation is where the learner applies the new ideas to the world
around them, to see if there are any modifications to be made. This process can
happen over a short period of time, or over a long span of time.
Kolb went on to explain that learners will have their own preferences for how they
enter the cycle of experiential learning, and that these preferences boil down to a
learning cycle.
Kolb's experiential learning cycle model.
The experiential learning cycle rests on the idea that each person has a specific
type of learning tendencies, and they are thus dominant in certain stages of
experiential learning. For example, some learners will be more dominant in
concrete learning and reflective observation, while others will be dominant in
abstract conceptualization and active experimentation.
The four learning styles are:
•Diverging. The diverging learning style is full of learners who look at things with a
unique perspective. They want to watch instead of do, and they also have a strong
capacity to imagine. These learners usually prefer to work in groups, have broad
interests in cultures and people, and more. They usually focus on concrete learning
and reflective observation, wanting to observe and see the situation before diving in.
•Assimilating. This learning style involves learners getting clear information. These
learners prefer concepts and abstracts to people, and explore using analytic models.
These learners focus on abstract conceptualization and reflective observation in the
experiential learning style.
•Converging. Converging learners solve problems. They apply what they’ve learned to
practical issues, and prefer technical tasks. They are also known to experiment with
new ideas, and their learning focuses on abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation.
•Accommodating: These learners prefer practicality. They enjoy new challenges and
use intuition to help solve problems. These learners utilize concrete learning and active
experimentation when they learn.
Benefits of experiential learning.
There are many benefits of experiential learning for teachers and students, including:
Opportunity to immediately apply knowledge. Experiential learning can allow students
to immediately apply things they are learning to real-world experiences. This helps
them retain the information better.
1.Promotion of teamwork. Experiential learning often involves working in a team, so
learning in this setting allows students to practice teamwork.
2.Improved motivation. Students are more motivated and excited about learning in
experiential settings. Experiments are exciting and fun for students, and they will be
passionate about learning.
3.Opportunity for reflection. Students using the experiential model are able to spend
time reflecting about what they are experiencing and learning. This is valuable as they
are able to better retain information when they can think about what’s happening to
them.
4.Real world practice. Students can greatly benefit from learning that helps them
prepare for the real world. Experiential learning is focused on using real situations to
help students learn, so they are then better prepared for their future.
Experiential learning activities to include in the classroom.
It’s important for current and aspiring teachers to work to include experiential learning
opportunities in their classroom. There are many ways teachers can work to include
these learning activities in their class including:
Field trips
Art projects
Science experiments
Mock cities and trials
Role playing
Reflection and journaling
Internship opportunities
Interactive classroom games
SITUATED LEARNING THEORY
- Situated learning is an instructional approach developed by Jean Lave and Etienne
Wenger in the early 1990s, and follows the work of Dewey, Vygotsky, and others
(Clancey, 1995) who claim that students are more inclined to learn by actively
participating in the learning experience. Situated learning essentially is
a matter of creating meaning from the real activities of daily living (Stein, 1998, para.
2) where learning occurs relative to the teaching environment. The following are
examples of situated learning activities:
-Situated learning essentially is a matter of creating meaning from the real activities

of daily living. -Field trips where students actively participate in an unfamiliar

environment

-Cooperative education and internship experiences in which students are immersed

and physically active in an actual work environment
-Music and sports (physical education) practice which replicate actual setting of
these events, e.g., orchestras, studios, training facilities
-Laboratories and child-care centers used as classrooms in which students are involved
in activities which replicate actual work settings
These examples illustrate that students are actively involved in addressing real
world problems. As the practice implies, the student is “situated” in the learning
experience and knowledge acquisition becomes a part of the learning activity, its
context, and the “culture in which it is developed and used” (Oregon Technology in
Education Council, 2007). Students form or “construct” their own knowledge from
experiences they bring to the learning situation; the success of situated learning
experiences relies on social interaction and kinesthetic activity.
Traditional learning occurs from abstract, out of context experiences such as lectures
and books. Situated learning, on the other hand, suggests that learning takes place
through the relationships between people and connecting prior knowledge with
authentic, informal, and often unintended contextual learning. In this situation, a
student’s role changes from being a beginner to an expert as they become more active
and immersed in the social community where learning often is “unintentional rather than
deliberate” (Oregon Technology in Education Council, 2007). Therefore, the social
community matures and learns through collaboration and “sharing of purposeful,
patterned activity” (Oregon Technology in Education Council, 2007, para. 14, citing
Lave & Wenger).
Situated learning . . . suggests that learning takes place through the relationships
between people and connecting prior knowledge with authentic, informal, and often
unintended contextual learning.
Situated learning involves students in cooperative activities where they are challenged
to use their critical thinking and kinesthetic abilities. These activities should be
applicable and transferable to students’ homes, communities, and workplaces (Stein,
1998). While immersed in the experience, students reflect on previously held knowledge
and by challenging the assumptions of other students.
Situated learning involves students in cooperative activities where they are challenged
to use their critical thinking and kinesthetic abilities.
Developing Classroom Activities
Stein (1998) recommends the following guidelines to develop situated learning

classroom activities: “Learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations.

Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations.

Learning is the result of a social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving,
problem solving, and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge.
Learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex,
social environments made up of actors, actions, and situations” (para. 3).
Stein (1998), citing Young further clarifies ways instructors can design “situated
learning in the classroom:
Select situations that will engage the learners in complex, realistic, problem-centered
activities that will
support the desired knowledge to be acquired.
Provide a scaffold for new learners, knowing the type and intensity of guidance
necessary to help learners master the situations. As learners acquire additional skills,
less support will be needed.
Select situations that will engage the learners in complex, realistic, problem-centered
activities...
Recast your role from content transmitter to facilitator of learning by tracking progress,
assessing products produced by learners, building collaborative learning environments,
encouraging reflection, and helping learners become more aware of contextual cues to
aid understanding and transference.
Assess the intellectual growth of the individual and the community of learners …
through discussion, reflection, evaluation, and validation of the community’s
perspective” (para 12).
Summary
Situated learning environments place students in authentic learning situations where
they are actively immersed in an activity while using problem-solving (critical thinking)
skills. These opportunities should involve a social community which replicates real
world situations. In the end, the situated learning experience should encourage
students to tap their prior knowledge and to challenge others in their community (Stein,
1998, para. 3).
References
Clancey, W. J. (1995). A tutorial on situated learning. https://methodenpool.uni
koeln.de/situierteslernen/clancey_situated_learning.PDF
Oregon Technology in Education Council (OTEC) (2007). Situated Learning
(From: Theories and Transfer of Learning.
https://otec.uoregon.edu/learning_theory.htm#SituatedLearning
Stein, D. (1998). Situated learning in adult education.
https://www.ericdigests.org/1998-3/adult education.htm.
21st Century Learning Skills Theory
21st Century Learning Style.
According to an annonymous source in the internet, Visual, auditory and kinesthetic
are learning styles which is as important as knowing their capabilities on the 21st
century fluencies namely information, solution, creativity, media, collaboration and
digital citizenship to fully maximize their strengths and address their weaknesses.
Presently, universities must produce intellectually proficient and skillfully adept
graduates; ready for the challenges and demands brought by the Digital Age and the
curricular innovations worldwide. The study attempted to determine the relationship
between the learning styles and the 21st century fluencies. It utilized the descriptive-
correlational method. A 554-sample sized college students were the respondents of the
study. The instrument used was a standardized questionnaire on learning styles and a
researcher-made questionnaire on fluencies validated by three research experts. Data
were analyzed using the descriptive statistics i.e., frequency, mean, percentage and
Pearson-R. Most students preferred visual and auditory learning styles over the
kinesthetic learning style. The most preferred is the visual learning style. Students have
high 21st century fluencies but not very highly fluent. A significant relationship between
the learning styles and the 21st century fluencies exists. It is concluded that teachers
must provide greater opportunities to maximize the learning competencies under the
21st century fluencies to better respond to diverse students of different learning styles.
Students must be exposed to blended learning and face-to-face environments. An
instructional design is proposed for the students to be very highly fluent.
---Skills necessary for students to master in order for them to experience school and
life success in an increasingly digital and connected age; includes digital literacy,
traditional literacy, content knowledge, media literacy, and learning/innovation skills.
-Originators & Proponents: Groups – United States Department of Education,
Partnership for 21st Century Skills, MacArthur Foundation; Individuals – Henry
Jenkins[1], Mimi Ito, John Seely Brown
Keywords: collaboration, digital literacy, innovation, technology, work-life skills,
readiness, interdisciplinary learning, problem-solving, ICT (information and
communication technologies)
The 21st Century Skills initiative is an education standards and reform movement,
located primarily in the United States, that is focused on improving what US public
school students must learn in school so that they are better prepared to succeed in their
school and career lives. The term “21st century skills” includes the following skill sets:
Life/career skills: adaptability & flexibility, initiative & self-direction, leadership &
responsibility, productivity & accountability, social & cross-cultural skills
Core subjects: English/language arts, mathematics, arts, science, history, geography
and others
21st century themes: civic literacy, environmental literacy, financial literacy (including
economic, business, and entrepreneurial skills), global awareness, health literacy
Information/media/technology skills: media literacy, information literacy
Learning/innovation skills: creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, communication,
problem solving
Students are expected to master these skills and understand these themes while
learning core subject content in meaningful, interdisciplinary way. Teachers,
administrators, schools, and districts are expected to use these guidelines, known as
the P21 Framework, as a foundation for developing curriculum, assessments, and
standards that they deem appropriate for their students.
Some organizations, like the Partnership for 21st Century Skills, provide tools and
resources for educators to use in supporting their students’ acquisition of these skills. In
addition, there are also model classrooms, schools, and districts that can serve to guide
others as they develop their alignment with these standards. Teachers are encouraged
to create their own curriculum following the P21 Framework that would work best for
their students.
 Romblon State University
Romblon Campus

COMPILATION OF LEARNING
THEORIES

Submitted by:
LANIELY GALLOS
BSED 3rd Yr. Blk-1
 Submitted to:
DR. AMARANTH M. WONG