LECTURE 1: BODY ORGANIZATION the presence of a continually changing

environment
• Human anatomy and physiology is the study ANATOMICAL TERMS
of the structure and function of the human
body. AXIAL- Pertaining to the central part of the body, the
• The coordinated function of all the parts of the head and trunk
human body allows us to detect stimuli, such as ● Cephalic- Pertaining to the head
observing a sunset; respond to stimuli, etc. ● Cranial- Pertaining to the portion of the skull
• Understanding the relationship between structure surrounding the brain
and function makes it easier to understand and ● Facial- face
appreciate anatomy. ● Frontal- forehead
• Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by ● Orbital- eye
systems and is the approach taken in this and ● Otic- ear
most other introductory textbooks. Examples of
● Nasal- nose
systems are the circulatory, nervous, skeletal, and
● Buccal- cheek
muscular systems.
● Oral-mouth
• Regional anatomy is the study of the
organization of the body by areas. Within each ● Mental-chin
region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all ● Occipital- back of head
systems are studied simultaneously. It is the ● Cervical- neck
approach taken in most medical and dental Thoracic- chest
schools. ● Sternal- breast bone
• Surface anatomy is the study of external ● Pectoral- chest
features, such as bony projections, which serve ● Mammary- breast
as landmarks for locating deeper structures. Abdominal- abdomen
(Microscopic, developmental, pathological and ● Umbilical- navel
radiographic anatomy). ● Coxal-hip
• Human physiology is the study of a specific Pelvic- pelvis
organism, the human, whereas cellular and ● Pubic- genital area
systemic physiology are examples of physiology
● Dorsal- back
that emphasize specific organizational levels.
● Scapular- shoulder blade region
• Renal physiology concerns kidney function and
● Vertebral- spinal column
urine production.
• Neurophysiology explains the workings of the ● Lumbar- area of the back between the lowest
nervous system. rib and buttocks
• Cardiovascular physiology explains the APPENDICULAR- limbs
operation of the heart and blood vessels. Upper Limb (Appendage)
• anatomy provides us with a static image of the ● Acromial- highest point of the shoulder
body's architecture, ● Axillary- armpit
• physiology reveals the body's dynamic and ● Brachial - arm
animated workings ● Antecubital- front surface of the elbow
• Anatomical terms describe body positions, body ● Olecranal- back surface of the elbow
regions, specific body areas, and landmarks. ● Antebrachial- forearm
● Carpal- wrist
ANATOMY ● Manual- hand
● the scientific discipline that investigates the ● Palmar- palm of the hand
structure of the body. The word “anatomy” ● Digital- digits or fingers
means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, Lower Limb (Appendage)
the parts of the body for study. ● Inguinal- groin where the thigh attached to the
● Systemic anatomy- study of the body organ pelvis
system ● Gluteal- buttocks
● Regional anatomy- study of the body by areas ● Femoral- thigh
● Surface anatomy- uses superficial structures ● Patellar- front surface of the knee
to locate deeper structures ● Popliteal - back surface of the knee
● Anatomical imaging- noninvasive method for ● Crural- front surface of the leg
examining deep structures ● Fibular or peroneal - lateral side of the leg
● Sural- back surface of the leg
PHYSIOLOGY ● Tarsal- ankle
● the scientific discipline that deals with the ● Pedal- foot
processes or functions of living things ● Plantar- sole foot
● (1) to understand and predict the body’s ● Calcaneal- heel
responses to stimuli ● Digital- digits/ toes
● (2) to understand how the body maintains
conditions within a narrow range of values in
 ● Caudal- closer to the tail than another
structure

Anatomical position - is the reference position PLANES

anatomists and people in medical fields use to
describe the location of body parts or regions. Sagittal plane- divides the body into left and right
• Supine position - the body is horizontal and parts
lying on the back. Transverse plane- divides the body into superior and
• Prone position - the body is horizontal and lying inferior parts
on the stomach Frontal plane- divides the body into anterior and
posterior parts.
Directional Terms- refer to the anatomical position,
Longitudinal section- divides an organ along its
regardless of the body's actual position. Used to
long axis
describe the position of structures in relation to other
Transverse section- cuts an organ at a right angle to
structures or body parts.
the long axis
● Right- Toward the body's right side
Oblique section- cuts across the long axis at an
● Left- Toward the body's left side
angle other than a right angle.
● Inferior- A structure below another
● Superior- A structure above another
● Anterior- Toward the front of the body
● Posterior- Toward the back of the body
● Dorsal- Toward the back (synonymous with
posterior)
● Ventral- Toward the belly (synonymous with
anterior)
● Proximal- Closer to the point of attachment to
the body than another structure
● Distal- Farther from the point of attachment to
the body than another structure
● Lateral- Away from the midline of the body
● Medial- Toward the middle or midline of the
body
● Superficial- Toward or on the surface
● Deep- Away from the surface, internal
● Cephalic- closer to the head than another
structure
 - Pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvic bones.
Contains urinary bladder, part of the large intestine
andthe internal reproductive organ.

Serous Membranes- secrete fluid that fills the space

between the parietal and visceral membranes.
Protect organs from friction.

- Trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes.

- Parietal part of a serous membrane lines the wall
of the cavity
- Visceral part covers the internal organs.
- Pericardial membrane surrounds the heart
- Pleural membranes surround the lungs
- Peritoneal membranes line the abdominopelvic
cavity and cover its organs.
- Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold
the abdominal organs in place and provide a
passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs.
- Visceral peritoneum- covers many of the organs of
the abdominopelvic cavity
-Parietal peritoneum- lines wall of abdominopelvic
cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
● consists of organs including the skin, hair,
nails, sweat and sebaceous glands, and
BODY REGIONS associated muscle and nervous tissue
● The body can be divided into the limbs, ● provides a protective barrier for the body,
head, neck, and trunk. contains cutaneous sensory receptors, aids in
● The abdomen can be divided superficially into the production of vitamin D
four quadrants or nine regions that are ● important in regulating body temperature
useful for locating internal organs or ● plays a minor role in excretion and absorption
describing the location of a pain.
Epidermis- consists of a stratified squamous,
keratinized epithelium. F: Barrier that prevents water
loss and the entry of chemicals and microorganisms;

Dermis- the connective tissue layer that is firmly

attached to the epidermis by a basement membrane,
provides the avascular epidermis with nutrients, and
connects the epidermis to the underlying hypodermis.
F: responsible for structural strength and flexibility of
the skin

Hypodermis- a major storage site for adipose tissue.

• The quadrants or regions are used by clinicians F: attaches the dermis to the underlying structures.
as reference points for locating the underlying
organs. For example, the appendix is located in
the right lower quadrant, and the pain of an acute
appendicitis is usually felt there.

BODY CAVITIES
- Thoracic cavity is bounded by the ribs and the
diaphragm.
- Mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into two
parts. Divided into right and left parts
- Abdominal cavity is bounded by the diaphragm
and the abdominal muscles. Contains the stomach,
intestine, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys.

Skin is classified as an organ because it has many
types of tissues that work together to perform specific
functions. The skin is also known as the integument
or cutaneous membrane.
EPIDERMIS
A. Major Divisions of the Skin
The skin has two major divisions: the
superficial epidermis and the deep dermis.
Four types of cells are found in the epidermis:
1. Keratinocytes- comprise 90% of the cells of
the epidermis and produce keratin, a tough
fibrous protein that protects the skin and
deeper tissues from chemicals, microbes, and
heat. These cells also produce granules that
secrete a lipid-rich product that helps to
waterproof the skin.
2. Melanocytes- comprise 8% of the epidermal
cells and produce and secrete the pigment
melanin.
3. Langerhans cells- are immune system cells
that attack pathogens that enter the skin.
4. Merkel cells- are the least abundant cell type
and are found only in the deepest layer of the
epidermis. These cells function as touch
receptors and are associated with sensory
neurons.
The layers of the epidermis are in order from deepest
to most superficial:
1. Stratum basale- a single row of cells
attached to the basement membrane,
contains stem cells that divide to form new
keratinocytes. As new cells are formed, the
older cells are pushed toward the surface and
undergo a process called keratinization,
which produces tough, dead cells in the
superficial layer. Melanocytes, Langerhans
cells, and Merkel cells are also found within
the stratum basale.
2. Stratum spinosum- contains 8 to 10 rows of
cells, mainly keratinocytes. In prepared slides,
cells in this layer have thorn-like projections
caused by the tissue preparation process.
3. Stratum granulosum- his layer contains 3 to
5 rows of flattened keratinocytes that are
beginning to die. No dividing cells are present
in this layer or in more superficial layers.
4. Stratum lucidum- contains 3 to 5 rows of flat,
dead keratinocytes. This layer is translucent
in specimens of fresh skin, but in prepared
slides it may be clear or stained.
5. Stratum corneum- The outermost layer, is a
very thick layer containing 25 to 30 or more
rows of dead, squamous-shaped
keratinocytes. This layer is tough and
water-repellent. These cells continually slough
off and are replaced by cells in the adjacent
layer.
The epidermis differs in thickness in thin and thick
skin.
Thick skin is found on the palms of the hands and
the soles of the feet and has all five strata.
Thin skin, which covers the rest of the body, does
not have a visible stratum lucidum and has a thinner
stratum corneum than thick skin.
DERMIS
The dermis consists of two regions: the
papillary region and the reticular region.
Papillary region is a thin layer of areolar connective
tissue that is deep to the stratum basale of the
epidermis and the basement membrane.
Dermal papillae are finger-like projections of the
papillary region that extend into the epidermis. In the
palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the dermal papillae
cause genetically determined whorls in the epidermis
called epidermal ridges that increase surface area,
friction, and grip.
Reticular layer is the deeper and much thicker
region of the dermis. It is composed mainly of dense,
irregular connective tissue whose collagen fibers
provide the skin with strength and whose elastic
fibers provide elasticity. Some adipose tissue is also
found in the reticular region.
B. Accessory Structures of the Skin
The accessory structures of the skin include
hairs, hair follicles, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous
glands, ceruminous glands, and mammary glands. All
of these are derived from epidermal tissue and
extend into the dermis.
Sebaceous Gland- secrete a watery substance that
is important in excretion and body temperature
regulation. There are two types of sudoriferous
glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands.
Eccrine glands are the most common type of
sudoriferous gland and are found on most areas of
the body. Ducts from the eccrine glands deposit their
secretions, called sweat, on the epithelial surface.
Apocrine glands are found only in the axilla, genital
area, and pigmented area around the nipples
(areolae). Apocrine glands produce a secretion
similar in composition to sweat but more viscous.
This secretion, which is deposited on the distal end of
the hair root, is odorless until broken down by
bacteria.
Ceruminous glands are found in the ear canal and
secrete a waxy substance called cerumen that
prevents foreign substances (including insects) from
entering the auditory canal.
Mammary glands are found in the breasts and
synthesize and secrete milk after appropriate
hormonal stimulation.
Sebaceous glands or oil glands, are found
surrounding hair follicles and deposit sebum, an oily
substance that lubricates the skin and hair, into the
neck of the follicle.
Hairs are found all over the body with the exception
of the palms, soles, lips, and parts of the external
genitalia. Hair consists of dead, keratinized epithelial
cells and has two main sections: the shaft, which
projects from the skin surface, and the root, which
extends into the dermis of the skin and sometimes
the hypodermis.
Hair follicle, which surrounds the hair root, is formed
from epidermal layers that project into the dermis.
Hair bulb contains the papilla of the hair and the
matrix.
Papilla of the hair is a projection of connective
tissue into the hair follicle and contains blood vessels
that provide nutrients to the dividing cells of the
matrix.
Matrix, which is derived from the stratum basale of
the epidermis, forms new hair cells that are added to
the base of the hair root. Surrounding the hair follicle
is a connective tissue sheath composed of dermal
tissue.
Arrector pili is a bundle of smooth muscle cells
attached to the connective tissue sheath around the
hair follicle. Contraction of the arrector pili muscle
moves the hair from its normal angle to a 90° angle
(perpendicular) with the skin surface, elevating the
skin surrounding the hair shaft and causing goose
bumps. Arrector pili muscles contract in response to
stress (including cold temperature).
Nails, which are found on the distal ends of the
digits, assist in grabbing and manipulating objects,
and protect the digits.
Nail body is the part of the nail that is visible
Free edge extends beyond the digit, and the root is
within the fold of skin at the proximal end of the nail
body.
Lunula is the crescent-shaped area of the nail body
distal to the nail root.
Cuticle or eponychium is the thickened epithelial
tissue along the proximal border of the nail body.
Hyponychium or nail bed is deep to the free edge
and attaches the nail to the fingertip.
Nail matrix is the epithelial tissue deep to the nail
root that divides to produce new cells that are added
to the nail body as it grows.
Fingerprints are useful for identifying unknown
bodies, missing children, adults with amnesia or
Alzheimer’s, or criminals.
The practice of using fingerprints to identify someone
is called dactyloscopy.
Fingerprints are categorized into 3 generally
recognized patterns,
1. Loops constitute about 65% of the total
fingerprint patterns,
2. Plain whorls make up about 30%
3. Arches account for the other 5%.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
- includes all the bones of the body, along with
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments associated with the
articulations (joints)
- provide a rigid scaffolding that supports the body,
protect vital organs and provide leverage for skeletal
muscles to make body movements possible
- Although it appears to be inactive, bone is actually a
vital tissue with many important functions, namely:
1. Provide a rigid scaffolding that supports the body.
2. Protect vital organs.
3. Provide leverage for skeletal muscles to make
body movements possible.
4. Produce blood cells and platelets.
5. Maintain normal blood levels of calcium and
phosphate ions.
6. Store lipids.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
Sutural bones - develop between the joints (sutures)
of cranial bones
Flat bones - relatively flat, but may be curved, and
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin
veneer of compact bone
Long bones - have extended longitudinal axes so
that the length of the bone is much greater than the
width
Irregular bones - have a variety of shapes and
include the facial bones of the skull, the vertebrae
and the pelvic bones
Sesamoid bones – are small bones that develop in
tendons for protection against wear and tear
Short bones - are almost equal in length and width
and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered
by a thin veneer of compact bone
Sutural bones - develop between the joints (sutures)
of cranial bones (Figure (a)). Their number varies
between individuals.
Flat bones are relatively flat, but may be curved, and
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin
veneer of compact bone. This group includes the
cranial bones (bones that protect the brain such as
the parietal bone, Figure (b)), the sternum, the ribs,
and the scapulae.
Long bones are longer than they are wide, with a
thick compact bone exterior. A typical long bone
contains an elongated shaft, known as the diaphysis,
with two expanded, knoblike ends or epiphyses.
Examples of long bones include the bones in the arm
(humerus, Figure (c)), forearm (radius and ulna),
thigh (femur), and leg (tibia and fibula).
Irregular bones have a variety of shapes and
include the facial bones of the skull, the vertebrae
and the pelvic bones
Sesamoid bones (sesame = seed) are small bones
that develop in tendons for protection against wear
and tear. The patella (kneecap, Figure (e)) is a
sesamoid bone found in all humans
Short bones are almost equal in length and width
and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered
by a thin veneer of compact bone. They include the
bones of the wrist (carpal bones, Figure (f )) and
ankle (tarsal bones).
Typical bone- compact and spongy osseous tissue,
cartilage, adipose tissue, blood cells, and connective
tissue (also blood vessels and nerves)
GROSS AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
LONG BONE
Epiphyses - the enlarged proximal and distal ends of
long bones
Diaphysis - the middle shaft area
Metaphysis - the areas in an adult bone where the
epiphyses and diaphysis join
Articular cartilage - composed of hyaline cartilage,
covers both epiphyses
Periosteum - a tough, connective tissue membrane
covering the rest of the bone exterior
Medullary cavity - the hollow center of the bony
diaphysis
Endosteum - a connective tissue membrane lining
the medullary cavity
Nutrient artery - a large artery that enters compact
bone near the middle of the diaphysis
Compact bone - composed of repeating units of
osteons
Spongy bone - does not contain osteons but instead
has trabeculae
• The enlarged proximal and distal ends of long
bones are called epiphyses
• The middle shaft area is called the diaphysis.
• Compact bone forms the exterior (or cortex) of
long bones and most of the diaphysis.
• A small layer of spongy bone lines the interior of
the diaphysis.
• Spongy bone also forms the interior of the
epiphyses.
• Metaphyses are the areas in an adult bone
where the epiphyses and diaphysis join. In a
growing bone, the metaphyses contain a layer of
hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal plate.
• Division of cartilage allows the bone to grow in
length.
• Bone growth stops when the epiphyseal plate
cartilage becomes ossified and forms a bony
structure called the epiphyseal line.
• Articular cartilage composed of hyaline
cartilage, covers both epiphyses; and the rest of
the bone exterior is covered with a tough,
connective tissue membrane, the periosteum.
• The hollow center of the bony diaphysis is called
the medullary cavity, and a small amount of
spongy bone is found in this cavity.
• The medullary cavity is lined with a connective
tissue membrane called the endosteum.
• The endosteum also lines the cavities within the
spongy bone of the epiphyses.
• Both the periosteum and the endosteum contain
osteoblasts and osteoclasts for bone formation,
bone tissue repair, and bone remodeling.
• osteoblasts - bone marker/builder and
• osteoclasts - bone breaker
• Yellow marrow is a fatty substance found within
the medullary cavity.
• Red marrow is found within the cavities of
spongy bone and produces blood cells.
• The nutrient artery is a large artery that enters a
compact bone near the middle of the diaphysis.
The nutrient artery immediately branches into
proximal and distal portions which supply blood to
the inner layer of compact bone, spongy bone,
and red marrow.
• The nutrient foramen is the foramen through
which the nutrient artery enters.
• Compact (cortical) bone is composed of
repeating units of osteons, with each unit having
a central (Haversian) canal running
longitudinally.
• The central canal contains blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and nerves that serve compact
bone tissue.
• Spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone does
not contain osteons but instead has trabeculae
(little beams)— flat plates with a lattice-like
network of thin, bony columns lined with
endosteum.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES OF COMPACT AND
SPONGY BONE
- COMPACT BONE "cortical bone" ; composed of
repeating unit of osteons and each unit have central
canal (has blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves) which travels to periosteum -a dense regular
connective tissue , to the central canal through
perforating (Volkmann) canals.
- concentric lamellae ring-like of tree trunk; consists
of dark areas (lacunae) and thin lines extending
between lamellae (canaliculi)
- Canaliculi allow nutrients from the blood vessels in
the central canal to diffuse to the
osteocytes embedded in the solid bone material
osteocytes mature bone cells that reside in the
lacunae
- interstitial lamellae fill in the spaces between the
osteons
SPONGY BONE "cancellous or trabecular bone" ;
contains trabeculae rather than osteons
- trabeculae - flat plates with a lattice-like network of
thin, bony columnslined with endosteum; have
lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi spongy
bones have spaces filled with red marrow, which
provides the osteocytes with nutrients
osseous tissues appr. 25% water, 25% collagen
fibers, and 50% mineral salts
collagen fibers a fibrous protein that provide tensile
strength and flexibility so that bone does not break
with normal stress.
mineral salts consists mainly calcium phosphate and
calcium carbonate salts - giving bone hardness
AS WE GET OLD collagen content decreases,
causing brittle bones and break easier
decreased minerals - bones to soften and bend (eg.
Rickets)
206 BONES axial & appendicular
- axial skeleton 80 bones located in vertical line and
longitudinal axis of the body ; supports head, neck
and torso skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column,
thoracic cage, ear ossicles (small bones)
- appendicular skeleton 126 bones that make up
the upper limbs (or extremities), lower limbs, and the
bones of the girdles that attach the limbs to the axial
skeleton
AXIAL SKELETON
SKULL sutures, orbit of eye, bone markings,
paranasal sinuses, nasal septum, hard palate, and
fontanels in the fetal skull
*Cranial bones 8 bones - form a bony cavity that
harbors and protects the brain and houses organs of
hearing and equilibrium
(2) Parietal bones - superior lateral walls of cranial
cavity
(2) Temporal bones - inferior lateral walls; house
organs of inner ear
(1) Frontal bone - anterior portion of cranial cavity
(1) Occipital bone - posterior wall and part of cranial
cavity floor
(1) Sphenoid bone - floor of cranial cavity posterior
to ethmoid
(1) Ethmoid bone - anterior portion of cranial cavity
floor
*Sutures immovable joints between bones of the
skull
Coronal - joins frontal and parietal bones
Sagittal - joins parietal bones
Lambdoid - joins both parietal bones with occipital
bone
(2) Squamous - join temporal and parietal bones
*Facial bones 14 facial bones - provide the shape of
the face, house the teeth, and provide attachments
for all the muscles of facial expression
(2) Maxillae - fused upper jaw bones
(2) Zygomatic bones - cheek bones
(2) Lacrimal bones - portion of orbit of eyes near
nasal bones
(2) Nasal bones - bridge of nose
(2) Inferior nasal conchae or turbinate—forms
posterior lateral walls of nasal cavity
(2) Palatine bones—fused bones that form posterior
part of hard palate
(1) Mandible —lower jaw bone
(1) Vomer —inferior portion of nasal septum
*Orbit of eye 7 different bones - 3 cranial bones
(frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid), and 4 facial bones
(maxilla, zygomatic, lacrimal, and palatine)
BONE SURFACE MARKINGS: IN CRANIAL BONES
frontal bone (1)
- supraorbital foramina (supra- = above; orbit =
wheel rut; foram- = opening)—1 opening located
above the orbit of each eye for supraorbital nerve and
artery
- supraorbital ridges or margins—thickening of
frontal bone superior to orbit of each eye
temporal bone (2)
- external auditory meatus— tube-like opening for
the ear canal
- mastoid process —rounded projection posterior to
external auditory meatus; attachment for muscles
- styloid process—long, thin projection on inferior
skull surface; attachment for muscles and ligaments
of tongue and neck
- zygomatic process—projection that articulates
with the zygomatic bone
- mandibular fossa—depression for articulation with
condylar process (mandibular condyle)
- foramen lacerum— jagged opening filled with
cartilage in a living person
carotid foramen (canal)—foramen for internal
carotid artery
jugular foramen—foramen for jugular vein and
cranial nerves IX, X, and XI
stylomastoid foramen—opening for an artery and
cranial nerve VII
internal auditory meatus—opening for cranial nerve
VIII
occipital bone (1)
- foramen magnum—opening through which spinal
cord connects to lower brain
- hypoglossal foramina—openings for cranial
nerves XII
- occipital condyles—rounded processes that
articulate with the atlas (C1)
- external occipital protuberance—projection at
base of skull posterior to foramen magnum
ethmoid bone (1)
- cribriform plates—one on either side of crista galli;
form roof of nasal cavity
- crista galli— projection for attachment of
membranes covering brain
- olfactory foramina—tiny holes in cribriform plates
for cranial nerve I
- perpendicular plate—forms superior part of nasal
septum
- middle nasal conchae—scroll-like projections on
each lateral wall of nasal cavity
- superior nasal conchae—scroll-like projections on
each lateral wall of nasal cavity
sphenoid bone (1)
- foramen ovale—openings for mandibular branch of
cranial nerve V
- foramen rotundum—openings for maxillary branch
of cranial nerve V
- sella turcica— bony projection that surrounds and
protects pituitary gland
- greater and lesser wings—form anterior and
lateral floor of cranial cavity
- optic foramina—openings for cranial nerve II
- inferior orbital fissures—openings for blood
vessels and nerves
- superior orbital fissures— openings for blood
vessels and cranial nerves III, IV, V, and VI
(ophthalmic branch)
- pterygoid processes (medial and
lateral)—wing-like projections on the base of the
skull in the middle section of the sphenoid bone
E.BONE SURFACE MARKINGS: FACIAL BONES
- maxillae (2)
- alveoli—tooth sockets (alveolus, sing.)
- palatine process—fused processes that form the
anterior part of hard palate
mandible (1)
- alveoli—tooth sockets
- body—curved, anterior portion of mandible
- mental foramina—openings in chin for nerves and
blood vessels
- rami—posterior branches, one on either side of the
body of mandible
- condylar processes (mandibular condyles)—
rounded processes on rami that articulate with
temporal bone at the mandibular fossa to form the
TMJ
- coronoid processes—triangular projections of rami
anterior to the condylar processes
lacrimal bone (2)
-lacrimal fossa—canal that houses lacrimal sac;
formed from the maxilla and lacrimal bone
zygomatic bone (2)
- temporal process—projects posteriorly; temporal
process of zygomatic bone and
- zygomatic process of temporal bone form the
zygomatic arch
Paranasal sinuses cavities lined with mucous
membranes that are located near and have openings
into the nasal cavities
ethmoid, frontal, maxillary, and sphenoid contain
paranasal sinuses
Nasal septum 2 bones and cartilage:
- vomer - inferior to the perpendicular plate of the
ethmoid bone. The septal cartilage is anterior to
these bones.
Hard palate roof of the mouth, is formed by the
fusion of 4 bones: 2 palatine processes of the
maxillary bones and 2 palatine bones
Fetal and newborn skull
- fontanels or "soft spots" - newborn skull is not
completely ossified; allow the cranial bones to
compress during the journey through the birth canal,
and they also permit rapid growth of the brain and
skull during the early years
HYOID BONE U-shaped and has the distinction of
not articulating with any other bones ; located in the
anterior neck region between the mandible and
larynx
VERTEBRAL COLUMN protects the spinal cord and
provides attachment points for back and abdominal
muscles (26): 7 cervical; 12 thoracic; 5 lumbar; 1
sacrum/sacral, and 1 coccyx/coccygeal body located
anteriorly; is the largest part of the vertebra pedicle
attached to and extends posteriorly on either side of
the body
transverse process extends laterally from each
pedicle
lamina connects transverse processes to the spinous
process
spinous process projects posteriorly from fused
lamina
vertebral arch formed by the fusion of pedicles and
laminae
Sacrum formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae
and has a slightly curved, triangular shape
base - broad superior portion
alae - two lateral wing-like
sacral promontory - which protrudes anteriorly from
the base, is an important landmark in females during
labor and delivery.
sacral foramina - provide exits for spinal nerves
sacral canal - continuation of the vertebral canal,
sacral hiatus - inferior opening of the sacral canal
coccyx tailbone; attached with ligament together with
sacrum
scoliosis bended vertebral column kyphosis
exaggerated thoracic curve that results in a hunched
back with rounded shoulders.
lordosis exaggerated lumbar curve - swayback with
abdomen protruding anteriorly
THORACIC CAGE
sternum narrow flat bone that is composed of three
fused bones:
manubrium - superior portion of the sternum
suprasternal notch or jugular notch - concave
superior portion
sternal angle - body of sternum and manubrium
xiphoid process - inferior portion of sternum
true ribs or "vertebrosternal ribs" ; first 7 pairs
false ribs or "vertebrochondral ribs" ; last 5 ribs
floating ribs or "vertebral ribs" rib pairs 11 & 12 ; do
not have direct attachment
intercostal space space between ribs main parts of a
rib head - projects from the posterior part of the rib
and articulates with demifacets on the bodies of
thoracic vertebrae
neck - constricted part lateral to the head
tubercle - small, knob-like projection close to the
neck that articulates with the facet of a transverse
process
body - main part of the rib
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
four main areas: the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs
extremities, the pelvic girdle,
and lower limbs
A. Pectoral girdle scapula (shoulder bone) and
clavicle (collar bone)
clavicle sternal end—blunt, medial end
acromial end—broader, flat, roughened, lateral end
scapula spine—sharp ridge located on posterior
side
acromion—flattened process at lateral end of spine
glenoid cavity or fossa— depression inferior to
acromion
coracoid process—superior and medial to glenoid
cavity; projects anteriorly
supraspinous fossa—depression superior to spine
infraspinous fossa—depression inferior to spine
subscapular fossa—depression on anterior surface
of scapula
lateral or axillary border—margin near axilla
medial or vertebral border—margin near vertebral
column
B.Upper limb (30) 1 humerus, 1 ulna, 1 radius, 27
carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges humerus
head—rounded, proximal end
anatomical neck—constriction immediately distal to
head
greater tubercle—lateral projec tion distal to
anatomical neck
lesser tubercle—smaller, anterior projection distal to
anatomical neck
intertubercular sulcus—groove between the two
tubercles
surgical neck—constriction distal to the tubercles;
fractured more frequently than anatomical neck
deltoid tuberosity—raised area on lateral side
between the proximal and distal ends of humerus
trochlea —spool-shaped medial condyle on distal
end
capitulum—rounded, knob-like condyle lateral to
trochlea
medial epicondyle—rough projection proximal and
lateral to trochlea
lateral epicondyle—rough projection proximal and
lateral to capitulum; smaller than medial epicondyle
radial fossa—anterior depression on distal end that
receives the radial head when forearm flexed
coronoid fossa—shallow anterior depression on
distal end; receives coronoid process of ulna when
forearm flexed
olecranon fossa— largest depression on posterior,
distal end; receives olecranon process of ulna when
forearm flexed
ulna olecranon—large, curved, lip-like projection on
posterior side of proximal end
coronoid process—smaller, curved, lip-like
projection on anterior side of proximal end; distal to
olecranon
trochlear notch—deep, curved area between
olecranon and coronoid process where trochlea of
humerus articulates with ulna
styloid process—slender, pointed projection on
distal end
radial notch—depression on proximal end where
head of radius articulates with ulna
radius head—flat, disc-shaped proximal end
radial tuberosity—rough, anterior projection on
medial side just distal to the head
styloid process—slender, pointed projection; distal
end
shoulder joint connects the upper limb to the
pectoral girdle is formed by the head of the humerus
elbow joint articulation of coronoid process and
olecranon process (in ulna) into coronoid and
olecranon fossae of the humerus and by the trochlea
of the humerus and notch of ulna
carpus "wrist" - 8 short bones ; lined up to form a
proximal and a distal row of bones articulate with
radius, not to ulna
metacarpus 5 metacarpals bones ; numbered as
Roman numerals I to V from thumb ; articulate with
the carpals proximally and with the phalanges
distally.
phalanges "phalanx or digits" if singular ; also
numbered I to V from the thumb ( pollex)
Digits II through V each have proximal, middle, and
distal phalanges
BONE MARKINGS
pelvic girdle 2 hip bones called ossa coxae (os coxa
if singular) - attach the lower limb to the axial
skeleton
ilium largest and most superior of the three
components of os coxa
iliac crest—superior border of ilium
anterior superior iliac spine—anterior end of iliac
crest
anterior inferior iliac spine—inferior to the anterior
superior iliac spine
posterior superior iliac spine—posterior end of iliac
crest
posterior superior iliac spine—posterior end of iliac
crest
greater sciatic notch—large, posterior notch
iliac fossa—depression on anterior surface
ischium inferior, posterior portion of os coxa
ischial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on
inferior surface; hurts after sitting on hard surface for
prolonged period
ischial spine—posterior projection between greater
and lesser sciatic notches
lesser sciatic notch—smaller indentation between
ischial spine and ischial tuberosity
pubis anterior inferior portion of os coxa
pubic symphysis— joint where the two pubic bones
join anteriorly
bone markings formed by ilium, ischium, and pubis
acetabulum deep indentation, or cup, for head of the
femur; formed by fusion of ilium, pubis, and ischium
obturator foramen largest foramen in the skeleton;
formed by fusion of pubis and ischium
PELVIS: BONE MARKINGS
pelvic brim—divides the false pelvis from the true
pelvis; begins at the sacral promontory and extends
laterally and inferiorly to end at the pubic symphysis
false pelvis—portion of pelvis superior to pelvic brim;
wide area extending to top of iliac crest
true pelvis—portion of pelvis inferior to pelvic brim;
surrounds the pelvic cavity
pelvic inlet—superior opening of true pelvis;
bordered by pelvic brim
pelvic outlet—inferior opening of true pelvis;
bordered by the coccyx, ischial spines, and ischial
tuberosities
male pelvis heavier and rougher, with larger bone
markings; more vertical and narrower, has a pelvic
inlet that is heart-shaped, and has a 90° or
less pubic arch angle
female pelvis has more space in the true pelvis for
childbirth and is tilted backward. The pelvic inlet is
round or oval, the angle of the pubic arch is generally
greater than 90°, and the angle of the sciatic notch is
wider
sacroiliac joints articulation of pelvic girdle with axial
skeleton
LOWER LIMB: BONE MARKINGS
lower limb 30 bones (4 thigh and leg & 26 foot and
ankle) ; femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals,
metatarsals, and the phalanges
femur largest and strongest bone in the human
skeleton
head—large, rounded, knob-like proximal end
neck—narrower, constriction distal to head
greater trochanter—large and roughened superior
projection; lateral to neck
lesser trochanter- smaller, posterior-medial
prominence distal to greater trochanter
medial condyle—rounded, medial process on
posterior surface of distal end
lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on lateral
side
intercondylar fossa—deep fossa between medial
and lateral condyles
medial epicondyle—bump-like projection superior to
medial condyle
lateral epicondyle—bump-like projection superior to
lateral condyle; a little smaller
gluteal tuberosity—posterior surface of body of
femur; roughened projection distal to lesser
trochanter
linea aspera—vertical ridge on posterior surface
patella "kneecap" ; triangular bone has an anterior
surface that is smoother than the posterior surface
tibia for bearing weight
medial condyle—flattened, expanded medial
projection on proximal end
lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on lateral
surface
tibial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on
anterior surface, distal to condyles
anterior border (crest)—slender ridge on anterior
surface
medial malleolus—medial process on distal end,
forms medial bump of ankle
fibula lateral leg bone that is important for muscle
attachment but not for bearing weight.
lateral malleolus - distal and articulates with the
talus laterally ; forms lateral bump of ankle
head—proximal end
hip joint "coxal joint" ; formed by the acetabulum
articu lating with the head of the femur to form a
ball-and-socket joint.
knee joint formed by the articulation of the medial
and lateral condyles of the femur with the medial and
lateral condyles of the tibia
tarsus "ankle" ; 7 tarsal bones of the foot, with 2 of
them being larger than the rest.
calcaneus - "heel bone" largest tarsal bone
talus - 2nd largest bone; articulates with the medial
malleolus of the tibia and lateral malleolus of the
fibula
metatarsus 5 metatarsal bones ; numbered the
same way, I to V, from the great toe
phalanges "toes or digits" ; numbered I to V from the
great toe
great toe - proximal and distal
digits II - V - proximal, middle, distal phalanges
joint or articulation connection of bone to another
bone, cartilage, or tooth
JOINT BASED ON CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Fibrous joints dense fibrous connective tissue with
strong collagen fibers that hold the joints firmly
together with no synovial cavity little to no movement
; eg. Skull, sockets, distal joints of tibia and fibula
Cartilaginous joints either hyaline cartilage or
fibrocartilage connecting the bones with no synovial
cavity small degree of movement ; eg. Intervertebral
joints, pubic symphysis, joint b/n manubrium and
body of sternum
Synovial joints have a small synovial cavity that
permits a greater amount of movement eg. shoulder,
elbow, hip, and knee joints
JOINT BASED ON FUNCTIONS
synarthroses immovable joints ; eg. Skull and teeth
amphiarthroses slightly movable ; eg. Intervertebral,
tibiofibular joint, and pubic symphysis
diarthroses freely movable
BASIC STRUCTURE OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
synovial cavity small space between the two
articulating bones
articular cartilage hyaline cartilage covering the
ends of the bones in the synovial cavity
articular capsule structure that encloses the
synovial joint and synovial cavity; has two layers: the
fibrous membrane and synovial membrane
fibrous membrane outer dense fibrous connective 6. Ramus - A small branch (rami, pl.) - Articulation
tissue layer of the articular capsule that is continuous 7. Spine -Pointed process - Articulation
with the periosteum of the bone; also forms ligaments
when fibrous bundles are parallel
synovial membrane inner layer of the articular
capsule; composed of areolar connective tissue
containing elastic fibers and adipocytes
synovial fluid secreted by the synovial membrane;
lubricates the articular cartilages to reduce friction
knee joint classified as a hinge joint, but when flexed
it also demonstrates gliding and rotation movements

accessory structures
medial meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions
knee joint
lateral meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions
knee joint
medial (tibial) collateral ligament—extracapsular
ligament; adds strength to joint medially
lateral (fibular) collateral ligament—extracapsular
ligament; adds strength to joint laterally
anterior cruciate ligament or ACL—intracapsular
ligament; attaches the femur and tibia anteriorly
posterior cruciate ligament or PCL—intracapsular
ligament; stabilizes joint posteriorly
patellar ligament—extension of tendon from
quadriceps muscle; connects patella to tibial
tuberosity and stabilizes the joint anteriorly
infrapatellar fat pad—cushion between patellar
ligament and synovial capsule
bursa—reduces friction; 13 bursae in knee

SIX TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Planar joint (gliding) flex your arm up and feel the
gliding movement at the acromioclavicular joint
Hinge joint flex and extend your elbow and your
knee as you feel this joint type
Pivot joints feel the proximal part of your forearm
until you locate the head of the radius.
Condyloid joints feel the joint between the 2nd
metacarpal and the 2nd proximal phalanx. Extend
and flex, abduct and adduct, and circumduct this
joint.
Saddle joint the thumb joint is the only saddle joint in
the body. Feel the movement of trapezium bone
(carpal bone) with the 1st metacarpal as you move
this joint on two different axes.
Ball-and-socket joints feel your shoulder joint as
you move your arm in different motions. Make a full
circle with your shoulder joint
Bone Markings
Depressions or Openings
1. Fissure - Narrow slit or cleft in a bone - Opening
for blood vessels and nerves
2. Foramen - Opening or hole (foramina, pl.) -
Opening for blood vessels and nerves
3. Fossa - Shallow depression (fossae, pl.) - Muscle
attachment or articulation (joint)
4. Meatus -Tube-like passageway or opening (meati,
pl.) - Passageway or canal for blood vessels and
nerves Processes
5. Condyle - Smooth, rounded articular process -
Articulation
Selected Bone Surface Markings of the
Appendicular Skeleton MARKING DESCRIPTION
PURPOSE
1. Foramen (Opening or hole) Opening for blood
vessels and nerves
2. Fossa (Shallow depression) Muscle attachment or
articulation
3. Crest (Prominent ridge) Muscle attachment
4. Condyle (Smooth, rounded) articular process
Articulation
5. Epicondyle (Projection above a condyle) Muscle
attachment
6. Head (Rounded articular projection supported on
the neck of a bone) Articulation
7. Line Long, narrow ridge (less prominent than a
crest) Muscle attachment
8. Trochanter (Very large projection) Muscle
attachment
9. Tubercle (Small, rounded projection) Muscle
attachment
10. Tuberosity (Large, roughened projection) Muscle
attachment
SKELETAL
- includes all the bones of the body, along with
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments associated
with the articulations (joints)
- provide a rigid scaffolding that supports the
body, protect vital organs and provide
leverage for skeletal muscles to make body
movements possible
Sutural bones - develop between the joints (sutures)
of cranial bones
Irregular bones - have a variety of shapes and
include the facial bones of the skull, the vertebrae
and the pelvic bones
Flat bones - relatively flat, but may be curved, and
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin
veneer of compact bone
Sesamoid bones – are small bones that develop in
tendons for protection against wear and tear
Long bones - have extended longitudinal axes so
that the length of the bone is much greater than the
width
Short bones - are almost equal in length and width
and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered
by a thin veneer of compact bone
Epiphysis - the enlarged proximal and distal ends of
long bones
Diaphysis - the middle shaft area
Metaphysis - the areas in an adult bone where the
epiphyses and diaphysis join
Articular cartilage - composed of hyaline cartilage,
covers both epiphyses
Compact bone - composed of repeating units of
osteons
Periosteum - a tough, connective tissue membrane
covering the rest of
Spongy bone - does not contain osteons but instead
has trabeculae
the bone exterior
Medullary cavity - the hollow center of the bony
diaphysis
Endosteum - a connective tissue membrane lining
the medullary cavity
Nutrient artery - a large artery that enters compact
bone near the middle of the diaphysis
AXIAL SKELETON
● Depressions or Openings
1. Fissure (FISH-er) - Narrow slit or cleft in a bone -
Opening for blood vessels and nerves
2. Foramen (for-AY-men) - opening or hole - Opening
for blood vessels and nerves
3. Fossa (FOS-sa) - Shallow depression (fossae, pl.)
- Muscle attachment or articulation (joint)
4. Meatus (me-AY-tus) - Tube-like passageway or
opening (meati, pl.) - Passageway or canal for blood
vessels
and nerves
● Processes
5. Condyle (CON-dile) - Smooth, rounded articular
process - Articulation
6. Ramus (RAY-mus) - A small branch (rami, pl.) -
Articulation
7. Spine - Pointed process - Articulation
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
1. Foramen - Opening or hole - Opening for blood
vessels and nerves
2. Fossa - Shallow depression - Muscle attachment
or articulation
3. Crest - Prominent ridge - Muscle attachment
4. Condyle - Smooth, rounded articular process -
Articulation
5. Epicondyle - Projection above a condyle - Muscle
attachment
6. Head - Rounded articular projection supported on
the neck of a bone - Articulation
7. Line - Long, narrow ridge (less prominent than a
crest) - Muscle attachment
8. Trochanter - Very large projection - Muscle
attachment
9. Tubercle - Small, rounded projection - Muscle
attachment
10. Tuberosity - Large, roughened projection -
Muscle attachment
ARTICULATIONS
1. Functional classification (degree of movement)
a. Synarthrosis : joints where no movement occurs
b. Amphiarthrosis : joints that have limited
movement
c. Diarthrosis : joints that are freely movable
2. Structural classification (type of articulation)
a. Fibrous joints: articulating bones are held
together by fibrous connective tissue
b. Cartilaginous joints: articulating bones are held
together by cartilage
c. Synovial joints: a connective tissue capsule
encloses a fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
bones
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN SYNOVIAL JOINTS
A. GLIDING - Nearly flat bone surfaces slide or glide
over each other.
B. ANGULAR
- Flexion (flex- = to bend) - Decrease in the
angle between bones of a joint; usually occurs
on a sagittal plane.
- Extension (exten- = to stretch out) - Increase
in the angle between bones of a joint; restore
to anatomical position.
- Hyperextension (hyper- = excessive) -
Excessive extension movement beyond
normal anatomical position.
- Abduction (ab-= away; duct- = to lead) -
Move appendage away from the midline.
 - Adduction (ad- = toward) - Move appendage Minor - Smaller muscle - Pectoralis minor
toward midline. Vastus - Great- Vasts lateralis
- Circumduction (circ- = circle) - Move a distal
part of an appendage in a circle. Shape: Relative Shape of Muscle
C. ROTATION (rota- = revolve) - Turn on a pivot with
a circle.
Deltoid Triangular Deltoid
D. SPECIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS
- Elevation - Upward movement raising body Trapezius Trapezoid Trapezius
part vertically.
- Depression - Downward movement lowering Serratus Saw-toothed Serratus
body part vertically. anterior
- Protraction (pro-= in front of: trahere = to Rhomboid Diamond-shaped Rhomboid
major
draw) - Move a body part forward or anterior Orbicularis Circular Orbicularis
on a horizontal plane. oris
- Retraction (retractare = to draw back) - Move Piriformis Pear-shaped
a body part backward or posterior. Piriformis
- Supination (supine = lying on the back) - Platys Flat
Turn palm of the hand to face forward, or, if Platysma
Gracilis Slender
arm is outstretched, turn palm upward.
Gracilis
- Pronation (pronate = lying face downward) -
Turn palm of the hand to face backward, or, if
arm is outstretched, turn palm downward. Action: Principle Muscle Action
- Inversion - Turn the sole of the foot inward.
- Eversion - Turn the sole of the foot outward. Flexor Decreases a joint angle Flexor
- Dorsiflexion - Point your toes upward; stand carpiradialis
Extensor Increases a joint angle
on your heels. Extensor carpi
- Plantar flexion - Point your toes downward; Abductor Moves a bone away from the ulnaris
midline
raise your heels. Adductor Moves a bone toward the Abductor pollicis
midline brevis
Levator Adductor magnus
Raises or elevates a body
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Depress part Levator scapulae
or
Lowers or depresses a body Depressor labii
Skeletal muscles - organs composed of skeletal Supinato part inferioris
muscle tissue and connective tissue r Supinator
Turns palm superiorly or
Pronator anteriorly Pronator
NAME/ DEFINITION/ EXAMPLE
Tensor Turns palm inferiorly or Tensor fasciae
posteriorly latae
Criteria for naming skeletal muscles
Makes a body part rigid
Direction: Orientation of Muscle Fibers Relative to
Body's Midline Number of origins: Number of tendons of origin

Rectus - Muscle fibers parallel to body midline -

Rectus abdominis Biceps Two origins Biceps brachii
Transverse - Muscle fibers perpendicular to body Triceps Three origins Triceps brachii
midline - Transverse abdominis
Oblique - Muscle fibers diagonal to body midline - Quadriceps Quadriceps Four origins
External oblique femoris

Size: Relative Size of Muscle
Maximus - Largest muscle in a group - Gluteus
maximus
Medius - Middle sized muscle in a group - Gluteus
medius
Minimus - Smallest muscle in a group - Gluteus
minimus
Magnus - Large muscle - Adductor magnus
Brevis - Short muscle - Adductor brevis
Longus - Long muscle - Adductor longus
Latissimus - Widest muscle - Latissimus dorsi
Longissimus - Longest muscle - Longissimus capitis
Major - Larger muscle - Pectoralis major
Location: Structure near where muscle is located
Example: Frontalis is the muscle that is over the
frontal bone
Origin and insertion: Location of origin and location of
insertion
Example: Sternohyoid originates on the sternum and
inserts on the hyoid bone
TABLE 14.2 Muscles of the Head and Neck
Muscle of Facial Expression
Occipitofrontalis Combination of frontalis and occipitalis
muscle muscles connected by an aponeurosis uneven) posterior scalenes--located in lateral
(a flat, broad tendon). neck deep to sternocleidomastoid
muscle.
Bilateral contraction flexes head and
Frontal belly Lies over the frontal bone. Raises elevates 1st and 2nd ribs during
eyebrows and wrinkles forehead. deep inspiration. Unilateral
contraction laterally flexes head and
Occipital belly Lies over occipital bone. Pulls scalp rotates head
posteriorly. to opposite side (as in saying no).

Orbicularis oculi Circular muscle that encircles the eye. Posterior Muscles
(orbicularis = little Closes eye.
circle; oculi = eye) Splenius capitis Posterior neck deep to trapezius.
Extends head when both muscles
Zygomaticus major Between zygomatic bone and corner of contract. Laterally flexes and rotates
(zygoma = bar) mouth; inferior to zygomatic minor. head to same side as contracting
Raises corners of mouth (smiling). muscle when only one muscle
contracts.
Between zygomatic bone and corner of
Zygomaticus minor mouth. Raises upper lips, exposing Trapezius (superior Superficial muscle of the upper back
upper teeth. portion) and posterior neck.
Extends head and elevates scapula.
Circular muscle that encircles the
Orbicularis oris (oris mouth. Closes and purses lips.
= mouth) Muscle that move hyoid bone
Wide, flat muscle that covers lower
Platysma (platy = mandible and entire anterior neck, and
flat) ends on chest. Tenses neck skin; Suprahyoid bone
depresses mandible (pouting).
Digastric
(di- - two; gastric - belly)
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
Anterior belly Strap-like muscle under chin that
is parallel to midline of chin and
Superficial muscles extends from posterior belly.
Elevates hyoid bone and
Temporalis (tempora Lies over temporal bone. Elevates depresses mandible (as in
= temples) and retracts mandible. opening mouth.

Masseter (master = Anterior to ear between zygomatic Posterior belly Runs along posterior border of
chewer) arch and posterior portion of chin. Elevates hyoid bone and
mandible. depresses mandible (as in
Elevates and retracts mandible. opening mouth)
Deep Muscles
Buccinator (bucca = Stylohyoid Chin muscle, medial to posterior
cheek) Deep to masseter. Fibers run belly of digastric. Elevates hyoid
transversely and form fleshy part of bone and moyes it posteriorly.
cheek. Presses cheeks inward to
whistle, blow, and suck. Helps hold Mylohyoid Deep muscle of chin extending
food between teeth while chewing. from right side of mandible to left
Lateral pterygoid side. Elevates hyoid bone and
(pterygoid = like Deep to masseter and superior to floor of oral cavity and depresses
a wing) medial pterygoid. Transverse muscle mandible.
fibers between pterygoid process of
sphenoid and mandible. Protracts Infrahyoid Muscles
mandible, depresses mandible
(opening mouth), and moves it Omohyoid Lateral to sternohyoid. Depresses
sideways. hyoid bone.
Medial pterygoid
Deep to masseter and inferior to Sternohyoid (sterno - Runs along midline of anterior
lateral pterygoid. Vertical muscle sternum) neck. Depresses hyoid bone.
fibers
between pterygoid process of
sphenoid and mandible. Elevates and MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE
protrudes mandible and moves it
sideways. SHOULDER JOINT

Deltoid (delta - triangle)

Muscles of the Head and Neck (continued)
Large, rounded, triangular shoulder muscle.
Anterior fibers: flex and medially rotate arm.
Anterior and Lateral Lateral fibers: abduct arm.
Muscles
Posterior fibers: extend and laterally rotate
Sternocleidomastoid( Strap-like muscle on anterior and arm.
sterno- lateral neck. Fibers run diagonally
breastbone; cleido - across the neck from the sternum
clavicle; and clavicle to the mastoid process. Pectoralis major (pectus - chest)
mastoid - mastoid Bilateral contraction flexes the head Large muscles on superior, anterior chest
process) (prayer muscle). Unilateral
contraction laterally flexes head and between sternum and arm.
rotates head to opposite side (as in Whole muscle adducts and medially rotates
sayina no).
arm, the clavicular head only flexes arm, and
sternocostal head only extends arm.

Scalenes (scalenos - Three muscles- anterior, middle, and

Deep Muscle
Subscapularis
On ventral side of the scapula in the
subscapular fossa. Medially rotates arm.
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE SCAPULA
Serratus anterior (serratus - saw-toothed)
Serrated-looking muscles on the lateral trunk
inferior to arms and rib.
Abducts scapula and rotates it upward. This
occurs when throwing a punch
and is often called the hoxer's muscle.
Pectoralis minor
Deep to pectoralis major attaching to 3rd
through 5th ribs.
Abducts scapula and rotates it downward;
elevates 3rd throuah 5th ribs
during forced inspiration.
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ABDOMINAL WALL
Superficial Muscles
Rectus abdominis (rectus - parallel fibers)
Midline abdominal muscles located between
sternum and inguinal ligament. Flexes
vertebral column and.abdomen. Does not
laterally flex vertebral column
External oblique
Lateral and anterior sheet-like abdominal
muscles whose fibers run obliquely
down toward the midline (linea alba). Bilateral
contraction flexes vertebral column and
compresses abdomen. Unilateral contraction
laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column to
the opposite side.
Deep Muscles
Internal oblique
Abdominal muscles deep to external oblique
whose fibers run obliquely up toward linea
alba. Bilateral contraction flexes vertebral
column and compresses abdomen. Unilateral
contraction laterally flexes and rotates
vertebral column to the same side
Transversus abdominis
Abdominal muscles deep to internal oblique
whose fibers run transversely. Compresses
abdomen and stabilizes trunk.
MUSCLES USED IN BREATHING
Deep Muscles
External intercostals (inter- between; costal - ribs)
Oblique muscles located between ribs
superficial to internal intercostals. Fibers run
obliquely down toward the midline. Increase
thoracic diameter by elevating ribs during
inspiration.
Internal intercostals
Oblique muscles located between ribs deep to
external obliques. Fibers run obliquely up
toward the midline. Decrease thoracic
diameter by depressing ribs during forced
expiration.
Diaphragm
Dome-shaped muscle that separates the
thoracic and abdominal cavities. Contains
openings for the esophagus, aorta, and vena
cava. Flattens, increasing length of thoracic
cage, during normal inspiration.
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE
SHOULDER JOINT
Muscles of Mastication
Superficial Muscles
TEMPORALIS - lies over temporal bone. Elevates
and retracts mandible
MASSETER - anterior to ear between zygomatic arch
and posterior portion of mandible. Elevates and
retracts mandible
Deep Muscles
BUCCINATOR - deep to masseter. Fibers run
transversely and form fleshy part of cheek Presses
cheeks inward to whistle, blow, and suck. Helps hold
food between teeth while chewing
LATERAL PTERYGOID - deep to masseter and
superior to medial pterygoid. Transverse muscle
fibers between pterygoid process of sphenoid and
mandible Protracts mandible, depresses mandible
(opening mouth), and moves it sideways
MEDIAL PTERYGOID - deep between masseter and
inferior to lateral pterygoid. Vertical muscle fibers
between pterygoid process of sphenoid and
mandible. Elevates and protrudes mandible and
moves it sideways
Muscles that Move the Head and Neck
Anterior and Lateral Muscles
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID - strap-like muscle on
anterior and lateral neck Bilateral contraction flexes
the head (prayer muscle). Unilateral contraction
laterally flexes head and rotates head to opposite
side (as in saying no)
SCALENES - three muscles-anterior, middle, and
posterior scalenes Bilateral contraction flexes head
and elevates 1st and 2nd ribs during deep inspiration.
Unilateral contraction laterally flexes head and
rotates head to opposite side (as in saying no)
Posterior Muscles
SPLENIUS CAPITIS - posterior neck deep to
trapezius. Extends head when both muscles contract.
Laterally flexes and rotates head to same side as
contracting muscle when only one muscle contracts
TRAPEZIUS - superficial muscle of the upper back
and posterior neck. Extends head and elevates
scapula

Muscles that Move Hyoid Bone
Suprahyoid Muscles
DIGASTRIC
ANTERIOR BELLY - strap-like muscle under chin
that is parallel to midline of chin and extends from
posterior belly. Elevates hyoid bone and depresses
mandible (as in opening mouth)
POSTERIOR BELLY - runs along posterior border of
chin. Elevates hyoid bone and depresses mandible
(as in opening mouth)
STYLOHYOID - chin muscle, medial to posterior
belly of digastric. Elevates hyoid bone and moves it
posteriorly
MYLOHYOID - deep muscle of chin extending from
right side of mandible to left side. Elevates hyoid
bone and floor of oral cavity and depresses mandible
Infrahyoid Muscles
OMOHYOID - lateral to sternohyoid. Depresses hyoid
bone
STERNOHYOID - runs along midline of anterior
neck. Depresses hyoid bone
MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR TRUNK AND
SHOULDER
Muscles that Move the Arm at the Shoulder Joint
Superior Muscles
DELTOID - large, rounded, triangular shoulder
muscle
Anterior fibers: flex and medially rotate arm
Lateral fibers: abduct arm
Posterior fibers: extend and laterally rotate
arm
PECTORALIS MAJOR - large muscles on superior,
anterior chest between sternum and arm. Whole
muscle abducts and medially rotates arm, clavicular
head only flexes arm and sternocostal head only
extends arm
Deep Muscle
SUBSCAPULARIS - on the ventral side of the
scapula in the subscapular fossa. Medially rotates
arm
Muscles that Move the Scapula
SERRATUS ANTERIOR - serrated-looking muscles
on the lateral trunk inferior to arms and rib. Abducts
scapula and rotates it upward. This occurs when
throwing a punch and is often called the boxer’s
muscle
PECTORALIS MINOR - deep to pectoralis major
attaching to 3rd through 5th ribs. Abducts scapula
and rotates it downward; elevates 3rd through 5th
ribs during forced inspiration
Muscles that Move the Abdominal Wall
Superficial Muscles
RECTUS ABDOMINIS - midline abdominal muscles
located between sternum and inguinal ligament
Flexes vertebral column and compresses abdomen.
Does not laterally flex vertebral column
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE - lateral and anterior
sheet-like abdominal muscles whose fibers run
obliquely down toward the midline (linea alba)
Bilateral contraction flexes the vertebral column and
compresses the abdomen. Unilateral contraction
laterally flexes and rotates the vertebral column to the
opposite side.
Deep Muscles
INTERNAL OBLIQUE - abdominal muscles deep to
external oblique whose fibers run obliquely up toward
linea alba. Bilateral contraction flexes the vertebral
column and compresses the abdomen. Unilateral
contraction laterally flexes and rotates vertebral
column
TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS - abdominal muscles
deep to internal oblique whose fibers run
transversely. Compresses abdomen and stabilizes
trunk
Muscles used in Breathing
Deep Muscles
EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS - oblique muscles
located between ribs superficial to internal
intercostals. Fibers run obliquely down toward the
midline. Increase thoracic diameter by elevating ribs
during inspiration
INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS - oblique muscles
located between ribs deep to external obliques.
Fibers run obliquely up toward the midline. Decrease
thoracic diameter by depressing ribs during forced
expiration
DIAPHRAGM - dome-shaped muscle that separates
the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Contains
openings for the esophagus, aorta, and vena cava.
Flattens, increasing length of thoracic cage during
normal inspiration
MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR NECK, TRUNK,
AND SHOULDER
Muscles that Move the Arm at the Shoulder Joint
Superficial Muscles
DELTOID - large, rounded, triangular shoulder
muscle. Posterior portion of deltoid extends and
laterally rotates arm
INFRASPINATUS - located in infraspinous fossa and
partially covered by deltoid. Laterally rotates and
adducts arm
TERES MINOR - inferior to infraspinatus and partially
covered by deltoid. Laterally rotates, extends, and
adducts arm
TERES MAJOR - inferior to teres minor and partially
covered by deltoid. Extends, adducts, and medially
rotates arm
LATISSIMUS DORSI - main large, flat muscle of
middle and lower back that runs laterally and
attaches to superior portion of humerus. Extends,
adducts, and medially rotates arm (if arm is elevated
over head, it brings it down)
Deep Muscles
SUPRASPINATUS - located in supraspinous fossa
and totally covered by deltoid. Assists deltoid muscle
in abducting arm
Muscles that Move the Scapula
Superficial Muscle
TRAPEZIUS - diamond-shaped muscle of posterior
neck and upper back that extends from the skull and
vertebral column to spine of scapula and lateral
clavicle. Superior portion elevates scapula and
extends head, middle portion adducts scapula,
inferior portion depresses scapula
Deep Muscles
LEVATOR SCAPULAE- posterior to
sternocleidomastoid and runs diagonally from
posterior head to scapula. Elevates scapula and
rotates it down
RHOMBOID MINOR - deep to trapezius in upper
back located between the vertebrae and scapula, and
superior to rhomboid major. Elevates and adducts
scapula and rotates it downward, stabilizes scapula
RHOMBOID MAJOR - inferior to rhomboid minor.
Elevates and adducts scapula and rotates it
downward, stabilizes scapula
MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR FOREARM
Muscles that Move the Radius and Ulna
Superficial Muscles
BRACHIORADIALIS - large, superficial lateral
muscle. Flexes forearm and pronates and supinates
forearm to neutral position
PRONATOR TERES - lateral to brachioradialis with
oblique muscle fibers that cross antecubital fossa.
Pronates and weakly flexes forearm
Deep Muscle
SUPINATOR - anterior portion is deep
brachioradialis. Supinates forearm
Muscles that Move the Hand
Superficial Muscles of Anterior (flexor) Compartment
(lateral to medial)
FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS - medial and inferior to
pronator teres and medial to brachioradialis in
forearm. Flexes and abducts hand
PALMARIS LONGUS - medial to flexor carpi radialis.
Weakly flexes
FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS - small part of muscle is
seen anteriorly; most medial muscle muscle of
posterior forearm. Flexes and adducts hand
FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUPERFICIALIS - deep to
tendons of flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, and
flexor carpi ulnaris. Flexes hand and proximal and
middle phalanx of each finger
Deep Muscle of Anterior (flexor) Compartment
FLEXOR POLLICIS LONGUS - inferior and lateral to
flexor digitorum superficialis. Flexes distal phalanx of
thumb
Muscles that Move the Vertebral Column
ERECTOR SPINAE - group of muscles next to the
vertebral column deep to the trapezius, latissimus
dorsi, and scapula. Extend the vertebral column and
maintain erect posture when both muscles contract.
Laterally flexes vertebral column when only one
muscle
MUSCLES OF THE ARM
Anterior Surface
BICEPS BRACHII - large muscle with 2 heads.
Flexes and supinates forearm and flexes arm
BRACHIALIS - deep to biceps brachii and anterior to
humerus
Flexes forearm
Posterior Surface
TRICEPS BRACHII - large muscle with 3 heads
(Long head: superficial muscle on medial side,
Medial head: deep muscle on medial side, Lateral
head: lateral) . All 3 heads extend forearm and help
extend arm
MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR FOREARM
Muscles that Moves the Radius and Ulna
SUPINATOR - posterior portion is deep to lateral
muscles of posterior forearm. Supinates forearm
Muscles that Move the Hand. Superficial Muscles of
Posterior (extensor) Compartment (medial to lateral)
EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS - lateral to flexor carpi
ulnaris. Extends and adducts hand
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM MINIMI - lateral to
extensor carpi ulnaris. Extends hand and proximal
phalanx of 5th digit
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM - lateral to extensor
digitorum minimi. Extends hand and proximal, middle,
and distal phalanges
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS - lateral to
extensor digitorum. Extends and abducts hand
EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGUS - lateral to
extensor radialis brevis. Extends and abducts hand
Deep Muscle of Posterior (extensor) Compartment
EXTENSOR POLLICIS LONGUS - deep to lateral
extensor muscles on posterior forearm. Extends
distal phalanx of thumb and first metacarpal of thumb
and abducts hand
ABDUCTOR POLLICIS LONGUS - lateral to ulna on
posterior forearm. Abducts and extends thumb at
carpometacarpal of joint and abducts hand at wrist
joint

MUSCLES OF THE BUTTOCKS AND THIGH
Anterior Surface
(lateral to medial)
TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE - small lateral hip muscle
with fascia lata that extends down thigh. Flexes and
abducts thigh
QUADRICEPS FEMORIS - group of 4 muscles on
anterior thigh
RECTUS FEMORIS - located along midline of thigh.
Extends leg and flexes thigh
VASTUS LATERALIS - lateral to rectus femoris.
Extends leg
VASTUS MEDIALIS - medial to rectus femoris.
Extends leg
VASTUS INTERMEDIUS - deep to rectus femoris
and intermediate to vastus lateralis and vastus
medialis. Extends leg
SARTORIUS - diagonal muscle. Extends from
anterior superior iliac spine to medial surface of tibia
Flexes leg and flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates
thigh (allows us to flex and cross our legs)
ILIOPSOAS - combination of psoas major and iliacus
PSOAS MAJOR - small portion of these muscles are
observed in anterior/medial compartment of thigh
inferior to inguinal ligament
ILIACUS - “Together flex thigh, rotate thigh laterally,
and flex trunk
PECTINEUS - medial to iliopsoas
Adducts and flexes thigh
ADDUCTOR LONGUS - medial to pectineus.
Adducts and flexes thigh and medially rotates thigh
ADDUCTOR MAGNUS - observed medial and
inferior to adductor longus. A larger portion of this.
muscle is deep to the adductor longus. Adducts and
medially rotates thigh. Anterior portion flexes thigh
and posterior portion extends thigh
ADDUCTOR BREVIS - deep to adductor longus, it is
totally covered by superficial muscles. Adducts and
flexes thigh and medially rotates thigh
GRACILIS - medial to adductor magnus; straight
muscle on inside of thigh. Adducts and medially
rotates thigh. Flexes leg
Posterior Surface
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS - largest buttocks muscle.
Extends and lateral rotates high
GLUTEUS MEDIUS - Observed superior to gluteus
maximus but is partially covered by it
Abducts and medially rotates thigh
GLUTEUS MINIMUS - deep muscle covered by
gluteus medius
Abducts and medially rotates thigh
PIRIFORMIS - deep muscle to gluteus minimus;
important landmark for sciatic nerve, which passes
deep to piriformis. Lateral rotates and abducts thigh
HAMSTRINGS - three muscles on post
BICEPS FEMORIS - most lateral hamstring. Flexes
leg and extends thigh
SEMITENDINOSUS - medial to biceps femoris and
superficial to semimembranosus.
Flexes leg and extends thigh
SEMIMEMBRANOSUS - most medial of the
hamstrings; ; (remember ‘m’ for medial). Flexes leg
and extends thigh
MUSCLES OF THE LEG AND FOOT
Lateral and Anterior Surfaces
Superficial muscles
TIBIALIS ANTERIOR - lateral to the anterior crest of
the tibia. Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS - lateral to
tibialis anterior. Dorsiflexes foot and extend toes.
FIBULARIS (PERONEUS) LONGUS - lateral to the
extensor digitorum longus. . Plantar flexes and everts
foot
Posterior Surface
Superficial muscles
GASTROCNEMIUS - large superficial muscle on
posterior leg. Plantar flexes foot and flexes leg
Deep muscles
SOLEUS - deep to gastrocnemius and posterior to
fibularis (peroneus) longus . Plantar flexes foot only
FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS - deep to soleus,
medial muscle. Plantar flexes foot and flexes toes
FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS - deep to soleu,
lateral muscle. Plantar flexes foot and flexes great
toe
When a skeletal muscle contracts, it typically exerts a
force, called muscle tendon, on an object.
The object in turn exerts an opposing force, known as
the load, which resists the muscle tension.
When a muscle acts on an object, a contraction
occurs. The type of contraction depends on the
relationship between the muscle tension and load.
During an isotonic contraction, the length of the
muscle will change when muscle tension rises. There
are types of isotonic contractions:
During a concentric contraction, muscle tension
exceeds load The muscle shortens when it contracts
and performs work by moving an object from one
position to another.
During an eccentric contraction, the load exceeds
muscle tension. The muscle lengthens when it
contracts but does not typically move an object.
During an isometric contraction, muscle tension is
unable to overcome the load exerted by the object.
As tension increases, muscle length remains
constant and the object does not move.
Although isometric contractions do not actually move - Structure: One cell process that divides into
an object, they have other important functions. two branches: both branches are axons;
receptive endings of peripheral branch are
dendrites
- Function: Sensory neurons for s (touch,
NERVOUS SYSTE, pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception)
- Location: Sensory ganglia for spinal nerves;
Central Nervous System (CNS) most cranial nerve ganglia
• Brain Anaxonic
• Spinal cord - Structure: Many Cell processes: all are the
dendrites
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Location: Various region on the brain
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves Neuroglial Cell Types

Sensory receptors A. Neuroglia in the CNS

- Respond to changes in external and internal 1. Astrocytes- Cell processes form a supporting
environment network that connects neurons to blood
Visceral sensory receptors vessels; help to form the blood-brain barrier,
- Respond to sensations in internal organs which prevents the passage of potentially
Somatic sensory receptors harmful substances from the blood to brain
- Respond to s in body wall tissue; and help to regulate levels of oxygen,
Special sensory receptors carbon dioxide, and nutrients.
- Respond to smell, taste, hearing, balance, 2. Microglia (microglial cells)- Act as
and vision phagocytes; protect the CNS from
Visceral sensory receptors disease-causing microorganisms and clear
- Respond to sensations in internal organs away cellular debris.
3. Ependymal cells (ependyma)- Modified
Sensory information detected and integrated; motor epithelial cells that line the ventricles of the
impulses sent to motor neurons brain and central canal of the spinal cord;
facilitate the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
Motor division in the ventricles.
- Motor (efferent) neurons transmit motor 4. Oligodendrocytes- Produce the myelin
information from CNS to muscles and glands sheath around axons in the CNS.
Somatic nervous system
- Voluntary motor commands B. Neuroglia in the PNS
- Skeletal muscle 1. Satellite cells- Surround neuron cell bodies
Autonomic nervous system in peripheral ganglia and regulate levels of
- Involuntary motor commands oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients.
- smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands 2. Schwann cells- Produce the myelin sheath
Effector organs around axons in the PNS.
- Activities change when they receive motor
commands Nervous tissue is found in the organs of the nervous
system—the nerves, brain, and spinal cord—and
The Four Types of Neurons contains cells that enable the nervous system to
generate and transmit electrical signals called nerve
Multipolar impulses or action potentials.
- Structure: Many cell processes: one axon, The nervous system senses changes in our internal
multiple dendrites and external environments, coordinates and
- Function: Motor neurons for voluntary and integrates data, and initiates and transmits action
involuntary movement; interneurons that form potentials. It is organized into two basic components:
fiber tract links between brain and spinal cord the central nervous system (CNS), which consists
regions of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
- Locations: Cerebral cortex; cerebellar cortex; nervous system (PNS). The PNS contains an
gray matter in spinal cord afferent division composed of sensory receptors and
Bipolar sensory neurons, and an efferent division composed
- Structure: Two cell processes: one axon, one of motor neurons.
dendrite Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment
- Function: Sensory neurons for vision, hearing, and transmit this information along sensory or
equilibrium, and smell afferent nerves to the CNS. The CNS coordinates
- Location: Retina of the eye; inner ear; and integrates information received from sensory
olfactory epithelium in nasal cavity receptors and initiates responses that are transmitted
Unipolar by neurons to effectors (neurons, muscle cells, or
glands). Motor nerves transmit impulses from the
CNS to effectors in the PNS. The nervous system is
streamlined to send rapid signals from cell to cell to
maintain homeostasis and coordinate body organs
and functions.

The structural and functional unit of the nervous

system is the neuron, or nerve cell. A typical neuron
has a cell body that contains a large, round nucleus
with a well-defined nucleolus. In the surrounding
cytoplasm, the most prominent organelles include
mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and Nissl
(chromatophilic) bodies, which are clusters of
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and free
ribosomes. Extending from the cell body are two
types of processes: dendrites and axons. Dendrites,
along with the cell body, serve as contacts to receive
impulses from other
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

GLAND HORMONE TARGET CELLS HORMONE FUNCTIONS

Anterior Human growth Cartilage, bone, skeletal, muscle, Stimulates secretion of hormones that
Pituitary hormone liver, and other body, tissues stimulate body growth and metabolism
thyroid-stimulating Stimulates of growth of thyroid gland and
hormone Thyroid gland secretion of its hormone
follicle-stimulating Stimulates sperm production. stimulate
hormone Testes, Ovaries oocyte production and estrogen secretion
Stimulates secretion of testosterone. Triggers
luteinizing hormone Testes, Ovaries ovulation
prolactin Mammary gland Stimulates production and secretion of milk
adrenocorticotropic Stimulates secretio of hormones by adrenal
hormone Adrenal cortex cortex
melanocyte-stimulati
ng hormone Skin darken skin pigmentation
Posterior decrease water lost in urine by returning
Pituitary antidiuretic hormone Kidneys water to the blood
Stimulates urine contractions and milk
oxytocin Uterus and mammary glands ejection during suckling
increases metabolism and basal metabolic
Thyroid Gland thyroxine Most body cells rate (BMR)
increases metabolism and basal metabolic
triiodothyronine Most body cells rate (BMR)
Decrease blood calcium levels by inhibiting
calcitonin Osteoclast cells in bones osteoclasts
Parathyroid increase blood calcium levels by stimulating
Gland parathyroid hormone Osteoclast cells in bones osteoclasts to break down the bone matrix
Adrenal decrease sodium and water loss in urine by
cortex aldosterone Kidneys returning sodium and water to the blood
Liver, muscle, and cells involved, increase resistance to stress, increase blood
cortisol in body defenses glucose levels, and decrease inflammation
Uterus, mammary glands, and insignificant in males; increase sex drive in
androgens other body cells involved in females
Adrenal Body cells involved in fight or
Medulla epinephrine flight response promotes fight or flight response
Body cells involved in fight or
norepinephrine flight response promotes fight or flight response
decrease blood glucose levels by transporting
Pancreas insulin most body cells glucose into body cells
Liver, muscle, and cells involved, increases blood glucose levels by stimulatinh
glucagon in body defenses liver to break down glycogen inti glucose
uterus , mammary glands, and
estrogen, other body cells involved female stimulates development of female sex
Ovaries progesterone sexual characteristics characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle
Testes, muscle and other body stimulates development of male
cells involved in male sexual characteristics; stimulates male sex drive;
Testes Testosterone characteristics regulates sperm production
Pineal Gland melatonin brain helps to set biological clock
T cells (type of white blood cells promotes the maturation of T cells for the
Thymus Thymusin involved in immune response immune response
ABBREVIATION NAME
ATCH Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)
ADH Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
ANP Atrial natriuretic peptide
CRH Corticotropin-releasing hormone
DHEA Dehydroepiandrosterone
EPO Erythropoietin
FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
GH Growth hormone (somatotropin)
GHRH Growth hormone-releasing hormone
GnRH Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
IGFs Insulin-like growth factors (somatomedins)
LH Luteinizing hormone
NE Norepinephrine
OT Oxytocin
PIH Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (dopamine)
PRH Prolactin-releasing hormone
PRL Prolactin
PTH Parathyroid hormone (parathormone)
T3 Triiodothyronine
T4 Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)
TH Thyroid hormone (Ty and Ta)
TRH Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Anatomical Terms
Directional Terms Body planes and sections
Human brain sections
Human Skeleton
Body cavities
SKIN and Epidermis
Skin Nail
Features of Long Bone Microscopic Features of Bone
Compact & Spongy Bone

Lateral view of skull

Lateral view of skull
Anterior view of Skull
Superior view of cranial
cavity
Inferior view of skull
 Superior view of skull

Orbit of the eye

Nasal septum
Parts of typical vertebra
Thoracic cage
Right pectoral girdle Right hand and wrist
Right Humerus
Right ulna and radius
Right femur
Right tibia, fibula and patella