1.

Armature Reaction:

The armature reaction simply shows the effect of armature field on the main field. In other words,
the armature reaction represents the impact of the armature flux on the main field flux. The
armature field is produced by the armature conductors when current flows through them. And the
main field is produced by the magnetic poles.
The armature flux causes two effects on the main field flux.

• The armature reaction distorted the main field flux.

• It reduces the magnitude of the main field flux.

Consider the figure below shows the two poles dc generator. When no load connected to the
generator, the armature current becomes zero. In this condition, only the MMF of the main poles
exists in the generator. The MMF flux is uniformly distributed along the magnetic axis. The
magnetic axis means the centre line between the north and south pole. The arrow in the below-
given image shows the direction of the magnetic flux ΦM. The magnetic neutral axis or plane is
perpendicular to the axis of the magnetic flux.
The MNA coincides with the geometrical neutral axis (GNA). The brushes of the DC machines
are always placed in this axis, and hence this axis is called the axis of commutation.

Consider the condition in which only the armature conductors carrying current and no current
flows through their main poles. The direction of the current remains the same in all the conductors
lying under one pole. The direction of current induces in the conductor is given by the Fleming
right-hand rule. And the direction of flux generates in the conductors is given by the corkscrew
rule.

The direction of current on the left sides of the armature conductor goes into the paper (represented
by the cross inside the circle). The armature conductors combine their MMF for generating the
fluxes through the armature in the downward direction.
Similarly, the right-hand side conductors carry current, and their direction goes out of the paper
(shown by dots inside the circle). The conductor on the right-hand sides is also combining their
MMF for producing the flux in the downwards direction. Hence, the conductor on both sides
combines their MMF in such a way so that their flux goes downward direction. The flux induces
in the armature conductor ΦA is given by the arrow shown above.

The figure below shows the condition in which the field current and the armature current are
simultaneously acting on the conductor.

This happens when machines running at no-load condition. Now the machine has two fluxes, i.e.,
the armature flux and the field pole flux. The armature flux is produced by the current induced in
the armature conductors while the field pole flux is induced because of the main field poles. These
two flux combines and gives the resultant flux ΦR as shown in the figure above.

When the field flux enters into the armature, they may get distorted. The distortion increases the
density of the flux in the upper pole tip of the N-pole and the lower pole tip of the south pole.
Similarly, the density of flux decreases in the lower pole tip of the north pole and the upper pole
tip of the south pole.

The resultant flux induces in the generator are shifted towards the direction of the rotation of the
generator. The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to the axis of the resultant
flux. The MNA is continuously shifted with the resultant flux.

1.2.Effect of Armature Reaction

The effects of Armature Reaction are as follows:-

• Because of the armature reaction the flux density of over one-half of the pole increases
and over the other half decreases. The total flux produces by each pole is slightly less
due to which the magnitude of the terminal voltage reduces. The effect due to which
the armature reaction reduces the total flux is known as the demagnetizing effect.
 • The resultant flux is distorted. The direction of the magnetic neutral axis is shifted
with the direction of resultant flux in the case of the generator, and it is opposite to
the direction of the resultant flux in the case of the motor.
• The armature reaction induces flux in the neutral zone, and this flux generates the
voltage that causes the commutation problem.
The MNA axis is the axis in which the value of induced MEF becomes zero. And the GNA divides
the armature core into two equal parts.

2. Commutation in DC Machine or Commutation in DC Generator or Motor

The voltage generated in the armature, placed in a rotating magnetic field, of a DC generator is
alternating in nature. The commutation in DC machine or more specifically commutation in
DC generator is the process in which generated alternating current in the armature winding of a
dc machine is converted into direct current after going through the commutator and the stationary
brushes.
Again in DC Motor, the input DC is to be converted in alternating form in armature and that is
also done through commutation.
This transformation of current from the rotating armature of a DC machine to the stationary
brushes needs to maintain continuously moving contact between the commutator segments and the
brushes. When the armature starts to rotate, then the coils situated under one pole (let it be N pole)
rotates between a positive brush and its consecutive negative brush and the current flows through
this coil is in a direction inward to the commutator segments.
Then the coil is short circuited with the help of a brush for a very short fraction of time (1⁄500 sec).
It is called commutation period. After this short-circuit time the armature coils rotates under S pole
and rotates between a negative brush and its succeeding positive brush. Then the direction is
reversed which is in the away from the commutator segments. This phenomena of the reversal of
current is termed as commutation process. We get direct current from the brush terminal.
The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process or the reversal of current is completed
by the end of the short circuit time or the commutation period.
If the reversal of current is completed during the short circuit time then there is sparking occurs at
the brush contacts and the commutator surface is damaged due to overheating and the machine is
called poorly commutated.

3. Physical Concept of Commutation in DC Machine

For the explanation of commutation process, let us consider a DC machine having an armature
wound with ring winding. Let us also consider that the width of the commutator bar is equal to the
width of the brush and current flowing through the conductor is IC.
Let the commutator is moving from left to right. Then the brush will move from right to left.
At the first position, the brush is connected the commutator bar b (as shown in fig 1). Then the
total current conducted by the commutator bar b into the brush is 2IC.
When the armature starts to move right, then the brush comes to contact of bar a. Then the armature
current flows through two paths and through the bars a and b (as shown in fig 2). The total current
(2IC) collected by the brush remain same.
As the contact area of the bar a with the brush increases and the contact area of the bar b decreases,
the current flow through the bars increases and decreases simultaneously. When the contact area
become same for both the commutator bar then same current flows through both the bars (as shown
in fig 3).
When the brush contact area with the bar b decreases further, then the current flowing through the
coil B changes its direction and starts to flow counter-clockwise (as shown in fig 4).
When the brush totally comes under the bar a (as shown in fig 5) and disconnected with the bar b
then current IC flows through the coil B in the counter-clockwise direction and the short circuit is
removed.
In this process the reversal of current or the process of commutation is done
4. Methods of Improving (Elimination of Armature Reaction) Commutation
To make the commutation satisfactory we have to make sure that the current flowing through the
coil completely reversed during the commutation period attains its full value.
There are three main methods of improving commutation. These are
1. Resistance commutation
2. E.M.F. commutation
3. Compensating windings
4.1. Resistance Commutation
In this method of commutation we use high electrical resistance brushes for getting spark less
commutation. This can be obtained by replacing low resistance copper brushes with high resistance
carbon brushes.
We can clearly see from the picture that the current IC from the coil C may reach to the brush in
two ways in the commutation period. One path is direct through the commutator segment b and to
the brush and the 2nd path is first through the short-circuit coil B and then through the commutator
segment a and to the brush. When the brush resistance is low, then the current IC from coil C will
follow the shortest path, i.e. the 1st path as its electrical resistance is comparatively low because it
is shorter than the 2nd path.

When high resistance brushes are used, then as the brush moves towards the commutator segments,
the contact area of the brush and the segment b decreases and contact area with the segment a
increases. Now, as the electrical resistance is inversely proportional to the contact area of then
resistance Rb will increase and Ra will decrease as the brush moves. Then the current will prefer
the 2nd path to reach to the brush.
Thus by this will occur in the desired direction.

ρ is the resistivity of the conductor.

l is the length of the conductor.

A is the cross-section of the conductor (here is this description it is used as contact area). Method
of improving commutation, the quick reversal of current
4.2. E.M.F. Commutation
The main reason of the delay of the current reversing time in the short circuit coil during
commutation period is the inductive property of the coil. In this type of commutation, the reactance
voltage produced by the coil due to its inductive property, is neutralized by producing a reversing
emf in the short circuit coil during commutation period.
Reactance Voltage:
The voltage rise in the short circuit coil due to inductive property of the coil, which opposes the
current reversal in it during the commutation period, is called the reactance voltage.
We can produce reversing emf in two ways
1. By brush shifting.
2. By using inter-poles or commutating poles.

Brush Shifting Method of Commutation

In this method of improving commutation the brushes are shifted forward direction for the DC
generator and in backward direction for the motor for producing the sufficient reversing emf for
eliminating the reactance voltage. When the brushes are given the forward or backward lead then
it brings the short circuit coil under the influence of the next pole which is of the opposite polarity.
Then the sides of the coil will cut the necessary flux form the main poles of opposite polarity for
producing the sufficient reversing emf. This method is rarely used because for best result, with
every variation of load, the brushes have to be shifted.
4.3. Method of Using Inter-Pole
In this method of commutation some small poles are fixed to the yoke and placed between the
main poles. These poles are called inter-poles. Their polarity is same as the main poles situated
next to it for the generator and for the motor the polarity is same as the main pole situated before
it. The inter-poles induce an emf in the short circuit coil during the commutation period which
opposes reactance voltage and give spark-less commutation.

Compensating Windings
This is the most effective mean of eliminating the problem of armature reaction and flash over by
balancing the armature mmf. Compensating windings are placed in slots provided in pole faces
parallel to the rotor (armature) conductors.

The major drawback with the compensating windings is that they very costly. Their use is mainly
for large machines subject to heavy overloads or plugging and in small motors subject to sudden
reversal and high acceleration.
 5. Starters.

5.1. Three Point Starter: Diagram and Working Principle

A 3 point starter is a device that helps in the starting and running of a DC shunt motor or
compound wound DC motor (similar to a 4 point starter).
Now the question is why these types of DC motors require the assistance of the starter in the first
place? Well, it’s due to the presence of back emf (Eb), which plays a critical role in governing the
operation of the motor. The back emf develops as the motor armature starts to rotate in presence
of the magnetic field, by generating action and counters the supply voltage. Hence the back emf at
the starting of the motor is zero, but it develops gradually as the motor gathers speed.
The general motor emf equation is:

Where E=Supply Voltage; Eb=Back EMF; Ia=Armature Current; and Ra=Armature Resistance.
Since at starting Eb = 0, then E = Ia.Ra. Hence we can rearrange for the armature current Ia:

We can see from the above equation that the current will be dangerously high at starting (as the
armature resistance Ra is small). This is why it’s important that we make use of a device like the 3
point starter to limit the starting current to acceptably low value.
To understand how the starting current is restricted to the desired value, we need to look at the
construction and working of three-point starter. The electrical symbols in the diagram below
show all the essential parts of a three-point starter.
 Fig. 3 Point Starter Diagram
5.1.1. Construction of 3 Point Starter
Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into the number of sections as shown
in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown separately
as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN. Other than that there are three main points, referred to as
1. ‘L’ Line terminal (Connected to positive of supply)
2. ‘A’ Armature terminal (Connected to the armature winding)
3. ‘F’ Field terminal (Connected to the field winding)
And from there it gets the name 3 point starter. Now studying the construction of 3 point starter
in further details reveals that the point ‘L’ is connected to an electromagnet called overload release
(OLR) as shown in the figure. The other end of OLR is connected to the lower end of conducting
lever of starter handle where spring is also attached with it, and the starter handle also contains a
soft iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to move to the other side RUN against the force of
the spring. This spring brings back the handle to its original OFF position under the influence of
its own force. Another parallel path is derived from the stud ‘1’, given to another electromagnet
called No Volt Coil (NVC) which is further connected to terminal ‘F.’ The starting resistance at
starting is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR and NVC act as the two protecting devices
of the starter.
5.1.2. Working of Three Point Starter
Having studied its construction, let us now go into the working of the 3 point starter. To start
with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC motor is switched on. Then
handle is slowly moved against the spring force to make contact with stud No. 1. At this point,
field winding of the shunt or the compound motor gets supply through the parallel path provided
to starting the resistance, through No Voltage Coil. While entire starting resistance comes in series
with the armature. The high starting armature current thus gets limited as the current equation at
this stage becomes:

As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact with studs 2, 3, 4, etc., thus gradually
cutting off the series resistance from the armature circuit as the motor gathers speed. Finally, when
the starter handle is in ‘RUN’ position, the entire starting resistance is eliminated, and the motor
runs with normal speed.

This is because back emf is developed consequently with speed to counter the supply voltage and
reduce the armature current.
So the external electrical resistance is not required anymore and is removed for optimum operation.
The handle is moved manually from OFF to the RUN position with the development of speed.
Now the obvious question is once the handle is taken to the RUN position how it is supposed to
stay there, as long as the motor is running.

To find the answer to this question let us look into the working of No Voltage Coil.

5.1.3. Working of No Voltage Coil of 3 Point Starter

The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So when field current flows,
the NVC is magnetized. Now when the handle is in the ‘RUN’ position, a soft iron piece is
connected to the handle and gets attracted by the magnetic force produced by NVC, because of
flow of current through it. The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in ‘RUN’
position against the force of the spring as long as supply is given to the motor. Thus NVC holds
the handle in the ‘RUN’ position and hence also called hold on coil.

Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the current flow through NVC is affected and it
immediately loses its magnetic property and is unable to keep the soft iron piece on the handle,
attracted. At this point under the action of the spring force, the handle comes back to OFF position,
opening the circuit and thus switching off the motor. So due to the combination of NVC and the
spring, the starter handle always comes back to OFF position whenever there is any supply
problem. Thus it also acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor from any kind of
abnormality.

5.1.4. Drawbacks of a Three Point Starter

The 3 point starter suffers from a serious drawback for motors with a large variation of speed by
adjustment of the field rheostat. To increase the speed of the motor field resistance can be
increased. Therefore current through the shunt field is reduced.
Field current becomes very low which results in holding electromagnet too weak to overcome the
force exerted by the spring. The holding magnet may release the arm of the starter during the
normal operation of the motor and thus disconnect the motor from the line. This is not desirable.
A 4 point starter is thus used instead, which does not have this drawback.

5.2. Four point starter

5.2.1. Working Principle of 4 Point Starter

A 4 point starter protects the armature of a DC shunt motor or compound wound DC motor
against the initially high starting current of the DC motor.
The 4 point starter has a lot of constructional and functional similarity to a 3 point starter, but this
special device has an additional point and coil in its construction (as the name suggests). This
brings about some difference in its functionality, though the basic operational characteristic
remains the same. The basic difference in the circuit of a 4 point starter as compared to 3 point
starter is that the holding coil is removed from the shunt field current and is connected directly
across the line with current limiting resistance in series.
Now to go into the details of the operation of 4 point starter, let’s have a look at its construction
diagram. This will help demonstrate the difference between a 4 vs 3 point starter.
Construction and Operation of Four Point Starter
A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points, namely

1. ‘L’ Line terminal (Connected to positive of supply.)

2. ‘A’ Armature terminal (Connected to the armature winding.)
3. ‘F’ Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
 4. Like in the case of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is,
A 4th point N (Connected to the No Voltage Coil NVC)
The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No Voltage Coil is connected
independently across the supply through the fourth terminal called ‘N’ in addition to the ‘L’, ‘F’
and ‘A’. As a direct consequence of that, any change in the field supply current does not bring
about any difference in the performance of the NVC. Thus it must be ensured that no voltage coil
always produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its ‘RUN’ position, against
the force of the spring, under all the operational conditions. Such a current is adjusted through No
Voltage Coil with the help of fixed resistance R connected in series with the NVC using fourth
point ‘N’ as shown in the figure above.

Fig. 4 Point Starter Diagram

Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3 point starters are similar in all other ways
like possessing is a variable resistance, integrated into number of sections as shown in the figure
above. The contact points of these sections are called studs and are shown separately as OFF, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, RUN, over which the handle is free to be maneuvered manually to regulate the starting
current with gathering speed.

Now to understand its way of operating let’s have a closer look at the diagram given above.
Considering that supply is given and the handle is taken stud No.1, then the circuit is complete and
the line current that starts flowing through the starter. In this situation we can see that the current
will be divided into 3 parts, flowing through 3 different points.

1. 1 part flows through the starting resistance (R1+ R2 + R3…..) and then to the
armature.
2. A 2nd part flowing through the field winding F.
3. And a 3rd part flowing through the no voltage coil in series with the protective
resistance R.
So the point to be noted here is that with this particular arrangement any change in the shunt field
circuit does not bring about any change in the no voltage coil as the two circuits are independent
of each other.

This essentially means that the electromagnet pull subjected upon the soft iron bar of the handle
by the no voltage coil at all points of time should be high enough to keep the handle at its RUN
position, or rather prevent the spring force from restoring the handle at its original OFF position,
irrespective of how the field rheostat is adjusted.

This marks the operational difference between a 4 point starter and a 3 point starter. As otherwise
both are almost similar and are used for limiting the starting current to a shunt wound DC motor
or compound wound DC motor, and thus act as a protective device.

5.3.Star Delta Starter:

A star delta starter is the most commonly used method for the starting of a 3 phase induction
motor. In star delta starting an induction motor is connected in through a star
connection throughout the starting period. Then once the motor reaches the required speed, the
motor is connected in through a delta connection.
A star delta starter will start a motor with a star connected stator winding. When motor reaches
about 80% of its full load speed, it will begin to run in a delta connected stator winding.
A star delta starter is a type of reduced voltage starter. We use it to reduce the starting current of
the motor without using any external device or apparatus. This is a big advantage of a star delta
starter, as it typically has around 1/3 of the inrush current compared to a DOL starter.
The starter mainly consists of a TPDP switch which stands for Tripple Pole Double Throw switch.
This switch changes stator winding from star to delta. During starting condition stator winding is
connected in the form of a star. Now we shall see how a star delta starter reduces the starting
current of a three-phase induction motor.
For that let us consider,

VL = Supply Line Voltage, ILS = Supply Line Current and, IPS = Winding Current per Phase and Z
= Impedance per phase winding at stand still condition.

As the winding is star connected, the winding current per phase (IPS) equals to supply line current
(ILS).

As the winding is star connected, the voltage across each phase of the winding

Hence, the winding current per phase is

Since here, the winding current per phase (IPS) equals to the supply line current (ILS), we can write,

Now, let us consider the situation where the motor gets started with delta connected stator winding
from same three phase supply points,
Here, ILD = Supply Line Current and, IPD = Winding Current per Phase and Z = Impedance per
phase winding at stand still condition.

As the winding is delta connected, supply line current (ILD) is root three times of the winding
current per phase (IPD)

As the winding is delta connected, the voltage across each phase of the winding is VL
Hence, the winding current per phase is

Now, we can write,

Now, by comparing supply line currents drawn by an induction motor with star and delta connected
winding, we get

Thus we can say that the starting current from the mains in case of star delta is one-third of direct
switching in the delta. Again, we know that the starting torque of an induction motor is proportional
to the square of the voltage applied to the winding per phase.
The equation shows that star delta starter reduces the starting torque to one-third of that produced
by DOL starter. The star-delta starter is equivalent to an autotransformer with a 57.7% tapping.

5.3.2. Advantages of Star Delta Starter

The advantages of star delta starters include:

1. Inexpensive
2. No heat is produced, or tap changing device needs to be used, hence efficiency
increases.
3. Starting current reduced to 1/3 of direct online starting current.
4. Produce high torque per ampere of line current.

5.3.3. Disadvantages of Star Delta Starter

The disadvantages of star delta starters include:

1. Starting torque is reduced to 1/3 of full load torque.

2. A particular set of motors required.

5.3.4. Application of Star Delta Starter

As discussed in the above advantages and disadvantages, a star delta starter is most suited to
applications where the required starting current is low and where the line current draw must be at
a minimum value.
The star delta starter is not suitable for applications where high starting torque delivery is required.
For these applications, a DOL starter should be used instead.

If the motor is too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the motor upto
speed before switching over to the delta position. Example application for a star delta starter is a
Centrifugal compressor.