Auditory and Visual Pathways

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A MIXED COURSE-BASED RESEARCH APPROACH TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
CONTENTS
AUDITORY AND VISUAL PATHWAYS

Reaction Times
Karri Haen Whitmer
The nervous system allows us to detect changes in the environment and react to them.
An external stimulus is detected by a receptor, which sends sensory information to the
central nervous system, where it is processed. If a motor response is initiated, it usually
involves a series of action potentials which produce muscle contraction and movement
in one or more parts of the body. A reflex is the most simple stimulus-response reac-
Previous:
tion. A loudHuman-Human Interface flying at your eye makes you blink, while a tap on the
sound or something
tendon under the knee cap produces the knee-jerk (or myotactic) reflex.
Next: The Electromyogram
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F i g u r e 1 . A cross-section of the spinal cord showing the single synapse

between the sensory and the motor neurons involved in a myotactic
reflex. Image by Marta Aguayo C C B Y 3 .0.
A simple reflex like the myotactic reflex is produced via single synapses between sen-
sory axons and motor neurons. The required circuitry for this reflex is confined to the
spinal cord, as shown in Figure 1. Sensory information also ascends to higher centers,
but the brain is not necessary or required to perform the reflex. More complex reflexes
usually involve additional (inter-) neurons and more than one population of motor neu-
rons. Thus, more neurons and synapses are involved, which usually results in a longer
delay between stimulus and response and often a more complex response. One exam-
ple of such a complex response is the flexion withdrawal reflex, where a noxious stimu-
lus to one leg causes withdrawal of the stimulated leg and extension of the other.
Visual and Auditory Re�exes & Reaction Times
Now that we understand neural transmission and synapses involved in basic reflexes,
we can begin to ask how nerve cells are assembled into more complex structures like
pools, circuits, and pathways. Stimulus on the nervous system exerts its effects on spe-
cial cells called receptors. These cells are modified to respond to “outside information”
Previous: Human-Human Interface
rather than to synaptic inputs from other nerve cells. Outside information can take the
form of light entering our eyes; of mechanical deformation toNext: cells
Thein the cochlea or
Electromyogram
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vestibule due to sound or pressure waves; or of chemicals, as in our sense of smell or

taste. In all these cases, the effect of the stimulus is to produce an electrical signal in
the receptors and consequently a modification in the rate of neurotransmitter release
at their terminals.
The visual and auditory systems work separately and in combination with each other
to inform and guide the body’s internal and external actions. Sometimes responses to
light or sound are simple and are considered reflexes. Other pathways contain more
neurons and require more processing in the higher brain centers.
Auditory reflexes encompass reflexes initiated by auditory stimuli. When focus is re-
quired, auditory reflexes instantaneously block out unnecessary sound frequencies,
and when general auditory awareness is required, the auditory reflexes expand sound
frequency access to ensure the central nervous system is provided with all the infor-
mation it needs to respond appropriately. Other auditory reflexes involve involuntary
motor responses to sound, such as the orientation reflex (involuntary head turn for lo-
cating the source of an unexpected sound) and the startle reflex (an inborn protective
reflex).
The visual system distinguishes variations in shape, color, brightness, movement, help-
ing to distinguish familiar people, places and things from unfamiliar, to determine rela-
tive location, and detect visual input important to daily function and general survival.
Visual reflexes adjust instantaneously from static and dynamic visual input that is near
or far, blocking out extraneous visual input when visual concentration and focus are re-
quired, while remaining vigilant to unusual visual input important to productive func-
tioning and general safety. While the visual and auditory sensory systems each provide
the body access to unique forms of stimulus input, they also work together to coordi-
nate “seeing-hearing” information and with each of the other sensory systems to in-
form and prioritize input for the central nervous system to guide and direct action in
response to ever-changing conditions. Due to a number of issues the auditory and vis-
ual systems can become hypersensitive or hyposensitive or simply not function.
Neural Pathways for Vision

Perception of incoming light begins when the photons are detected by the retina’s
p h o t o r e c e p t o r s (rods and cones). In the most-simple pathway, photoreceptors
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synapse with bipolar cells, which then synapse with the retinal ganglion cells that exit
the back of the eye as the optic nerve (cranial nerve II).
The two optic nerves exit each eye at the optic disk and combine at the base of the
brain just in front of the brainstem to form the o p t i c c h i a s m ( F i g u r e 2 ) . In the optic
chiasm, half of the axons from each eye cross over, or decussate, to the other side of
the brain. Note in the figure below that input from the left visual field strikes the nasal
retina (side closest to the nose) of the left eye and the temporal retina (side closest to
the side of the head) of the right eye. Likewise, input from the right visual field strikes
the nasal retina of the right eye and the temporal retina of the left eye. Therefore, both
eyes receive information from both visual fields.
In the optic chiasm, axons originating from nasal ganglion cells cross to the opposite
side, whereas axons originating from temporal ganglion cells stay on the side of origin.
The result is that after the optic chiasm, all input from the right visual field travels in
axons in the left side of the brain, and all input from the left visual field travels in axons
in the right side of the brain.
Although the axons are still those of ganglion cells, after the optic chiasm the axons
travel in what is called the o p t i c t r a c t . The ganglion cells terminate in a nucleus in the
thalamus called the l a t e r a l g e n i c u l a t e b o d y , where they form synapses with neurons
that ascend to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Pathways from the lateral
geniculate body to the visual cortex on either side are called the o p t i c r a d i a t i o n s .
To simplify the visual pathway, we note that photoreceptors synapse with 1) bipolar
cells in the retina. Retinal bipolar cells synapse with 2.) retinal ganglion cells. From here,
the axons of ganglion cells may decussate at the optic chiasma or remain on the ipsilat-
eral side and synapse with 3.) neurons of the lateral geniculate body of the thalamus,
which form optic radiations. 4.) The optic radiations synapse on the primary visual cor-
tex (V1) in the occipital lobe of the brain, which is physically very far from the photore-
ceptors of the retina. You can approximate this distance by measuring from your eyes
to the occipital region of the skull. For conscious awareness of visual information, ad-
ditional processing must take place in the brain cortex, including several visual process-
ing areas (V1-V6), which add many other synapses to this pathway.
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F i g u r e 2 . The optic pathway. Axons of ganglion cells exit the posterior eye to
become the optic nerve. Medial fibers cross at the optic chiasm and create the
optic tracts. Optic radiations synapse with regions of the visual processing
cortex.
Neural Pathways for Sound
Sound, or disturbances in the distribution of air molecules, is converted into pressure

waves inside
Previous: the cochlea.
Human-Human As the pressure waves vibrate the cochlear membranes, the
Interface
tectorial membrane of the cochlear duct contacts and bends the stereocilia of auditory
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hair cell receptors.
When hair cells are bent, the neurotransmitter, usually glutamate, released from hair
cells binds to receptors on afferent neurons of the cochlear nerve, part of cranial nerve
VIII. The hair cell transmitter depolarizes the afferent neuron. The greater the degree of
depolarization, the greater frequency of action potentials in the afferent neuron, which
therefore codes for the intensity of the sound.
The afferent neurons of the auditory nerve terminate in the c o c h l e a r n u c l e i in the

brainstem. From here, the auditory pathway can be complex. The simplified figure (be-
low), shows secondary neurons passing through the a u d i t o r y r e f l e x c e n t e r s o f t h e
i n f e r i o r c o l l i c u l i and synapsing with third-order neurons that travel to a nucleus of
the t h a l a m u s called the m e d i a l g e n i c u l a t e b o d y . In the medial geniculate body, the
third-order neurons form synapses with quaternary neurons that transmit information
to the a u d i t o r y c o r t e x in the temporal lobe, resulting in the conscious recognition of
sound.
To simplify the auditory pathway: 1.) hair cell receptors synapse with a cochlear branch
of the vestibulocochlear nerve. 2.) These fibers then terminate in the cochlear nucleus
and synapse with secondary neurons that ascend to the inferior colliculus. 3.) Tertiary
neurons extend to the thalamus and synapse with 4.) quaternary neurons that project
into the auditory cortex. Note that the overall path length of the auditory pathway is
relatively short because the inner ear is proximal to the temporal lobe of the brain, and
relatively little additional cortical processing is required for the conscious recognition of
auditory stimulus (short pathway, few synapses).
In this laboratory, we will examine the reaction times for auditory and visual responses
to stimulus. The reaction time is simply the time required for processing between a vis-
ual or auditory stimulus and a response.. We can compare this information to our
anatomy knowledge of the number of synapses in a pathway, and the path length, to
determine what type of information is processed faster by the human body. Reaction
time measurements will be taken from an individual subjected to harmless visual and
sound stimuli. In addition, the effect of priming and prediction may be examined.
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F i g u r e 3 . The ascending auditory pathway. Figure from The

Open University.
Laboratory Methods for iWorx
Auditory and Visual Reaction Times Methods
S et-Up:
Turn on
•Previous: the iWorx box.
Human-Human Interface
• C l i c k on the We e k 8 S e tt i n g s f i l e i n t h e P- D r i v e . (Click “this PC” and double
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click the Biol 256L Course Materials P Drive under “Network Locations). If you
have trouble finding the file, it is also in the Week 08 Materials Link cybox folder.
• S a v e this file to your Desktop Folder.
Exercise 1: Reaction Time and Visual Cues
A i m : To m e a s u r e t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e of a subject to a V I S U A L C U E .
Procedure
�� R E A D A L L M E T H O D S carefully before beginning to record.

�� Information for the S U B J E C T :
• Instruct the subject to sit in a chair and face the computer screen.
• He or she should position a hand on the keyboard in a manner that enables the
subject to push the F 1 k e y as quickly as possible.
• Watch the R I G H T S I D E of the computer screen and quickly press the F 1 key on
the keyboard when the signal generated by the event marker first appears.
��Previous:
C l i c k on the R E C O R D button.
Human-Human Interface
�� Ty p e < S u b j e c t ’ s N a m e > V i s u a l C u e s in the M a r k b ox to the right of the M a r k
b u tt o n . Press the E n t e r key to mark the recording.
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�� Instruct the subject to p r e s s t h e F 1 k e y to mark the recording a s s o o n a s h e o r

s h e s e e s the visual cue on the Ri g h t side of the computer screen (Methods Figure
1).
�� Instruct the subject that the exercise has begun and that a visual cue could appear
on the screen at any time.
�� Use the event marker to deliver t e n visual cues to the subject. The cues should not
be l e s s t h a n f i v e s e c o n d s n o r m o r e t h a n t e n s e c o n d s a p a r t . Just follow the
pink or blue T i m e C u e C a r d u s i n g t h e p r o v i d e d t i m e r.
�� A ft e r t h e t e n t h cue, click S t o p to halt recording.
�� Select S a v e A s in the File menu, type a name for the file. Choose a destination on
the computer in which to save the Data File, like your lab group folder. C l i c k on
the S a v e b u tt o n to save the data file.
Methods Figure 1. Three visual cues, each followed by the subject’s response, are
displayed on the Main window. Each visual cue is made by pushing the button of
the EM-100 event marker momentarily; each response mark is made by the subject
pushing the F1 key on the keyboard. Three visual cues, each followed by the
subject’s response, are displayed on the Main window. Each visual cue is made by
pushing the button of the EM-100 event marker momentarily; each response mark
is made by the subject pushing the F1 key on the keyboard.
Data Analysis Next: The Electromyogram
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�� S c r o l l t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of the data recorded for Exe r c i s e 1 to display the first

trial on the Main window.
�� If you stay on the Main Window screen to gather data, look to the right-hand cor-
ner of the screen for T 2-T 1 = m s e c for your time data.
�� Use the mouse to click on and drag a c u r s o r to the O N S E T of the s i g n a l u s e d a s
t h e v i s u a l c u e . Drag the other c u r s o r over the mark made by the subject ( F 1 ) .
See Methods Figure 2.
�� Once the cursors are placed in the correct positions for determining the reaction
time, r e c o r d t h e va l u e f o r T 2-T 1 o n y o u r L a b Re p o r t Wo r k s h e e t .
�� Once the reaction time in the first trial is measured and recorded, move to the data
from the s e c o n d t r i a l .
�� Use the same techniques used in Steps 2 through 4 to measure the reaction times
from the other eight trials.
�� Once the reaction times in all ten trials have been measured and recorded, d i s c a r d
t h e l o n g e s t and s h o r t e s t t i m e s from the data set, and determine the a v e r a g e
o f t h e e i g h t remaining reaction times. Re c o r d t h e m e a n r e a c t i o n t i m e f o r t h i s
e x e r c i s e i n t h e t a b l e o n y o u r L a b Re p o r t .
M e t h o d s F i g u r e 2 . A visual cue, followed by the subject’s response, are displayed

on the Analysis window. The two cursors are positioned at the beginning of the
visual cue and on the mark for measurement of the subject’s reaction time (T2-T1) in
this trial.
10 of 14 12/22/2022, 11:42 PM
Exercise 2: Reaction Time and Auditory Cues
A i m : To measure the reaction time of a subject to an AUDITORY CUE.
Procedure
�� Position the subject to p r e v e n t h e r / h i m f r o m s e e i n g a n y s i g n a l o n t h e s c r e e n

as a visual cue. Have the subject sit with their back to the screen and the com-
puter key board within reach.
�� Instruct the subject to:
• Sit in a chair in front of the computer keyboard.

• Position a hand on the keyboard in a manner that enables the subject to push the
F 1 key as quickly as possible.
• L i s t e n for the c l i c k ( s o u n d ) of the e v e n t m a r k e r as an experimenter presses the
button and then p r e s s t h e F 1 k e y a s q u i c k l y a s p o s s i b l e . (O
Ou t o f s i g h t o f t h e
s u b j e c t , the experimenter taps the button of the event marker to create the audi-
tory cue that is recorded as a signal on the Reaction Time channel. Make sure the
student with the event marker in no way making contact with the student being
tested.) In this exercise, the subject will perform t e n trials.
�� C l i c k on the R E C O R D button.
�� Type A u d i t o r y C u e s a n d S u b j e c t ’ s N a m e i n t h e M a r k b o x that is to the right of
the Mark button and click E n t e r.
�� Instruct the subject that the exercise has begun and that an auditory cue could be
heard at any time.
�� Use the event marker to d e l i v e r t e n a u d i t o r y c u e s to the subject. Follow the
times on the T i m e C a r d (pink or blue, using the timer). The cues should not be less
than five seconds nor more than ten seconds apart.
�� I n s t r u c t t h e s u b j e c t t o p r e s s t h e F 1 k e y to mark the recording a s s o o n a s h e
o r s h e h e a r s the auditory cue made from the clicking of the event marker.
�� A ft e r t h e t e n t h c u e , C l i c k S t o p to halt recording.
�� Select S AV E in the File menu.
Data Analysis Next: The Electromyogram
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�� M e a s u r e f r o m t h e O F F S E T t o F 1 t o m e a s u r e a n d r e c o r d t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e s
of the subject presented with auditory cues and all Auditory exercises from this
point forward.
�� E n t e r t h e m e a n r e a c t i o n t i m e for this exercise in the table on your L a b Re p o r t .
Exercise 3: Reaction Time and Prompted Auditory Cues
A i m : To m e a s u r e t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e of a subject to an a u d i t o r y c u e d e l i v e r e d i m -
m e d i a te l y A F T E R a ve r b a l p ro m pt .
Procedure
Re p e a t Exe r c i s e 2 with T H I S a d d i t i o n a l s t e p . B e f o r e each auditory cue is delivered,

t e l l t h e s u b j e c t t o G E T R E A DY to respond to the cue. It is best to use a o n e o r tw o
w o r d c u e directly before clicking the event marker button.
Data Analysis
�� Use the same technique explained in Exe r c i s e 2 to m e a s u r e a n d r e c o r d t h e r e -

a c t i o n t i m e s of the subject presented with prompted auditory cues.
�� Enter the mean reaction time for this exercise in the table on your Lab Report.
Exercise 4: Reaction Time and Predictable

Next:Auditory
The Electromyogram
12 of 14 12/22/2022, 11:42 PM
Cues
A i m : To m e a s u r e t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e of a subject to a u d i t o r y c u e s d e l i v e r e d a t a
p re d i c t a b l e i n t e r va l .
Procedure
Re p e a t Exe r c i s e 2 with a predictable interval of F I V E S E C O N D S between each audi-

tory cue. U s e t h e W H I T E t i m e c a r d a n d t h e t i m e r.
Data Analysis
�� Use the s a m e t e c h n i q u e e x p l a i n e d i n Exe r c i s e 2 to measure and record the re-

action times of the subject presented with predictable auditory cues.
�� Enter the mean reaction time for this exercise in Table HN-1-L1 on your Lab report.
LICENSE SHARE THIS BOOK
Please cite:
Haen Whitmer, K.M. (2021). A Mixed Course-Based Research Approach to Human

Physiology. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Digital Press. https://iastate.press-
A Mixed Course-Based Research
books.pub/curehumanphysiology/
Approach to Human Physiology by
Karri Haen Whitmer is licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike 4.0 International License,
except where otherwise noted.

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A MIXED COURSE-BASED RESEARCH APPROACH TO HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

F i g u r e 1 . A cross-section of the spinal cord showing the single synapse

Visual and Auditory Re�exes & Reaction Times

vestibule due to sound or pressure waves; or of chemicals, as in our sense of smell or

Neural Pathways for Vision

Next: The Electromyogram

Neural Pathways for Sound

Sound, or disturbances in the distribution of air molecules, is converted into pressure

hair cell receptors.

The afferent neurons of the auditory nerve terminate in the c o c h l e a r n u c l e i in the

Previous: Human-Human Interface

Next: The Electromyogram

F i g u r e 3 . The ascending auditory pathway. Figure from The

Laboratory Methods for iWorx

Auditory and Visual Reaction Times Methods

Exercise 1: Reaction Time and Visual Cues

�� R E A D A L L M E T H O D S carefully before beginning to record.

�� Instruct the subject to p r e s s t h e F 1 k e y to mark the recording a s s o o n a s h e o r

Previous: Human-Human Interface

Data Analysis Next: The Electromyogram

�� S c r o l l t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of the data recorded for Exe r c i s e 1 to display the first

M e t h o d s F i g u r e 2 . A visual cue, followed by the subject’s response, are displayed

Next: The Electromyogram

Exercise 2: Reaction Time and Auditory Cues

A i m : To measure the reaction time of a subject to an AUDITORY CUE.

�� Position the subject to p r e v e n t h e r / h i m f r o m s e e i n g a n y s i g n a l o n t h e s c r e e n

• Sit in a chair in front of the computer keyboard.

Data Analysis Next: The Electromyogram

Exercise 3: Reaction Time and Prompted Auditory Cues

Re p e a t Exe r c i s e 2 with T H I S a d d i t i o n a l s t e p . B e f o r e each auditory cue is delivered,

�� Use the same technique explained in Exe r c i s e 2 to m e a s u r e a n d r e c o r d t h e r e -

Exercise 4: Reaction Time and Predictable

Re p e a t Exe r c i s e 2 with a predictable interval of F I V E S E C O N D S between each audi-

�� Use the s a m e t e c h n i q u e e x p l a i n e d i n Exe r c i s e 2 to measure and record the re-

Haen Whitmer, K.M. (2021). A Mixed Course-Based Research Approach to Human

Previous: Human-Human Interface

Guides and Tutorials | Pressbooks Directory | Contact

Previous: Human-Human Interface

Next: The Electromyogram

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