light waves, making the plant appear green.
ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY
Light-dependent reactions
vs. light-independent reactions
While there are many steps behind the process of
photosynthesis, it can be broken down into two
major stages: light-dependent reactions and light-
independent reactions. The light-dependent
reaction takes place within the thylakoid
membrane and requires a steady stream of
sunlight, hence the name light-dependent reaction.
The chlorophyll absorbs energy from the light
waves, which is converted into chemical energy in
the form of the molecules ATP and NADPH.
The light-independent stage, also known as the Calvin
Cycle, takes place in the stroma, the space between
the thylakoid membranes and the chloroplast
membranes, and does not require light, hence the
name light- independent reaction. During this stage,
energy from the ATP and NADPH molecules is used to
assemble carbohydrate molecules, like glucose, from
carbon dioxide.
Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis.
The process is carried out by plants, algae,
and some types of bacteria, which capture
energy from sunlight to produce oxygen (O2)
and chemical energy stored in glucose (a
sugar).
Herbivores then obtain this energy by
eating plants, and carnivores obtain it by
eating herbivores.
The process
During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) from the air
and soil. Within the plant cell, the water is
oxidized, meaning it loses electrons, while the
carbon dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains
electrons. This transforms the water into
oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose.
The plant then releases the oxygen back into
the air, and stores energy within the glucose
molecules.
Chlorophyll
Inside the plant cell are small organelles
called chloroplasts, which store the
energy of sunlight. Within the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplast is a light-
absorbing pigment called chlorophyll,
which is responsible for giving the plant
its green color. During photosynthesis,
chlorophyll absorbs energy from blue-
and red-light waves, and reflects green-
 STEM 11
JOHN ANDREW D. GAMBOA

PHOTOSYNTHESI
S
Photosynthesis is the
process by which
plants use sunlight,
water, and carbon
dioxide to create
oxygen and energy in
the form of sugar.
 Infrastructure
dams and embankments—if dispersible soils
are not compacted properly during
construction, air voids occur. Water can
easily get into these void spaces and cause
dispersion of the surrounding soil. Small
‘pipes’ can form which quickly develop into
tunnels. This has been known to cause
piping and bank failure within a few hours
when a new dam is filled for the first time.
road and tracks—bitumen and concrete
readily produce runoff. To build roads, the
land has to be disturbed, so erosion and
siltation can occur if special stabilising
techniques are not used.
urban developments—can cause severe soil
erosion if the land is unsuitable to be built
on and developments run through existing
drainage lines.
mining and exploration activities—
interfere with the natural drainage of the
landscape which can cause erosion and
siltation of waterways. Mining exploration
requires the development of hundreds of
kilometres of tracks and roads from which
vegetation is cleared, leaving the soil
more vulnerable to erosion.
Ways to prevent both
Don't leave soils bare. A bare soil is particularly vulnerable Downstream
Adapt tillage practices. Soil tillage (digging,
stirring and overturning it) is one of the most practised methods
Watch out for overgrazing. ...
Consider terracing steep slopes. ...
Grow a buffer strip.
Impacts of erosion
All soils can suffer erosion but some are more STEM 11
vulnerable than others. Soils with dispersible
subsoils, for example, are subject to serious
erosion by tunnelling and gully formation.
JOHN ANDREW D. GAMBOA
Understanding the type of soil and how prone
it is to erosion can help avoid problems in
agriculture and on waterways and
infrastructure.
Agriculture
Soil erosion removes valuable top soil which is
the most productive part of the soil profile for
agricultural purposes. The loss of this top soil
results in lower yields and higher production
costs.
reduced ability of the soil to store water
and nutrients
exposure of subsoil, which often has poor
physical and chemical properties
higher rates of runoff, shedding water and
nutrients otherwise used for crop growth IMPACTS OF
EROSION AND LAND
loss of newly planted crops
deposits of silt in low-lying areas.
SLIDES
The impact of a landslide
can be extensive,
Waterways
including loss of life,
to erosion. ...
effects of soil erosion include: destruction of
siltation of watercourses and water
of preparing the land for growing
storages reduction in water quality of crops.
infrastructure,
...
damage
creeks, rivers and coastal areas. to land and loss of
Eroded soil, which can contain nutrients, natural resources.
fertilisers and herbicides or pesticides, can be
deposited where there is a reduction in the Landslide material can
slope of the land. This can be in sediment also block rivers and
traps, along contour banks, or in grassed
waterways, dams or wetlands. increase the risk of
floods.