STEM 11
ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY 
Light-dependent reactions
vs. light-independent reactions
While there are many steps behind the process of
photosynthesis, it can be broken down into two
major stages: light-dependent reactions and light-
independent reactions. The light-dependent
reaction takes place within the thylakoid
membrane and requires a steady stream of
sunlight, hence the name light-dependent reaction.
The chlorophyll absorbs energy from the light
waves, which is converted into chemical energy in
the form of the molecules ATP and NADPH.
The light-independent stage, also known as
the Calvin Cycle, takes place in the stroma,
the space between the thylakoid membranes
and the chloroplast membranes, and does
not require light, hence the name light-
independent reaction. During this stage,
energy from the ATP and NADPH molecules
is used to assemble carbohydrate molecules,
like glucose, from carbon dioxide.
Most life on Earth depends on photosynthesis. JOHN ANDREW D. GAMBOA
The process is carried out by plants, algae, and
some types of bacteria, which capture energy
from sunlight to produce oxygen (O2) and
chemical energy stored in glucose (a sugar).
Herbivores then obtain this energy by eating
plants, and carnivores obtain it by eating
herbivores.
The process
During photosynthesis, plants take in carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) from the air and
soil. Within the plant cell, the water is oxidized,
meaning it loses electrons, while the carbon
dioxide is reduced, meaning it gains electrons.
This transforms the water into oxygen and the
carbon dioxide into glucose. The plant then
releases the oxygen back into the air, and stores
energy within the glucose molecules.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis is the
Inside the plant cell are small organelles process by which plants
called chloroplasts, which store the energy use sunlight, water, and
of sunlight. Within the thylakoid
membranes of the chloroplast is a light-
carbon dioxide to create
absorbing pigment called chlorophyll, oxygen and energy in the
which is responsible for giving the plant its form of sugar.
green color. During photosynthesis,
chlorophyll absorbs energy from blue- and
red-light waves, and reflects green-light
waves, making the plant appear green.
 Infrastructure
dams and embankments—if dispersible soils
are not compacted properly during
construction, air voids occur. Water can
easily get into these void spaces and cause
dispersion of the surrounding soil. Small
‘pipes’ can form which quickly develop into
tunnels. This has been known to cause piping
and bank failure within a few hours when a
new dam is filled for the first time.
road and tracks—bitumen and concrete
readily produce runoff. To build roads, the
land has to be disturbed, so erosion and
siltation can occur if special stabilising
techniques are not used.
urban developments—can cause severe soil
erosion if the land is unsuitable to be built on
and developments run through existing
drainage lines.
mining and exploration activities—interfere
with the natural drainage of the landscape
which can cause erosion and siltation of
waterways. Mining exploration requires the
development of hundreds of kilometres of
tracks and roads from which vegetation is
cleared, leaving the soil more vulnerable to
erosion.
Ways to prevent both
Waterways
1. Don't leave soils bare. A bare soil is
particularly vulnerable to erosion. ...
2. Adapt tillage practices. Soil tillage (digging,
stirring and overturning it) is one of the most
practised methods of preparing the land for
growing crops. ...
3. Watch out for overgrazing. ...
4. Consider terracing steep slopes. ...
5. Grow a buffer strip.
Impacts of erosion
All soils can suffer erosion but some are more STEM 11
vulnerable than others. Soils with dispersible
subsoils, for example, are subject to serious
erosion by tunnelling and gully formation.
JOHN ANDREW D. GAMBOA
Understanding the type of soil and how prone it
is to erosion can help avoid problems in
agriculture and on waterways and
infrastructure.
Agriculture
Soil erosion removes valuable top soil which is
the most productive part of the soil profile for
agricultural purposes. The loss of this top soil
results in lower yields and higher production
costs.
reduced ability of the soil to store water and
nutrients
exposure of subsoil, which often has poor
physical and chemical properties
higher rates of runoff, shedding water and
IMPACTS OF EROSION
nutrients otherwise used for crop growth
loss of newly planted crops
deposits of silt in low-lying areas.
AND LAND SLIDES
The impact of a landslide
can be extensive,
including loss of life,
destruction of
Downstream effects of soil erosion include: infrastructure, damage to
siltation of watercourses and water storages
reduction in water quality of creeks, rivers
land and loss of natural
and coastal areas. resources. Landslide
Eroded soil, which can contain nutrients,
fertilisers and herbicides or pesticides, can be
material can also block
deposited where there is a reduction in the rivers and increase the
slope of the land. This can be in sediment traps,
along contour banks, or in grassed waterways,
risk of floods.
dams or wetlands.