Ryerson University - PCS 130

Absorption of Gamma Rays

Introduction
In this experiment, the absorption coefficient of gamma rays passing through several mate-
rials is studied. The materials will be compared to one another on their efficacy on blocking
gamma rays.
Gamma rays are created by processes that occur in radioactive nuclei. In this lab, the
two sources of gamma rays will come from the radioisotopes 137 Cs and 60 Co.
The dose received from the sources used in this lab, at arms length away, and for the duration
of the lab, are well below the 1mSv per year limit for the public outlined by Canadian
Radiation Protection Regulations. Although the activity of the sources in this lab are quite
low, they are still radioactive and radiation precautions must be taken. Minimizing exposure
time and maximizing distance from the source is important. A few safety things to note:

• There a strict sign-in sign-out policy. Please follow this policy.

• Do not attempt to break their plastic containers.

• Handle them only with the tongs provided.

• The sources should either be in the sample loading area or in the lead safe. No sources
should be left on the tables.

• Make sure you do not inadvertantly take them. This will be bad for both you and the
department. (It’s happened...)

• Lead is a toxic metal and is also used in this lab. Be sure to wash your hands imme-
diately after the lab and ABSOLUTELY NO FOOD DURING THIS LAB.

Gamma rays are very penetrating due to their high energy and lack of electric charge.
However, when they do interact with matter they do so in one of three possible processes.
The first possibility is the photoelectric process in which the gamma rays interact with
electrons initially bound to an atom to eject an electron from the atom. The second pos-
sibility is the Compton process in which the gamma rays make collisions with the free
electrons in an absorbing material. The third possibility can only occur if the gamma rays
have energies over 1.022 MeV. In this process the gamma ray interacts in the electromag-
netic field of an atomic nucleus to materialize itself as an electron-positron pair known as
pair production. Regardless of which process takes place, the gamma ray is considered
absorbed if it has interacted with a material (and ceases to be a gamma ray).
In general, we can express the absorption of the number of gamma rays n through a
medium of thickness x in differential form as:

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dn
= −µn (1)
dx
Here, µ is defined as the linear absorption (attenuation) coefficient as it is an indication
of how easy (or hard) gamma rays are absorbed by the material. Using this differential, the
number of unabsorbed rays is derived to be:

n = n0 e−µx (2)
We note that n0 is the activity of the source without any absorbers.

Apparatus
• Spectech ST-160 Nuclear Lab Station • 60
Co Radiation Source

• Lead Plates (4) • 137

Cs Radiation Source

• Aluminium Plates (4) • Source Holder

• Copper Plates (4) • Absorber Holder

• Micrometer • Radiation Source Log Book

Spectech ST-160 Nuclear Lab Station

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Spectech ST-160
The Spectech ST-160 station allows for you to detect gamma rays via a Geiger-Muller tube
located at the top of the sample loading area in the lower right. Please do not touch the
tube as the mica window is very thin and fragile. The top interface has a digital
display along with several buttons with indicator lights above them. Here is an outline of
how each works.

1.) COUNT - When you press this button, the indicator light with turn on and will
begin counting the number of gamma rays for a period of time defined by the TIME
setting. When the time has elapsed, the indicator light will turn off. The count will
be displayed on the digital display.

2.) STOP - Hitting this button will interrupt any COUNT action.

3.) H.V. [High Voltage] - This button allows you to set the voltage across the Geiger-
Muller tube using the UP and DOWN buttons. Make sure that COUNT is off
when you adjust this button.

4.) TIME - This button allows you to set the duration (in seconds) which the Geiger-
Muller tube detects gamma rays using the UP and DOWN buttons. Make sure that
COUNT is off when you adjust this button.

Pre-Lab Questions
Submit your answers to the pre-lab questions on D2L prior to the beginning of your lab
session and before doing the lab. Your lab teaching assistant may review these questions
with you during your lab session. Note: Pre-lab questions are to be submitted individually.

1.) Read through the entire lab writeup before beginning.

2.) Why are gamma rays much more penetrating compared with other types of radiation?

3.) Derive Eqn. 2 from Eqn. 1. Include a comment in the derivation as to why there is a
negative sign in Eqn. 1.

4.) The mass absorption coefficient is defined as µρ where ρ is the density of the material.
What does this property mean and why is it useful? Hint: Consider a situation where
you have to design a system that absorbs a specific amount of gamma rays.

5.) What would you expect the linear coefficient of absorption values of Aluminium, Cop-
per and Lead to compare to one another. Would you expect the same relation between
the mass absorption coefficients?

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Procedure
It is highly recommended to record your data in a spreadsheet file as you will
need to do several calculations that are tedious to do by hand. Data collection
for this experiment will take roughly an hour, while you wait you can start
analyzing your first sets of data.

1.) Turn on the station (red button on the back) and set H.V. to 360 V, and TIME to
60 s.

2.) Sign out a 137 Cs source from your TA and make sure you record the source as well as
the time you signed it out.

3.) Place the source with the yellow label side down on a source holder (plastic tray)
and insert it several levels below the geiger tube in the sample loading area.

4.) Place the absorber holder (plastic sheet with hole in centre) at the top of the sample
loading area. It should be located as close to the detector as possible. You may however
need to position it down one level depending on how many absorbers you are currently
using.

5.) Using no absorbers, determine the activity of the source by measuring the number
of radiation events (over 60 s) by hitting COUNT. Record this number and repeat 2
more times. Note: with TIME and COUNT on, the display will show elapsed
time and not the number of radiation events. To fix this make sure TIME
is off.

6.) Check to make sure that you have an activity over 1000 (events over 60 s). If this is
not the case, you may have to move your source up a few levels. If you are still unable
to obtain this, notify your TA, sign in your original source and sign out a new source.

7.) Select a lead sheet, and measure and record the thickness using a micrometer. Note:
Lead is quite soft, be careful that you aren’t crushing it with the microm-
eter.

8.) Place the sheet of lead on the absorber holder and make 3 measurements as you have
done above. Repeat this for increasing layers of lead, up to 4, making sure to record
each thickness.

9.) Repeat this whole process using copper, and then aluminum. Note: you won’t need
to remeasure the unblocked count again
137 60
10.) Return the Cs source and record it in the log book. Sign out a Co source.

11.) Repeat the measurement using lead only. Note: this time you will need to re-
measure the unblocked count as you’ve changed your source

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60
12.) Return the Co source and record it in the log book.

13.) Lastly, measure the background radiation by having a completely empty sample loading
area. Be sure to take the measurement 3 times.

14.) Set H.V. to zero and turn off the station.

Analysis
1.) Determine the average of each of your measurements as well as uncertainty. Here
since we’ve taken 3 measurements, you can determine uncertainty statistically. See
Introduction to Measurement Uncertainty and Error Analysis in the lab section of the
D2L course shell.

2.) Next, correct for background radiation by subtracting that value from all other mea-
surements. Be sure to propagate uncertainty.

3.) In a single plot, graph the natural logarithm of the average counts/min against the
absorber thickness in centimetres for each material used with the 137 Cs source. Be sure
to label each set of data properly.

4.) Add error bars to your data by once again propagating uncertainty.

5.) Apply a linear fit and determine the linear absorption coefficients for each material.
Does it fit within your calculated error?

6.) From Eqn. 2, Derive the linear equation used in the plots identifying each component.

7.) Look up the densities of the absorbing materials used.

8.) Divide each of their linear absorption coefficients by the appropriate density in g/cm3 .
The result is called the mass absorption coefficient. Compare the results for each
absorber. Are they as you expected?
137 60
9.) Generate a plot comparing the results for lead using Cs and Co. Comment on the
differences.

Last Few Steps

1.) Save any data/plots (in any format) with an easily identifiable name.

2.) Submit your data file to your group submission folder on D2L.

3.) Once this is complete and are certain that the data is saved, restart the computer when
all experiments are completed.

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4.) Tidy up your work station by returning the sources and tidying the metal plates
used ensuring the station is ready for your fellow students in other sections.

5.) Wash your hands after you have completed all these tasks.

Lab Report
Summarize the data in the form of a lab report. Your lab report should contain the following
sections: Abstract, Rationale and Purpose, Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusions.

Abstract
The abstract should be a single paragraph (e.g. 5 to 8 sentences) that concisely summarizes
the purpose, methods,results and conclusions of your study.

Rationale and Purpose

This section should give a brief background of the relevant physical concepts, including
equations if necessary, and should clearly state the purpose. This section should be no more
than two paragraphs.

Methods
This section needs to include a description of methods for data acquisition and analysis. You
need to describe the following:

• materials
• methods for data acquisition
• explanation of any mathematical operations applied to the data
• error estimation
• curve fitting
• any assumptions that have been made

Results and Discussion

This section must include tables of all of the acquired data, in addition to any plots of the
data. It should also present the results of any curve fitting both graphically and in the form
of equations, and should include discussions of how well the models fit the data. This section
should also include a concise discussion of the results in the context of the relevant physics
and any experimental limitations that may have affected your results.

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Conclusions
This section should be less than 5 sentences and should include a concise statement of the
conclusions drawn from your experiment.

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