Big Bang Theory

Cosmology
Is a branch of astronomy that involves the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big Bang to
today and on into the future.

— 3 cosmic stages

• BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: Formed the light elements (H, He, and Li)
• STELLAR FORMATION AND EVOLUTION: Formed the elements heavier than Be to Fe.
• STELLAR EXPLOSION, or SUPERNOVA: Formed the elements heavier than Fe.

Big Bang Theory

• It also explain how the elements were initially formed in nuclear reactions, including fusion, fission and
radioactive decay.
• Part of its proof is the amounts of H (hydrogen) and He (helium)we have in the universe today.

BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

• STAGE 1: Singularity — a point with all of space, time, matter and energy.
• STAGE 2: Inflation — All of it then begun to rapidly expand. Space itself expanded faster
than the speed of light.
• STAGE 3: Annihilation — In this still hot and dense mass of the universe, pairs of matter
and antimatter (quarks and anti quarks) were formed from energy, but these pairs canceled
each other back into energy.
• STAGE 4: Nucleosynthesis — The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of
matter (electrons, protons, neutrons and other particles) somehow came to be a highly
energetic “plasma soup”. Protons and neutrons came together to form different types of nuclei
this.
• STAGE 5: Recombination — electrons started to bind to ionized protons and nuclei
forming neutral atoms.

STELLAR FORMATION AND EVOLUTION

• The cloud of hydrogen and helium gases condensed to form STARS. (including the Sun)
• Over millions of years, the stars made of hydrogen become hotter and denser.
• NUCLEAR REACTIONS continued, which produced elements heavier than Lithium.
• The light elements combined to form atoms of Carbon, Neon, Oxygen, Silicon, and Iron.
• Outer shell until the core of the star: (in order)
Hydrogen
Helium
Berylium
Carbon
Neon
Oxygen
Silicon
Nickle
Iron (most stable nuclei and the final stage of a star wherein can’t undergo nuclear fusion)
• young star (yellow) — red giant star
• Fusion Shells — involved the formation of each new element happened in a regions/layer.
• As more elements were produced, new layers added up to the size of the star until it become
a red giant star.
• As layer increases, the density of the star increases.

STELLAR EXPLOSION OR SUPERNOVA

• released a huge amount of nuclear energy and produced, through neutron capture and
radioactive decay– other elements heavier than iron.
• All these elements, along with fragments of the star during supernova, were released into the
vast space and gradually condensed to form the different planets like Earth, new stars, and
other heavenly bodies.

EVIDENCES IN BIG BANG MODEL

• was first expressed in the early 1900’s, when Edwin Hubble offered an explanation that the
universe is expanding.
• Hubble’s Law: is a statement of a direct correlation between the redshift.

• 1st piece — Light of other galaxies is found to be REDSHIFTED (Light looks “stretched”)
tells us how fast the universe is expanding.
• 2nd — relatively abundance of light elements. Astronomers believed that after the big bang,
the universe was composed of approximately 74% (by mass) HYDROGEN, 24% HELIUM
(2H), and 2 % traces of amounts of LITHIUM.
• 3rd — cosmic microwave background. The remnant energy (thermal radiation) as a result of
recombination. Remaining radiation the began to scatter. This is seen by scientists as a faint
microwave glow of emitted by any object in space.

BIG BANG WAS NOT AN EXPLOSION. IT IS SUPERNOVA!!

BIG BANG REFERS TO THE RAPID INFLATION OF SPACE ITSELF.

ATOMS
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN ATOMIC THEORY

ATOM: basic unit of matter & the building blocks of matter. NOT THE SMALLEST!

GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
 Leucippus of Melitus
 Democritus of Abdera — He named the smallest piece of matter “atomos,” meaning “not
to be cut.” The Greek word “atomos” means “indivisible” or “uncuttable”. Small, hard
particles, can’t see through naked eye. Always moving & capable of joining together.

Claims:
• They were both called Physicist of Ancient Greece.
• They considered the idea of ATOMISM.
• Idea that things are made up of so much smaller things that cannot be change nor divided.
• This theory was ignored & forgotten for more than 2000 years.

 Aristotle — very famous Greek philosopher who believed that matter could be divided
into smaller and smaller pieces forever.
— developed a theory that all matter consisted of four elements namely, fire, earth,
air, and water. These four elements are related based on “four principles of matter”, these are
the hot, the moist, dry and cold.

Alchemists:
• Groups of people who practiced an art which is now known as alchemy.
• made potions out of plants and other natural products.
• They used these potions to cure illnesses such as coughs and colds and treatment of wounds
and other skin irregularities.
• They tried to create a potion that will make them immortal known as the sorcerer’s stone,
which will make them immortal and will turn ordinary metals into gold.

 Robert Boyle, Hendry Cavendish, Joseph Priestly — The legacy of creating potions (by
extractions, distillations and other common laboratory practices) was inherited by
experimental naturalists towards the end of the middle ages. The tools and apparatus
used by these alchemists, together with their analytical methods are now the ones used
by modern day chemists.

CONCRETE ATOMIC THEORY

— concrete means there is evidences

 John Dalton — Dalton’s Atomic Theory, the first experimentally based theory of atomic
structure of the atom.
Postulates:
• All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms.
• All the atoms of a particular element are identical, but the atoms of one element differ from
the atoms of any other element.
• Atoms of different element combine with each other in certain whole-number proportions to
form compounds.
• In a chemical reaction, atoms are rearranged to form new compounds.

John Dalton used the scanning tunneling microscope. He described these

particles as “very small with mass, solid sphere”

 Joseph John Thomson (JJ Thomson) — discovered that atoms were not just simple solid
spheres.
— Electrons were the first subatomic particles to be discovered using the cathode ray
tube, developed by Sir William Crookes.
— He called these particles electrons, from the word elektron (Greek for amber) first
used by William Gilbert in 1600.
— Thomson’s Model: plum pudding model, an atomic model in which electrons were
stuck into a positively charged sphere like chocolate chips in cookie dough. (mabilis
natanggal sa science dahil parang trip-trip lang daw)

 Ernest Rutherford: discovered alpha-particles, positively charged particles emitted from

radioactive elements.
— discovered nucleus
— GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT: nalaman gamit ito na ang gitna ng atom ay nucleus,
hindi empty space si atom at the mast of an atom depends on atom. Some alpha-particles pass
through & some are deflected.
 — ALPHA-SCATTERING EXPERIMENT: used to test JJ Thomson’s model.

DISCOVERY OF PROTON
 Eugen Goldstein — used the cathode ray tube that revealed the presence of positive
particles in an atom.
 Niels Bohr — believe that electrons in an atom exist in specific regions at various
distances from the nucleus. (umiikot ang electron sa nucleus)
— theorized that electrons had several possible orbits ( Energy level)
— energy of electron is said to be quantized
— When a hydrogen atom absorbed one or more quanta of energy, its electron would
“jump” to an orbit at a greater distance away from the nucleus. (excited state)
— When a atom released energy, its atom/electron would “jump” closer. (ground
state)
 Bohr atom — Bohr’s model has been known as the PLANETARY MODEL because it
compares electrons, the planets and the nucleus, the sun.

DISCOVERY OF NEUTRONS
— found inside the nucleus together with protons
 James Chadwick — showed that uncharged particles are emitted when atoms of
beryllium are bombarded with high velocity particles.
— a neutron has no charge (neutral)
— slightly mas mabigat sa protons

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

• atom — the basic structural unit of an element/matter.

• consist of three primary particles:
— Electrons: negative, discovered by JJ Thomson
— Protons: positive, discovered by
— neutrons: neutral, discovered by James Chadwick
— Nucleus: protons and neutrons, outside the nucleus is electrons, discovered by Ernest
Rutherford

PROTONS & MASS NO.

• atomic # (z): the no. Of protons in nucleus of the atom. Z = #p — Atomic # = # of protons
• An atom must have as many electrons as there are protons in its nucleus.
• The atomic number of an element also equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom of
that element.
Z = #P = #E — atomic # = # of Protons = # of electrons

• mass number (A) — The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
— Mass number = # protons + # neutrons
— # NEUTRONS = Atomic mass - # Protons

SUPERSCRIPT
 CHEMICAL BOND
— an electrical attraction between the nuclei and valence electrons of an atom and which
binds atoms together.
— Type of attraction is called Intramolecular force.
— Three types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic bond.

IONIC BOND
— Transfer of one or more valence electrons of an atom to another
— Bond between metal (loses electrons, low electronegativity) and non-metal elements (gains
electron, high electronegativity and attraction)
— Can be classified as polar ionic bond, dahil laging mataas ang kanilang electronegativity
— 8th octet rule
• Kung mas mataas ang proton sa isang ion magg-gain or dapat postive.
• Cation — positive.
• Positive — loose
• Anion — negative
• Negative — gains

• Polar — they shared and transfer unequal # of electrons

• Non-polar — they shared and transfer equal # of electrons

COVALENT BOND
— sharing of electron pair between atoms
— bond between both non-metals
— classified as polar covalent bond & non-polar covalent bond
— △EN: absolute value of the electronegativity difference
— high BP, high MP, high electronegativity, high attraction
— low electronegativity, low attraction

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself

• by simply calculating the difference in electronegativity of the atoms involved
• by subtracting the larger electronegativity value by the smaller one

Difference in Type of compound Polarity

electronegativity
• Greater than 1.8 IONIC POLAR

0.5 to 1.7 COVALENT POLAR

Less than 0.4 NON-POLAR
STEP 1: Find the electronegativity of each element in a compound given.
• STEP 2: Subtract the larger value of electronegativity to the least value of electronegativity.
• STEP 3: Then look at the table if what type of bond and polarity is the given compound.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC & COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Ionic compounds:
• solid substances with very high melting and boiling points
• high attraction, high BP, high MP
• readily dissolve in polar solvents such as water (polar solute) (ex. salt)
• excellent conductors of electricity due to the presence of dissociated ions which can carry
the electric charge
• they form geometric pattern called crystal lattice

Polar Covalent Compounds:

• low melting and boiling points relative to ionic compounds
• exist mostly as liquid and gases
• Polar covalent liquids are very good solvent for ionic compounds since both are polar in
nature. (ex. Water, sometimes called as universal solvent)

Non-Polar Covalent Compounds:

• those compounds having no electrically charged parts
• have lower melting and boiling points compared to polar covalent compounds
• no polarity, they cannot be used as solvent for ionic compounds or polar covalent
compounds (ex. Honey, oil, and gasoline)

LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE

POLAR + POLAR — MIX TOGETHER
NON P + NON P — MIX TOGETHER
POLAR + NON P — WILL NOT MIX

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION (IMF)

• exist between the molecules that comprise matter

• attraction between molecule to molecule.

4 TYPES:
• Ion to ion interaction — exist between oppositely charged ions. (Ionic compounds)
— strongest IMF
— Most ion-ion interaction is strong and compounds which have them a high melting
and boiling points.

• Dipole to dipole — Occurs between polar molecules.

— Due to partial positive pole and the partial negative pole of he molecule.
— The interaction is effective over a very short range.
— Weak IMF

• Hydrogen Bond — strong dipole-dipole interaction

— occurs in polar molecules containing H and any one of the highly electronegative
elements, in particular F, O, N.
— Unusually high boiling point and melting point of water.

• Dispersion / London Force — only force present in nonpolar molecules.

— Weakest and acts in very small distances.
— formed due to the attraction between the positively charged nucleus of an atom
with negatively charged electron cloud of nearby atom.
— A polar molecule can induce a temporary dipole in a nonpolar molecule by
temporarily attracting its electrons. This is called dipole-induced dipole.
 BIOMOLECULES

• The human body has 80% inorganic substance and 20& organic
• Biomolecules, aka Macro(big)molecules(substance), biological molecules
— building blocks of life (Protein, lipids, nucleic acid, and carbohydrates)

4 TYPES:
 Carbohydrates — Carbon, Hydrogen, and Osygen CH20
— sometimes called as “hydrates of carbon”
— highly polar molecules, can be dissolved & mixed on the water
— mono(one)saccharide(sugar), building block of carb. That’s why it’s rich in sugar,
cheapest source of energy

• Mono:
— Glucose: known as “grape sugar” & “blood sugar” convert into PYRUVATE. Can be
found in dextrose. Suagr level: 74
— Fructose: found in certain fruit juices & honey. Sweeter and more soluble than glucose.
Sweetest sugar, SL: 173
— Lactose: used in thickener in sauces & ice creams. Synthesized in the mammary glands.
SL: 32

• Disaccharides:
— Sucrose: glucose + fructose, found in regular sugar, sugar cane
— Maltose: glucose + glucose, found in malt
— Lactose: glucose + galactose, found in milk & dairy products

• Polysaccharides:
— Starch: storage form of glucose in plants
— Glycogen: storage form of glucose in animals, stored in the liver & muscles
— Cellulose (fiber): structural material in plants (cell wall)

 Lipids — all are non-polar molecular, non soluble in water but are soluble in non-polar
solvents like ether & other organic solvents
— “LIPOS” greek word means “fats”, can’t be dissolve and mix in water
— provides more energy than carb and protein
— insulates body temp. & signals in molecules
— can be found in fatty foods (algae, oil, butter, nuts, fats of fishes)
— fatty acids, its building blocks

• Energy storage lipids:

— aka TAG, Triacyl Glycerol
— classified as fats and oils (fats: bad fats, obtained from animal sources will become solid
on our body) (oil: good fats, obtained from plants, much better than fats/butter)
— naka-store sa ating body, ginagamit as energy
— adipocytes: special cells in the body where the fats and oils are stored
— Lipoproteins: very important in the transport of TAGS inside the body.
— High Density, HDL: good cholesterol, fats & cholesterol will move to the liver. Bile acid
from the liver
— Low Density, LDL: bad cholesterol, liver will transport fats to your other parts of the body
which is bad.
• Membraine Lipids:
— Glycerophospholipids: major components of cell membranes & cellular organelle
membraines. One of the most important.
— Sphingophospholipid: structural components of all membranes and the myelin sheath of
nerve cells and neuron, can be found on our brain.
— Sphingoglycolipids: occur primarily in brain cells (simple: Cerebrosides
complex: Gangliosides)
— Cholesterol: membrane lipid that is embedded inside the lipid bilayer.

• Messenger Lipids:
— cholesterol derivative that functions as agents (ang iba ay sumasama sa blood stream, ang
iba ay hindi)
— Steroid Hormones: sex and adrenorocorticoid hormones. (sumasama sa blood stream)
— Eicosanoid Hormones: hindi sumasama sa blood stream. Can’t be considered as the
hormones. Lumalabas kapag nakakaramdam ng trauma ang body.

• Emulsification Lipid:
— also called “bile acids”
— produced in the liver or gall bladder
— 2 important types: Cholic acids & Deoxycholic acids

• Protective Coat Lipids:

— “biological waxes”
— protective layer in the outer surface of plants and animals
— lubricant and protection on our skin

 Proteins — comprise most of the substances found in the body.

— PROTEIOS, greek word which means “first” because we all start in proteins.
— made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
— amino acids is the building blocks
— peptide bond (amino acids, whne joined together using this)
— sometimes called as POLYPEPTIDE

• Enzymes: to catalyze chemical reactions

• Lipase: helps in digestion of fats
• Pepsin: helps in breaking down proteins into peptides (smaller units)
• Sucrase: aka invertase, helps in digestion of sugars & starches.

• Structures:
— Primary: sequence of amino acids that are linked together. Single-starnd (silk)
— Secondary: Resulted from coiling or foiling of the polypeptide chain. (keratin)
— Tertiary: pinagsamang primary and secondary, called MYOGLOBIN (makes our muscles
and other parts of the body, color RED)
— Quarternary: highest level of protein structure, called globular protein. HEMOGLOBIN

 Nucleic Acid — Polymeric in nature

— found in our system and not on foods
— Nucleotides, its building blocks

2 TYPES:
— RNA: Ribonucleic acid, protein synthesis, gumagawa ng proteins sa ating katawan, single
strand.
— DNA: Genetic codes, Deoxyribonucleic acid, double strand

CHEMICAL REACTION

— a process with one or more substances are changed into diff. Substances (photosynthesis,
digestive system, and more) There’s alteration either to create or break a bond. Once ag-
endergo ng chem reaction, hindi na babalik sa dati.

2 PARTS:
• Reactants: original substances, chemical, will undergo chem reactions, usually on left sides.
• Products: the resulting substnaces. May bond na. They create water molecules.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

— a model is used to explain the behaviour matter.

— The particles are arranged according to what state the substance exists.
— Each of the particles in a certain substance possesses energy. (KE, Kinetic energy)
— KE of the particles increases as the temperature is increased.
— particles in a system transfer energy to each other through elastic collisions. Kinetic
molecular model. (lahat may KE, pero magkakaiba ng level)
— Explains the properties of solids and liquids in terms of IMF. (high IMF, low KE)

 SOLID :
— Packed closely together
— strongest force of attraction, mataas ang IMF
— can only vibrate in place
— lowest KE
— high force, low KE

 LIQUID:
— Molecules are loosely packed and have space in between
— strong force of attraction anf KE
— can make sliding motion past each other
— moderate IMF and KE

 GAS:
— Far from each other
— weakest or no considerable force of attraction
— strongest KE
— low IMF, high KE
HIGH KE, LOW VELOCITY (MOTION)
HIGH TEMP., HIGH KE
HIGH COLLISION (PARTICLES ARE GETTING EXCITED)
HIGH COLLISION, HIGH CHEM R.

COLLISION THEORY
— states that for reactions to occur, molecules, atoms, or ions must 1 st collide.
— proposed by Max Trautz in 1916 and William Lewis 1918.

2 Requirements:
• Reactant particles require sufficient energy to initiate successful collisions that will lead to
the formation of products. (have high, sufficient, enough energy)
• Particles that collide in the correct geometric orientation (position) will successfully form
products. (dapat ay sabay-sabay na magbanggaan)

Factors Affecting Reaction Rates:

• TEMPERATURE: As the temperature increases the velocity also increases. Thus, there will
be a faster chemical reaction. (high temp, high velocity, high rate of reaction) Directly
proportional
• CONCENTRATION OF REACTANTS: The larger the mass of the substance, the more
particles are present. (high concentration, high collision, high rate)
• PARTICLE SIZE: Decreasing particle size or increasing surface are results to faster reaction
rate. Inversely proportional.

Energy in the Chemical Reaction:

— Some reactions release more energy that they absorb; others absorb more energy than they
release.
— Its depends on bond energy- which is the energy associated with bond breaking or
formation.

2 Energy in chem reaction:

• Endothermic Reactions: inside/absorb heat/ energy

: Absorbs more energy than it releases.
: Products have higher energy than reactants.
: Chemical Equation: Reactants + energy → products
: cooler than surroundings

• Exothermic Reactions: outside/ release heat/energy

:Releases more energy than it absorbs.
: Products have lower bond energy than the reactants
: Chemical Equation: Reactants → products + energy
: hotter than surroundings