REVIEWER IN MATHEMATICS IN
MODERN WORLD – GNED 03
BINARY - the term binary means
consisting of two parts.
Binary Operations - a rule for
combining two values to produce a new
value.
A binary operation f(x, y) is an
operation that applies to two quantities
or expressions x and y. There are many
binary operations on real numbers.
Such operations take two real numbers
and create another real number.
On the set of real numbers R, f(a, b) = a
+ b is a binary operation since the sum
of two real numbers is a real number.
On the set of natural numbers N, f (a, b)
= a + b is a binary operation since the
sum of two natural numbers is a natural
number. This is a different binary
operation than the previous one since
the sets are different.
On the set M (2, 2) of 2 x 2 matrices
with real entries, f(A, B) = A + B is a
binary operation since the sum of two
such matrices is another 2 x 2 matrix.
Elementary Logic - Logic is the science
of formal principles of reasoning or
correct inference. Mathematical logic is
the study of reasoning in mathematics.
Mathematical reasoning is deductive,
meaning it consists of drawing
conclusions from given hypotheses.
In logic, an argument is defined as any
group of statements or propositions, one
of which is claimed to follow from the
others, which are then alleged to
provide basis for the truth of that one.
Formality - Formality is a relational
concept: an expression can be more or
less formal relative to another
expression, entailing an ordering of
expressions; yet, no expression can be
absolutely formal or absolutely informal.
A formal expression is completely formal
when it is context- independent, non-
fuzzy and precise, that is, it represents a
clear distinction which is invariant under
changes of context.
Mathematical Reasoning- enables a
student to use all other mathematical
skills.
Inductive reasoning- refers to the
process of making generalized
decisions after observing, and/or
witnessing repeated specific instances
of something.
The conclusion formed by using
inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.
Galileo Galilei (1564– 1642)- He used
inductive reasoning to discover that the
time required for a pendulum to
complete one swing, called the period of
the pendulum
Deductive reasoning
refers to the process of taking the
information gathered from general
observations and making specific
decisions based on that information the
process of reaching a conclusion by
applying general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.
deductive reasoning- Some logic
puzzles can be solved by using
deductive reasoning and a chart that
enables us to display the given
information in a visual manner.
INDUCTIVE REASONING- specific to
general, proofs done in this manner are
not always true.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING- general to
specific, proofs done in this manner are
always true.
POLYA’S FOUR STEP TO PROBLEM
SOLVING
- Understand the problem
- Devise a plan
- Carry out the plan
- Look back
Measurement scales- nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio
Nominal level of measurement-
classifies data into mutually exclusive
(non-overlapping) categories in which
no order or ranking can be imposed on
the data.
Ordinal level of measurement-
classifies data into categories that can
be ranked; however, precise differences
between the ranks do not exist
Interval level of measurement- ranks
data, and precise differences between
units of measure do exist; however,
there is no meaningful zero
Ratio level of measurement-
possesses all the characteristics of
interval measurement, and there exists
a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist
when the same variable is measured on
two different members of the population.
DATA IS OFTEN COLLECTED VIA
SURVEYS
- Telephone Surveys
- Mailed Questionnaire
- Personal Interview
- Internet Survey
Sampling Techniques- Researchers
use samples to collect data and
information about a particular variable
from a population. Samples save time,
money, and may actually allow a
researcher to collect better information.
Samples need to be representative of
the population or they are meaningless
in drawing conclusions about the
population. Sampling must be done in a
way that the samples are unbiased—
that each subject in the population has
an equal chance of being in the sample.
- Random sampling- everyone or
everything from the population
has the same chance of being
selected for the sample.
- Systematic sampling- selects
every kth subjects
 - Convenience sampling- select
subjects that are convenient for
the researcher.
- Stratified sampling- divide
population into groups (called
strata)
- Cluster sampling- divides
population into group called
cluster by some means such as
geographic area, school district,
etc.
Observational study- the researcher
merely observes what is happening or
what has happened in the past and tries
to draw conclusions based on these
observations.
Experimental study- the researcher
manipulates one of the variables and
tries to determine how the manipulation
influences other variables.
Experiments have at least two
groups:
Treatment Group- the group(s) in the
sample that receives a treatment or
experimental condition.
Control Group- the group in the sample
that is treated identically in all respects
to the treatment group EXCEPT that
they don’t receive the active treatment.
Placebo- a treatment that looks like a
real drug but has no active ingredient
Placebo Effect- when people take a
placebo and it works like the treatment
or better.
Independent Variable- the variable
that is being manipulated by the
researcher (also called the explanatory
variable).
Dependent Variable- the response to
the independent variable or the result of
the explanatory variable (also called the
response or outcome variable).
DATA PRESENTATION- An essential
step before further statistical analysis is
carried out
Data are summarized and displayed
enabling researchers, managers and
decision-makers to observe important
features of the data and provide insight
into the type of model and analysis that
should be used.
Text presentation- Text is the main
method of conveying information as it is
used to explain results and trends and
provide contextual information.
Using text to present data, is
fundamentally the use of paragraphs or
sentences.
Text can be used to provide
interpretation or emphasize certain data.
Tables- A table shows the raw data
presented in rows and columns. It is
designed to simplify the presentation
and to facilitate quick comparison.
A table shows all data at once and is
Precise too. However, when using a
table for data presentation, it can be
hard to interpret or see patterns
Classification used in tabulation is of
four kinds:
- Qualitative
- Quantitative
- Temporal and
- Spatial
Diagrams- a translates quite effectively
the highly abstract ideas contained in
numbers into more concrete and easily
comprehensible form may be less
accurate but are much more effective
than tables in presenting the data.
There are various kinds of diagrams
in common use;
- Geometric diagram
- Frequency diagram
- Arithmetic line graph
Geometric Diagram- Bar diagram and
pie diagram come in the category of
geometric diagram
Frequency Diagram- Data in the form
of grouped frequency distributions are
generally represented by frequency
diagrams like histogram, frequency
polygon, frequency curve and ogive.
Arithmetic Line Graph- An arithmetic
line graph is also called time series
graph. In this graph, time(hour,
day/date, week, month, year, etc.) is
plotted along x-axis and the value of the
variable (time series data) along y-axis.
It helps in understanding the trend,
periodicity, etc., in a long term time
series data.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION- the
organization of raw data in table form,
using classes and frequencies
CATEGORICAL FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS- used for data that
can be placed in specific categories,
such as nominal- or ordinal-level data.
GROUPED FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTIONS- When the range of
the data is large, the data must be
grouped into classes that are more than
one unit in width
MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY- UNGROUPED DATA; -
statistic a characteristic or measure
obtained by using the data values from
a sample parameter
a characteristic or measure obtained by
using all the data values from a specific
population.
Measures of average- are also called
measures of central tendency and
include the mean, median, mode, and
midrange.
measures of variation, or measures
of dispersion- The measures that
determine the spread of the data values
range, variance, and standard deviation
Mean- also known as the arithmetic
average, is found by adding the values
of the data and dividing by the total
number of values the sum of the values,
divided by the total number of values.
The symbol x̅ represents the sample
mean.
Median- the midpoint of the data array.
The symbol for the median is MD.
Mode- The value that occurs most often
in a data set;
Unimodal - A data set that has only one
value that occurs with the greatest
frequency
bimodal - If a data set has two values
that occur with the same greatest
frequency, both values are considered
to be the mode and the data set
Variance- the average of the squares of
the distance each value is from the
mean. The symbol for the population
variance is σ2 (σ is the Greek lowercase
letter sigma).
The formula for the population variance
is where
X = individual value
μ = population mean
N = population size

multimodal - If a data set has more standard deviation- the square root of
than two values that occur with the the variance. The symbol for the
same greatest frequency, each value is population standard deviation is σ. The
used as the mode, and the data set corresponding formula for the population
standard deviation is.
Midrange- the sum of the lowest and
highest values in the data set, divided Coefficient of Variation- denoted by
by 2. Then symbol MR is used for the CVar, is the standard deviation divided
midrange by the mean. The result is expressed as
a percentage.
Weighted Mean- The weighted mean of
the n numbers x1, x2 x3, ..., xn with the
respective assigned weights w1, w2,
w3, ... wn is. where Σ(x*w) is the sum of
the products formed by multiplying each
number by its assigned weight, and Σw
is the sum of all weights.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY- GROUPED DATA;

MEASURES OF VARIATION;

Range- the highest value minus the

lowest value. The symbol R is used for
the range.

R = highest value - lowest value