Hello!

Welcome back to Psych 108 (Field Methods in Psychology).

 Today we will be discussing about the Introduction to Correlational

Research
 Correlation means that there is a relationship between two or more
variables, but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and
effect. 
 The goal of the correlational research strategy is to examine and
describe the associations and relationships between variables. More
specifically, the purpose of a correlational study is to establish that a
relationship exists between variables and to describe the nature of the
relationship
 When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one
variable changes, so does the other. 
 We can measure correlation by calculating a statistic known as a
correlation coefficient.
 A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the
strength and direction of the relationship between variables. The
correlation coefficient is usually represented by the letter r.
 The closer the number is to 1 (be it negative or positive), the more
strongly related the variables are, and the more predictable changes in
one variable will be as the other variable changes.
 The closer the number is to zero, the weaker the relationship, and
relationship between the variables becomes less predictable.  
 The sign—positive or negative—of the correlation coefficient
indicates the direction of the relationship
 A positive correlation means that the variables move in the same
direction. When one variable increases so does the other, and
conversely, when one variable decreases so does the other
 A negative correlation means that the variables move in opposite
directions. If two variables are negatively correlated, a decrease in one
variable is associated with an increase in the other and vice versa.
 Scatterplots are a graphical view of the strength and direction of
correlations. The stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are
 to a straight line. It is a figure showing the relationship between two
variables, graphically represents a correlation coefficient.
 The lines drawn on the scatterplots are called regression lines, or lines
of best fit. They illustrate the mathematical equation that best
describes the linear relationship between the two measured scores. The
direction of the lines corresponds to the direction of the relationship.
 As noted earlier, the correlational design is used to identify and
describe relationships between variables. Following are three
examples of how correlational designs can be used to address research
questions.
Example # 1: Applications of Correlational Strategy

 One important use of correlational research is to establish a

relationship between variables that can be used for purposes of
prediction
 The use of correlational results to make predictions is not limited to
predictions about future behavior. Whenever two variables are
consistently related, it is possible to use knowledge of either variable
to help make predictions about the other.
 By establishing and describing the existence of a relationship,
correlational studies provide the basic information needed to make
predictions
 Correlational studies often identify one variable as the predictor
variable and the second variable as the criterion variable. One variable
(the predictor) is used to predict the other (the criterion).
 The statistical process for using one variable to predict another is
called regression. The goal here is to find the equation that produces
the most accurate predictions of Y (the criterion variable) for each
value of X (the predictor variable).
 Both reliability and validity are commonly defined by relationships
that are established using the correlational research design.
 For example, test–retest reliability is defined by the relationship
between an original set of measurements and a follow-up set of
measurements. If the same individuals are measured twice under the
same conditions, and there is a consistent relationship between the two
measurements, then the measurement procedure is said to be reliable.
  Many theories generate research questions about the relationships
between variables that can be addressed by the correlational research
design (evaluating theories)
 Correlational research design is being used to address a theoretical
issue.
Strengths and Weaknesses

 Correlational Research is often misinterpreted - Correlation Does Not

Indicate Causation. Correlational research is useful because it allows
us to discover the strength and direction of relationships that exist
between two variables (this is a strength/PRO)
 However, correlation is limited because establishing the existence of a
relationship tells us little about cause-and-effect (this is a
weakness/CON)
 While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the
other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable,
is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of
interest (third variable problem, this is another weakness/CON).
 In addition to describing a relationship, correlations allow us to make
predictions from one variable to another (this is a strength/PRO)
 One of the primary advantages of a correlational study is that the
researcher simply records what exists naturally. Because the
researcher does not manipulate, control, or otherwise interfere with the
variables being examined or with the surrounding environment, there
is good reason to expect that the measurements and the
relationships accurately reflect the natural events being examined
(this is a strength/PRO) – high external validity.
 Correlational study usually does not produce a clear and unambiguous
explanation for the relationship (this is a weakness/CON) – low
internal validity

I hope you will continue to enjoy learning in this course.

Have a fun-filled learning :)