ELECTROSTATICS

Study of Electricity in which electric charges are static i.e. not moving, is called electrostatics.

STATIC CLING
• An electrical phenomenon that accompanies dry weather causes these pieces of papers to stick
to one another and to the plastic comb.

• Due to this reason our clothes stick to our body.

• ELECTRIC CHARGE: Electric charge is characteristic developed in particle of material due

to which it exerts force on other such particles. It automatically accompanies the particle
wherever it goes.

• Charge cannot exist without material carrying it

• It is possible to develop the charge by rubbing two solids having friction.

• Carrying the charges is called electrification.

• Electrification due to friction is called frictional electricity.

Since these charges are not flowing it is also called static electricity.

There are two types of charges. +ve and –ve.

• Similar charges repel each other,

• Opposite charges attract each other.

• Benjamin Franklin made this nomenclature of charges being +ve and –ve for mathematical
calculations because adding them together cancels each other.

• Any particle has vast amount of charges.

• The number of positive and negative charges are equal, hence matter is basically neutral.

• Inequality of charges give the material a net charge which is equal to the difference of the two
type of charges.

Electrostatic series: If two substances are rubbed together the former in series acquires the
positive charge and later, the –ve.

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 (i) Glass (ii) Flannel (iii) Wool (iv) Silk (v) Hard Metal (vi) Hard rubber (vii) Sealing
wax (viii) Resin (ix) Sulphur

Electron theory of Electrification

• Nucleus of atom is positively charged.

• The electron revolving around it is negatively charged.

• They are equal in numbers, hence atom is electrically neutral.

• With friction there is transfer of electrons, hence net charge is developed in the particles.

• It also explains that the charges are compulsorily developed in pairs equally. +ve in one body
and –ve in second.

• It establishes conservation of charges in the universe. Proof of this will come later.

• The loss of electrons develops +ve charge. While excess of electrons develop –ve charge

• A proton is 1837 times heavier than electron, hence it cannot be transferred. Transferring
lighter electron is easier.

• Therefore for electrification of matter, only electrons are active and responsible.

Charge and Mass relation

• Charge cannot exist without matter.

• One carrier of charge is electron which has mass as well.

• Hence if there is charge transfer, mass is also transferred.

• Logically, negatively charged body is heavier then positively charged body.

Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors

• Conductors : Material in which electrons can move easily and freely.

Examples are Metals, Tap water, human body. Brass rod in our hand, if charged by rubbing the
charge will move easily to earth. Hence Brass is a conductor. The flow of this excess charge is
called discharging

• Insulator: Material in which charge cannot move freely. Examples are: Glass, pure water,
plastic etc. Electrons can be forced to move across an insulator by applying strong force (called
electric field.) Then this acts like a conductor.

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• dielectric strength.

The maximum electric field an insulator can withstand without becoming a conductor is called
its dielectric strength.

• Semiconductor: is a material which under little stimulation (heat or Elect. Field) converts from
insulator to a conductor, e.g. Silicon, germanium.

• Superconductor: is that material which presents no resistance to the movement of the charge
through it. The resistance is precisely zero.

Basic properties of Electric charge

• Additivity of Electric charges

• Quantization of Electric charge

• Conservation of Electric Charge

Additivity of Charges...

• Charges can be added by simple rules of algebra. Addition of positive and negative charge
makes Zero charge

Quantization of Electric charge

• Principle: Electric charge is not a continuous quantity, but is an integral multiple of minimum
charge ( e).

• Reason of quantization:

• Minimum charge e exists on an electron.

• The material which is transferred during electrification is an electron, in integral numbers.

• Hence charge transferred has to be integral multiple of e.

• Charge on an electron (-e) and charge on a proton (+e) are equal and opposite, and are the
minimum.

This minimum charge is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.

One electron has charge - 1.6 x 10-19 C

One proton has charge + 1.6 x 10-19 C

• Charge on a body Q is given by Q = + ne. Where n is a whole number 1,2,3…..and e = 1.6 x

10-19. Since e is smallest value of charge, it is called Elementary Charge or Fundamental charge.

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The electron is a fundamental particle; however, the proton is not a fundamental particle. Protons
and neutrons are composed of up and down quarks ( q up quark ∧q down quark ). A quark is a type of
+2 −1
elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. q up quark = e and q down quark = e.
3 3

- Proton is composed of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.

( )( )
q proton=2 q up quark + 1q down quark =2
+2
3
e +
−1
3
e=
+4
3
1
e− e=+ e
3
- Neutron is composed of 1 up quark and 2 down quarks.

( ) ( )
q neutron =1 qup quark +2 qdown quark =
+2
3
e +2
−1
3
e=
+2
3
2
e− e=0
3

A quark can have a charge less than the elementary charge because a single quark has never been
isolated; quarks are always found in groups like they are in the proton and neutron.

The Law of Charges: Unlike charges attract and like charges repel. For example:

• Two positive charges repel one another & two negative charges repel one another. • A positive
and a negative charge attract one another.

k q1 q2
The force they repel or attract one another with is determined using Coulomb’s Law: F e = .
r2
This is called the Electrostatic Force. (Also sometimes called a Coulomb force)

N m2
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• Coulomb’s Constant, k =8.99 ×10 . q1 & q2 are the charges on the two charged particles.
C2
r is not the radius, it is the distance between the centers of charge of the two charges. (Sometimes
r actually is the radius, however, that is not its definition).

Conservation of Charge: In an isolated system the total charge stays constant. For example, if
we start with two electrically isolated spheres, q 1i =+4 C & q 2i =−2C , we touch them together
and pull them apart:

+2C
q t=q1 i +q2 i=+ 4 C + (−2C )=+ 2C & q 1 f =q2 f =q f ⇒q t=q1 f + q2 f =q f +q f =2 q f = =+1 C .
2

Each sphere ends up with 6.24 × 1018 excess protons on it:

q1 +1 C
q 1=n1 e ⇒ n1 = ≈ 6.24 ×1018 protons .
e C
1.6022× 10−19
proton

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 ELECTRIC FIELD
An electric field is a region or space which surrounds a system of electric charges. In such a
region, electric force will act on any electric charge which placed within the region. In
addition to nuclear force, there are three other types of forces which can act between two
charged particles. The three forces are the type which varies with distance according to the
inverse square laws namely:

- Electric force
- Gravitational force and
- Magnetic force

Law of electrostatic state that like charge repel each other while unlike charge attract each other.

Coulumb’s Law
• Coulumb’s law in Electrostatics:

State that in a given medium the force of attraction or repulsion between two stationery point
charges is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them and acts along the straight line joining the two charges.

If two charges q1 and q2 are placed at distance r then,

k q 1 q2
F e= 2
r

Where k is a constant. k is called Coulomb's constant and its value is

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1 9 Nm
k= =9.0 × 10
4 π ε0 C2

The value of k depends upon system of units and on the medium between two charges.

It is seen experimentally that if two charges of 1 Coulomb each are placed at a distance of 1
meter in air or vacuum, then they attract each other with a force (F) of 9 ×10 9 Newton.

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 2
9 Nm
Accordingly value of k is 9 ×10 ε
2 , 0 is permittivity of free space or vacuum and its value is
C
−12C2
ε 0=8.85 ×10 ε
2 . If point charges are immersed in a dielectric medium, then 0 is replaced
Nm
by e a quantity-characteristic of the matter involved in such case. For vacuum e=ε 0 .

Example 1:

Two equally charged pith balls are 3cm apart in air and repel each other with a force of4 ×10−5 N
. Compute the charge on each ball.

Solution: q 1 ¿ q 2=q , r =3 cm, F=4 ×10−5 N .

K q2
From Coulomb’s Law, F= 2
.
r

−5 (q )2 9
∴ 4 × 10 N =(9 ×10 )
(3 × 10−2)2

Solving, we have q=± 2× 10−9 C .

Exercise

1. Calculate the value of two equal charges if they repel one another with a force of 0.1N
when situated 50 cm apart in a vacuum. (Answer:q=1.7 ×10−6 C=1.7 μC ).
2. One charge of 2.0 C is 1.5 maway from −3.0 C charge. Determine the force they exert on
each other. (Answer: F e =−2.4 ×1010 N ).

ELECTRIC FIELD AT A POINT

If a very small electric charge q 0 is brought within the region of space containing an
electric charge q such that the distance between them is r , q 0 will experience a force given
by

q0q
F=
4 π ε0 r2

The region of space around charge q within which a test charge q 0 experience electrostatic force
due to q is called electric field of the charge q .

ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY

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The electric field intensity, E at any point in an electric field is define as the electrostatic force
experience by a unit positive test charge q 0 at that point

F
F=
q0

But
q0q
F= 2
4 π ε0 r

q0 q 1 q
∴ E= 2
. =
4 π ε 0r q 0 4 π ε0 r 2

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential is defined as the work done by the force of electric field per unit positive
charge in moving the unit positive charge from that point to a place of zero potential. It is usually
convenient to take a point of an infinite distance from the system as zero potential. And for most
practical purposes the earth is taken as having zero potential.

STORED ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

For a conductor with charge Q:

The potential energy U is the work required to assemble the final charge configuration starting
from an initial condition of infinite separation.

For a conductor the total charge Q resides on the surface

Q=∫ dq=∫ σdA

Also, V is constant on and inside the conductor and

1 1
dU = dQV = VσdA
2 2

and hence
❑ ❑
1 1 1
U = ∫ VdQ= V = ∫ σdA= VQ
2 surface 2 surface 2

1
Stored energy U conductor = QV
2

where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the conductor.

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For a System of N Conductors:
N
1
U= ∑QV
2 i=1 i i

where Qi is the charge on the i-th conductor and V i is the electric potential of the i-th conductor.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Let us assume that a particle of charge Q moved from a point at a potential V 1 to a

potential V 2. From the definition point of view the p.d (V 1−V 2 ) is the work done by the field on
unit charge moved from one point to another.

Therefore, work done on the charge W is W . D=Q ¿).

Electron volt: This is the quantity of energy gained by an electron in accelerating through a p.d
of 1 volt.

The electronic charge q=1.6 ×10−19

Therefore 1 ev=1.6 ×10−19 × 1 v

−19
0.03 ev =0.03×=1.6 ×10

Examples:

1. A helium nucleus has a charge of +2 e , and a neon nucleus has a charge of +10 , where e
is the quantity of charge, 1.6 ×10−19 C . Calculate the repulsive force exerted on one by
the other when they are separated by a distance of 4.0 nm . Assume the system to be in a
vacuum.
2. The plates of a parallel capacitor, 5.0 ×10−3 m apart are maintained at a potential
difference of 5.0 ×10 4 V . Calculate the magnitude of the
i. Electric field intensity between the plates
ii. Force on the electron
iii. Acceleration of the electron
(Electronic charge q=1.6 ×10−19 C , Mass of the electron Me=9.1 ×10−31 Kg )
3. Two equal charges, placed 50 cm apart in vacuum, repel each other with a force of 0.1 N .
Calculate the magnitude of each charge.
2
1 9 Nm
Take k = =9.0 × 10
4 π ε0 C2

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 CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
Capacitor:
Any arrangement of conductors that is used to store electric charge (will also store
electric potential energy).
Capacitance:
Q Q
C= or C=
V ∆V
1C −6 −9
Units: 1 Farad =1 F= 1 μF=10 F , 1 pF=10 F
1V

1 Q2 1 2
Stored Energy: U conductor = QV = = CV
2 2C 2

where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the conductor and C is
the capacitance of the conductor.

Example (Isolated Conducting Sphere):

KQ R K Q2
For an isolated conducting sphere with radius R, V = and hence C= and U = .
R K (2 R)

Example (Parallel Plate Capacitor):

For two parallel conducting plates of area A and separation d we know that

E=
σ
=
Q
∆ V =Ed=
Qd A ε0 Q2 Q2 d
and so that C= . The stored energy is U = = .
ε0 A ε0 A ε0 d (2C ) (2 A ε 0)

CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL

Parallel:

In this case ∆V1=∆V2=∆V and Q=Q1+Q2. Hence,

Q = Q1 + Q2 = C1∆V1 + C2∆V2 = (C1+C2) ∆. So C = Q/∆V = C1 + C2, where I used Q1 = C1∆V1

and Q2 = C2∆V2.

Series:

In this case ∆V=∆V1+∆V2 and Q=Q1=Q2. Hence,

∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 = Q1/C1+Q2/C2 = (1/C1+1/C2)Q so 1/C = ∆V/Q = 1/C1 + 1/C2, where I used

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Q1 = C1∆V1 and Q2 = C2∆V2.

Gauss's law
The flux of electric field lines through any surface is proportional to the number of field lines
passing through that surface. Consider for example a point charge q located at the origin. The
electric flux FE through a sphere of radius r, centered on the origin, is equal to

( )
❑ ❑
1 q q
ΦE= ∮ E ∙da= ∮
4 π ε 0 surface r 2
r ∙ ( r 2 sinθdθdϕr ) =
ε0
surface

Since the number of field lines generated by the charge q depends only on the magnitude of the
charge, any arbitrarily shaped surface that encloses q will intercept the same number of field
q
lines. Therefore the electric flux through any surface that encloses the charge q is equal to .
ε0
Using the principle of superposition we can extend our conclusion easily to systems containing
more than one point charge:
❑ ❑
1
ΦE= ∮ E ∙da=∑ ∮ E ∙ da= ∑q
ε0 i i
surface i surface

We thus conclude that for an arbitrary surface and arbitrary charge distribution
❑
Qenclosed
∮ E ∙ da=
ε0
surface

where Qenclosed is the total charge enclosed by the surface. This is called Gauss's law. Since this
equation involves an integral it is also called Gauss's law in integral form. Using the divergence
theorem the electric flux Φ E can be rewritten as
❑ ❑
ΦE = ∮ E ∙da ∫ ( ∇ ∙ E ) dτ
surface volume

We can also rewrite the enclosed charge Qencl in terms of the charge density ρ :
❑
Qenclosed = ∫ ρdτ
volume

Gauss's law can thus be rewritten as

❑ ❑
1
∫ ( ∇ ∙ E ) dτ= ∫ ρdτ
ε 0 volume
volume

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Since we have not made any assumptions about the integration volume this equation must hold
for any volume. This requires that the integrands are equal:

ρ
∇ ∙ E=
ε0

This equation is called Gauss's law in differential form.

Applications of Gauss's law

Although Gauss's law is always true it is only a useful tool to calculate the electric field if the
charge distribution is symmetric:

1. If the charge distribution has spherical symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with
concentric spheres as Gaussian surfaces.

2. If the charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with coaxial
cylinders as Gaussian surfaces.

3. If the charge distribution has plane symmetry, then Gauss's law can be used with pill boxes as
Gaussian surfaces.

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