CHAPTER II

CASTE AND RELIGION: YAYATI, TALE-DANDA AND THE FIRE

AND THE RAIN

YAYATI

Myth and Casteism:

Caste problem is a paradigmatic ethnographic example of our society. Caste system is

originated from Ancient India and it has been transformed by various types of elites.

It is a social custom which is continuing with the emergence of Hinduism. Manu is

the „nabi‟ or the pioneer of Hindu Dharmashastra and the laws of Manu signify the

impurity and triviality of the outcastes of our society and the laws of Manu affirm the

dominance of Brahmins. From the very beginning of the civilisation, there is a

problem of castes in our society. Educated persons and people of high mentality

cannot make any difference in low castes.

All the major religions of the world are divided into various sects. Each and

every types of religion have different types of opinion and there is another big

problem than castes. India has got Independence in 1947. Even after 72 years of

Independence, the problem of caste and religion has not been solved. Today, even in

our society, Brahmins neglect to touch even the Shudra castes. In Girish Karnad‟s

play Yayati (1961), the problem of caste and religion is focused.

Religion means belief on myth and in this play, Karnad reinterprets an ancient

Indian myth from the „Adiparva‟ of Mahabharata. It is a myth about a parent‟s

aggression against his offspring and this myth has inspired some of India‟s eminent

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writers like Karnad who has explored this myth in his play Yayati. In the epic

Mahabharata, King Yayati is cursed to old age in the prime of life for his sexual

misdemeanor. So he demands that his youngest son Pooru will exchange his youth to

satisfy his father‟s idiosyncratic desire.In the Prologue section of the play, Sutradhara

says:

Our play this evening deals with an ancient myth. But …, it is not a
„mythological‟. Heaven forbid! A mythological aims to plunge us into the
sentiment of devotion… The mythological is fiercely convinced that all
suffering is merely a calculated test, devised by the gods, to check out our
willingness to submit to their will … There are no deaths in mythologicals, for
no matter how hard you try, death cannot give meaning to anything that has
gone before. It merely empties life of meaning. (Karnad 5-6)

A key element in the plot is „Sanjeevani‟ vidya, i.e., the art of reviving death and from

the beginning of time Gods and Rakshasas have been killing each other for the

possession of art. According to the Puranic lore, Yayati marries Devayani, the

daughter of sage Shukracharya but he also accepts Sharmishtha as his wife and

Sharmishtha belongs to the Rakshasa cult and she is an Asura girl. Devayani is

infuriated by Yayati‟s marriage to Sharmishtha, belonging from Rakshasa

community, so Devayani‟s father gives him curse of senility and decrepitude. So the

main conflict of the play is created with Yayati‟s marriage to a woman belonging

from Rakshasa community. Two characters Devayani and Sharmishtha, belonging

from two different communities, are quarrelling with each other. So the play is

concerned with the issue of myth, class and race which illumine the characters of the

play in a fascinating way. Sharmishtha is an uncouth rakshasi and she sarcastically

comments upon Devayani. She criticizes that Devayani has nothing and the only

valuable thing that Devayani has that is his father‟s “sanjeevani spell” and this is the

reason which makes Devayani to become the Queen of the Arya race, wife of King

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Yayati. Devayani flares up Sharmishtha by saying her: “Bitch! I‟ll kill you. I‟ll feed

you to the…” (Karnad13).Thus two characters are quarrelling with the issue of caste

and race. Sharmishtha belonging from the Rakshasa community is the slave of

Devayani, a woman belonging from the Brahmin caste. It gives a suggestion that

lower caste people are always serving for the upper class. Devayani always wants to

prove the superiority of her race over the Asura race. A small quarrel happens to

create a clash and so an eternal war begins with the issue of race, caste and class.

Caste Distinction:

This play is based on the issue of sentiments of man, the politics of class and caste

which make our society violent. Class-distinction and caste-distinction – these two are

responsible for the creation of a violent society. In the play Yayati, we notice that the

social impact of class, caste or race brings affects to the condition of a woman. Caste

difference is an issue of the play which is still relevant today. Sharmishtha belongs to

the Rakshasa caste. Swarnalata‟s view about Sharmishtha is: “That spiteful whore – I

would have torn her hair out if you hadn‟t stopped me.

… The nasty jibes.They are too horrible to think. She didn‟t even spare His Majesty. I

… I can‟t bear it” (Karnad 7). Swarnalata: “She is satanic. She can barge into the

poisonous fumes and watch me choke while she remains untouched. She can creep

into the hidden corners of my mind, claw those shadows out and set them dancing. I

am terrified of her” (Karnad 8).

The first episode between Devayani and Sharmishtha is the reason of conflict

that is – the issue of class or caste. Sharmishtha is a perfect Rakshasa princess.

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Sharmishtha:

I liked being with other rakshasa girls and boys. Go singing and dancing with
them under the bright moon. Weave garlands of wild flowers for our festive
games. Prance around in the river naked on dark nights, aware of the naked
boys sensing us from the distance. But outside that world,conscious every
moment that we were rakshasas, held in contempt. (Karnad 19)

So from the first episode, issue of casteism is prominent and the whole play revolves

round with the issue of casteism.

Devayani belongs to a superior race and Sharmistha confesses: “… I am an

uncouth rakshasi. And the situation here… a kshatriya palace, ruled over by a

brahmin queen!” (Karnad 9). Sharmishtha knows that she has beauty, education and

wealth and she has everything “except birth – an Arya pedigree” (Karnad 10).

Devayani does not permit Sharmishtha to even touch the Prince with his newly

married bride because she belongs to the Rakshasa cult. But Sharmishtha‟s view is

that Devayani is equally affectionate to everyone to their Rakshasa tribe. Sharmishtha

gloats and flaunts her company in the face of other rakshasa girls and she accepts all

that with such easy grace. If Devayani mocks Sharmishtha as a rakshasi, she has been

happier today. But being disturbed by the comments of Devayani, Sharmishtha pulls

her with her long hair and takes her to a well and throws her inside. It is true that

Sharmishtha‟s behaviour is violent but Devayani‟s words are also violent. In order to

take revenge on Devayani, Sharmishtha seduces Yayati, Devayani‟s husband. Being

insulted by Sharmishtha‟s behaviour, Devayani goes to her father and makes him to

curse Yayati. Yayati is cursed with the burden of old age. But the curse will not show

its effect on Yayati “… if a young man agrees to take it upon himself and offers his

youth” to Yayati (Karnad 45).Yayati tells Pooru: “Let me have my normal term of

youth. I shall take back the curse and whatever comes with it after a few years”

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(Karnad 47).Pooru accepts the burden of old age. Pooru‟s wife Chitralekha cannot

tolerate the burden of old age. Chitralekha is an Aryan princess who is born into a

royal family and coming from a privileged clan. Pooru is Yayati‟s beloved son and his

blood is a mixture of Aryas and Rakshasa family. Chitralekha commits suicide and

Pooru‟s acceptance of old age is also responsible for the death of Chitralekha. The

most violent thing in the play is Chitralekha‟s death. Actually Yayati‟s curse by

Devayani‟s request to his father is responsible for Chitralekha‟s death. Yayati is

cursed because he is seducted by Sharmishtha and Sharmishtha does this because of

his insulting words about class and caste by Devayani. So the whole story revolves

round the issue of class and caste.

Sharmishtha is jealous of Devayani because of her father‟s “Sanjeevani spell”.

In Karnad‟s Yayati, Sharmishtha is a slave to Devayani. But Devyani‟s husband

Yayati has a relation with Sharmishtha. When Devayani comes to know about the

relationship, Devayani suggests that Yayati should expel Sharmishtha from the place

and for this reason Sharmishtha reacts:

Me his concubine? You must be joking. Yes, I got him into bed with me. That
was my revenge on you. After all, as a slave, what weapon did I have but my
body? Well, I am even with you now. And I am free. I shall go where I please
(Karnad 29).

Sharmishtha pushes Devayani into a dry well and leaves Devayani alone in the well.

Yayati is the king of a nearby state and at the same time he is hunting in the forest and

is looking for water to quench his thirst. When he comes near the well he is surprised

to see Devayani who is lying at the bottom. Yayati is requested by Devayani to rescue

her from the well and Yayati rescues her. After that Devayani demands Yayati to

marry her because Yayati holds her by the right hand. But Yayati cannot accept this

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because he belongs to Kshatriya caste and Devayani belongs to Brahmin caste. It

means marriage is totally affected by caste-system. Yayati rejects Devayani‟s

proposal of marriage only because he belongs to the lower caste than the Brahmin

caste. Similarly after the marriage between Yayati and Devayani, when Yayati comes

to know how Sharmishtha becomes the maid of Devayani, he marries her with

sympathy. As a king, he is allowed to marry with many women. He has many wives

and many sons. In the play his three wives are referred to, one is Pooru‟s mother, then

Devayani and at last Sharmishtha. Generally, the queens do not object the king‟s

remarriages and extramarital relationships. But Devayani objects about Yayati‟s

marriage with Sharmishtha because she belongs to the Rakshasa cult and the

relationship of a Bharata king with a woman coming from Rakshasa community is

objectionable. But Yayati is a character who does not bother about caste system. He

marries Pooru‟s mother only because she is beautiful. He also loves Sharmishtha

because of her poor condition.

Patriarchal Domination:

In this play, some women characters are mentioned who are coming from different

castes but they all have to suffer at the hands of patriarchy.Yayati cannot bear his

responsibility towards Sharmishtha because he is cursed with old age by Devayani‟s

father. Karnad‟s Yayati reveals the afflicted consciousness of a broken man like

Yayati who tries to find meaning in existence. Out of sorrow and humiliationYayati is

unable to understand the meaning of life until he is rid of old age. His son Pooru takes

the burden of old age of his father. But Pooru‟s wife cannot tolerate this and she

commits suicide. But contrary to his expectation, Chitralekha‟s suicide leads him to

expiate his desire. Chitralekha‟s condition is very poor and she does not tolerate

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Yayati‟s persuation to accept her husband‟s old age nonchalantly and she is a

projected as a character who is both helpless and hopeless and so she commits suicide

because she finds no other way: “Chitralekha smiles defiantly and swallows the

poison. Suddenly she crumples up with pain. Sharmishtha and Swarnalata rush in.

Chitralekha collapses, writhing, in their arms” (Karnad 67).

The woman of high and low caste from the Indian society is always neglected

of being a woman though she is a queen or a maid. Chitralekha is a creation of

Karnad‟s intellect brain and she is a representation of futility of life though she is born

as a princess. Karnad‟s creation of Chitralekha is a representation of such a woman

who crosses the threshold of patriarchy. Yayati is such a character who cannot neglect

filial loyalty and conjugal felicity. Karnad tries to bring out the pathetic plight of

Chitralekha. Chitralekha is a representation of a modern woman who fights for her

right to love and family happiness. Sharmishtha is born in a Rakshasa family and she

is aware of it. She is an uncouth rakshasi in a Kshatriya palace who is ruled over by a

Brahmin queen unwillingly.

In this play, women are affected by caste-system. In our society, women‟s

desire is always curbed by the patriarchal order. Here women‟s desire is dependent on

other male member of the family whether she belongs to a high class/caste or low

class/caste. Despite her caste and class superiority, Chitralekha has to undergo

oppression at the hands of a male dominated society. She suffers at the hands of the

patriarchal order. The character of Chitralekha is a representation of an oppressed

woman of Karnad‟s fruitful creation. She is projected from Karnad‟s creative

brain.Chitralekha suffers at the hands of her husband Pooru who neglects his wife to

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serve his father‟s idiosyncratic satisfaction – it is really an injustice committed on

Chitralekha. Girish Karnad actually juxtaposes the character of Chitralekha only to

represent the situation of a newly-wed female who throws light on the gender-bias of

society. After Chitralekha‟s death, Sharmishtha comments on the patriarchal

hegemony that makes a woman just like a puppet at the hand of male dominance. It is

reminiscent of patriarchy in Silvia Walby‟s “Theorising Patriarch”. To Sylvia Walby,

the concept of Patriarchy must remain central to a feminist understanding to a

society. She observes that patriarchy is indispensable for the analysis of gender

inequality. When Chitralekha sees the old face of her husband, she realizes now what

her destiny is? She shouts with screaming: “Please don‟t come near me. Go out.

Please, please. Don‟t touch me…” (Karnad 58). Yayati tries to console Chitralekha

through his words: “Now act in a manner worthy of an Anga princess and Bharata

queen. Act so that generations to come may sing your glory and Pooru‟s” (Karnad

61). But Chitralekha cannot accept this cruel truth and Yayati orders Chitralekha just

like a ruler by saying, “not to act in a manner that will bring ignominy on us all”

(Karnad 62).

Chitralekha firmly tells that she has married Pooru for his youth. She wants to

plant the seed of the Bharatas in her womb but Pooru has lost this potency and so she

tells Yayati that Pooru “doesn‟t possess any of the qualities for which I married him”

(Karnad 66). But Pooru has lost his potency and Yayati is responsible for this. So,

Yayati should perform the role of his son Pooru. Listening of this Yayati becomes

angry and he addresses Chitralekha as “Whore! Are you inviting me to fornication?”

(Karnad 66).

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 Karnad, being a dramatist of the post modern era, fascinates us with the

marvellous world of his plays. Since long time, it is seen that woman is always

considered as an issue in the centre of discussion in the post- colonial literature and in

the social strata of India. In all ages, woman‟s society has been manipulated by the

patriarchal set-up.Through her, Karnad explores the futility of being born as a

princess who finds reality too much to bear and kills herself. Sharmishtha comments

at the patriarchal set-up because of Chitralekha‟s death. Chitralekha‟ s death shows

how women are oppressed at the hands of male autocracy and she commits crime like

suicide because she does not find an infinitesimal hope of emancipation. Sharmishtha

accuses Yayati after Chitralekha‟s death: “So here is the foundation of your glorious

future, Your Majesty. A woman dead, another gone mad, and a third in danger of her

life” (Karnad 68).

This play is devoted to the study of the patriarchal set-up of our society which

expects women to surrender to male‟s will without any protest. Swarnalata is a

woman character who is jilted by her husband because her husband thinks that she

had a relationship with a Brahmin teacher before their marriage. Swarnalata tries to

prove her innocence but she fails to prove this. In our society, always woman has to

give „Agni-Pariksha‟ or ordeal to prove her chastity or virginity. In Ramayana, Sita

had to take „Agni-Pariksha‟ to prove her innocence. But in our male-dominated

society, male are not given any pressure to give „Agni-Pariksha‟. It is the society

which compels Chitralekha to commit suicide because she sees no other way to

escape from unjust patriarchal order where she has to repress her feelings and desire

as a „pativrata‟ woman. Swarnalata does not get any care and love of her family and

husband because her husband does not believe in her chastity. Swarnalata loves him

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but her husband hates her and himself. It is our Indian society where a woman is

always looked down upon because of her gender as a female though she is a high

caste or low caste woman, whether a queen or a maid, women are always oppressed

by patriarchal hegemony. Chitralekha, being a woman of high class, cannot get escape

from patriarchal hegemony. So, after Chitralekha‟s death, Sharmishtha realizes that

her death “was no self-sacrifice. She was slaughtered” (Karnad 69). B. Yadava Raju

rightly says in the article “Race and Gender in Yayati”: “No matter how despicable is

Yayati‟s treatment of the women he seduces, the women seem to come easily under

his spell” (N. P.).

At the end of the play, Yayati requests Pooru to take back his youth: “Take

back your youth, Pooru. Rule Well. Let me go and face my destiny in the wilds”

(Karnad 69). Pooru is endowed with youth. Yayati goes away with Sharmishtha.

Pooru finds no one to ask question so he asks God one question: “What does all this

mean, O God? What does it mean?” (Karnad 69). Pooru‟s questioning to God proves

that at that time, he has complete belief on God and it means belief on God is present

in this play and belief on God also juxtaposes religiosity of the play.

Myth and Existentialism:

Though the play is based on myth but it depicts existentialism. Actually, in this play

mythology is used as a tool to discuss the story of existentialism. This play is an

example of self-consciously existential drama on the theme of responsibility.

Karnad‟s age was only twenty-two when he attempts his interpretation in the play

Yayati. The play presents how a young prince and his wife‟s married life is totally

humiliated only for the demand of a lustful and jealous father. One of the key

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elements in the play is „Sanjeevani‟ vidya i.e., the art of reviving the dead. Since the

dawn of civilization, there was no friendship between Gods and Rakshasas, always

they have been killing each other for the possession of this art, i.e., the „Sanjeevani‟

vidya.We human beings always aspire to be immortal but cannot achieve this. With

the progress of time, order of youth and old age is going on. From the ancient time,

human being‟s desire for immortality and youth is prominent and in this play the

demand of youth is depicted by the character Yayati. At the beginning of the play

King‟s son prince Pooru, after completion of his education, is returning home today

after many years with his bride Chitralekha, the Princess of Anga.Two characters

Pooru and Chitralekha create a magic kingdom of love, ambition and power. But it is

interrupted by King Yayati‟s wish. Swarnalata becomes puzzled when she sees that

Pooru accepts his father‟s curse: “He has agreed to take on his father‟s old age. That‟s

why these revelries, madam, this flourish and fanfare … these, these…” (Karnad 55).

Chitralekha‟s situation is just like an insane when she watches that Pooru accepts

Yayati‟s curse of old age. Chitralekha shouts: “What a fool I have been! How utterly

blind! I am the chosen one and I … Which other woman has been so blessed? Why

should I shed tears?” (Karnad 55 - 6). “Now I only have my idiocy to blame. I am so

happy” (Karnad 56). “This is no ordinary old age, devi. This is decrepitude. The sum

total of Father‟s transgressions.The burden of the whole dynasty, perhaps. I couldn‟t

take it on without your help” (Karnad 57). Pooru probably does not find any answer to

provide Chitralekha and he tells: Chitralekha even does not allow Pooru to touch her.

She says screamingly: “Please don‟t come near me. Go out. Please, please. Don‟t

touch me…” (Karnad 58). Chitralekha says: “I don‟t know anything. Don‟t ask me.

Forgive me, but please… please, get out of here” (Karnad 58).

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 Yayati is responsible for Chitralekha‟s bad luck but instead of wanting

apology from Chitralekha, Yayati tells Chitralekha cruelly: “This is the palace of the

Bharata‟s. I can order you – not as your father-in-law, but as your ruler – to take him

in and you will have to obey” (Karnad 62). But after listening of all these words,

Chitralekha does not allow her husband to step back into her bedroom because of his

old age.Chitralekha‟s character finds no meaning of her life. She suffers from

existentialism. Being influenced by Sartre, Camus and Jen Anouilh, Karnad wrote the

play on existential basis. Critics agree that existentialism means existence precedes

essence and in case of existentialism, subjectivity must be the starting point. Jean Paul

Sartre in his Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology

describes the central proposition of existentialism. Sartre‟s main opinion is that

existence precedes essence which means the most important consideration for the

individual is the fact that he or she is an individual, an independently conscious being

who is totally free and it does not matter what other labels or other preconceived

categories the universe fits for him.

Kierkegaard in Either / Or, proposes that each individual is solely responsible

for giving meaning to life and living it passionately or sincerely. His or her life is not

dependent on society or religion. In an interview with Tutun Mukherjee, Karnad tells

that he selects the story of Yayati for his play. He composes this interview with the

title “In His Own Voice: A Conversation with Girish Karnad” where he says:

… I‟m amazed how closely the myth reflected my anxieties and uncertainties,
and my resentment at all who seemed to demand that I sacrifice my future. But
it did serve as an outlet for my doubts and provide me with a set of values.
Strangely though, the form of the play was not influenced by mythological
plays. It reflected the Western playwrights that I read avidly – Anouilh, Sartre,
O‟Neill and the Greeks. (Mukherjee 31)

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After Pooru‟s old age, Chitralekha suffers from existential dilemma. So here Karnad

projects Chitralekha as an existential character and he shows that no man has the

power and complete freedom to choose anything whole-heartedly either it is right or it

is wrong. Yayati himself is an amalgamation of self-evasion and vanity and at the

same time he is a summation of self condemnation and humility. Thus, there is an

eternal quest of human beings for gaining freedom and power that can sustain them in

this chaotic and apparently meaningless world.

Negligence of Religion and Performance of Religion:

It is said that religion is blind and this blindness of religion is the principal hindrance

at the path of ever-changing variations of human life but now today human

civilization has reached too far which is beyond religion and so religion is given less

importance and it occupies a marginalized position in the contemporary India,

especially among the educated middle-class people. Karnad‟s endeavour is to project

the dogmas and superstition of the society which may be called to question only for

caste but it is very difficult for us to break the shackles of the tradition-bound society

which gives emphasis on the same caste marriage in which we live in. In the play

Yayati, it is evident that social standing of caste, class and race affect the condition of

the woman. Yayati juxtaposes the rules of morality with ease and develops an illicit

relationship of Yayati with Sharmishtha. Karnad takes liberty with myth and he

weaves complex dimension into the plot. In the play Yayati, Karnad actually rebels

against the unjust gender-bias norms and strictures of the Indian patriarchal order.

Yayati questions the vows taken in front of the spiritual life and he questions the

patriarchal ideology of the Indian society.

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 Religion means to perform our duty perfectly and sincerely but here Yayati

totally neglects his duty of a father. How a father can want youth of his son only for

enjoying sexual pleasure. Being a father, he has no paternal affection for his son. At

the same time, in this play Karnad presents Pooru‟s self sacrifice as a son. It is the

duty of a son to fulfill his father‟s desire and here Pooru performs his duty very

sincerely and perfectly. Meaning of Gita‟s religion is to perform our duty perfectly

and sincerely. So religion is neglected by King Yayati and at the same time religion is

respected by Pooru. Gita‟s religion is performed by Pooru and at the same time,

Gita‟s religion is violated by Yayati.

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 TALE-DANDA

Marginalized Caste:

It is unquestionable that Karnad‟s Tale-Danda (1993) is revealed in a cast-affected

society. This drama is composed by Karnad to oppose caste-system. Tale-Danda

presents the psychological interpretation of a human world which is struggling with

the vicissitudes of its own nature with the context of the culture. Here history is

presented with an astute observation of the political repercussion of activism of the

reformist sect. i.e., “Veerashaiva movement” which presents the history of King

Bijjala, the problem of leadership and the inter-caste marriage of Kalavati, a Brahmin

girl with Sheelavanta, a Cobbler‟s son.

The play actually shows how caste-system has given the Brahmins and other

high-caste people a privileged position and they never want to tolerate any violation

including inter-caste marriage. This play presents the ugly picture of the Hindu

society through the depiction of the twelfth century communal struggle in the city of

Kalyan in the North Kanara.This play is a rejoinder that Hinduism is a monolithic

cultural unity which opposes other religious belief like Islam and here a problem is

created by a secularized modernity. In the twelfth century A.D., during the two

decades Kalyan was a centre of tensions and conflicts. It is believed that at that time a

man named Basavanna used to live in Kalyan (present Karnataka) and he led a social

and religious reform movement known as „Lingayatism‟ or „Veerashaivism‟ and this

movement‟s purpose was to abolish caste-system and the members of this movement

wanted to propagate free thinking and they wanted to worship in place of ritualistic

worship of God. Each and every Sharana under this movement was a devotee and

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ultimate offspring of Lord Shiva. Basavanna was the philosopher, poet and minister

who reformed and revived „Veerashaivism‟ in Karnataka.This „Shaivism‟ is the name

given to Lord Shiva as the highest supreme self or „Brahmana‟. Under the leadership

of Basavanna, they formed a reformist religious group named „Sharana‟. The basic

notion of this religious group is that each and every Sharana is a devotee and the

ultimate offspring of Lord Shiva. Basavanna assembled a congregation of poets,

mystics, social revolutionaries and philosophers. His nature is quixotic as he believes

that a new change should come in our society by removing the prevalent old custom.

He presents the awareness and consciousness on the discriminatory and exploitative

nature of the dominant social practice called caste-system. In India, it is very difficult

to erase one‟s caste identity. Basavanna was the great „Veerashaivam‟ saint-poet of

king Bijjala‟s treasurer who leads the people to salvation. He thinks of Basavanna:

Basavanna wants to eradicate the caste structure, wipe it off the face of the
earth. Annihilate the varna system.What a vision! And what prodigious
courage! And he has the ability. Look at those he has gathered around him:
poets, mystics, visionaries. And nothing airy-fairy about them, mind you.
… They sit together, eat together, argue about God together, indifferent to
caste, birth or station. (Karnad 21)

All these are going on in the city of Kalyan and it will not be solved because they are

insufferable moralists. For Bijjala, an ethics designed for rulers. “Worse still is their

bhakti, their relentless devotion, their incessant craving for the Lord‟s grace. I‟ve built

temples to keep my subjects happy. But the one truth I know is that I exist and God

doesn‟t” (Karnad 22).This play delineates the issue of both inter-religious and intra-

religious problems. Karnad‟s Tale-Danda is dealt with the issue of deconstruction of

caste and religion to arrive at its proper meaning. Karnad brings upon a theme of

wrath and orthodox traditional caste system which claims that a king is a„Rajput‟or a

Kshatriya. Jagadeva being an ardent and trusted disciple of Basavanna has his

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intimate proximity with Basavanna. Bhakti religion believed in proselytization unlike

classicism or Hinduism.

India is a multi-cultural country and in India it is very difficult to erase one‟s

original caste but the Sharanas lived a life with mixed identity. They treated king

Bijjala with respect as the king himself says:

In all my sixty-two years, the only people who have looked me in the eye
without a reference to my lowly birth lurking deep in their eyes are the
sharanas: Basavanna and his men. They treat me as – as what? – (Almost with
a sense of wonder) as a human being. (Karnad 21)

Basavanna laments his inability to convert his people completely: “There‟s famine

raging in Andhra. These poor souls have trecked for weeks in search of food and

shelter. But our people won‟t let them stray this side of the river because of their low

caste. I tell you, for sheer inhumanity our people have no equal” (Karnad 42). He tries

to protest against the dogmatism and bigotry of the society. This play deals with the

rise of radical protest and reform movement „Veerashaivism‟ which was a powerful

social movement in the twelfth century Karnataka.„Veerashaivism‟ faced a kind of

strong opposition from orthodox sections of Hinduism and in this movement

Brahmins were strongly opposed because their position and power came to be

challenged by the new faith.

This play is a complicated dramatic representation caused by the Hindu myth.

It is a revolutionary play by Karnad which criticizes as well as protests against the

myth propounding the theory of human beings‟ birth from different parts of Brahma.

In the Ancient Hindu Dharmashastra, it is said that Brahmins or priests were born

from the head of Brahma, Kshatriyas (including kings and warriors) were from the

arms,Vaishyas as well as tradesman were from the thighs and Shudras and Panchamas

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i.e., craftsman and menial works were derived from the feet. These rituals of castes

are believed by so many people. In the Hindu society, Shudras were treated in

inhuman way. It is the “Sharana movement” through which Basavanna fought against

the orthodox practice of caste system. Basavanna is considered as a „Viswa-guru‟

whose teachings are needed for the welfare of all mankind. His principle aim is to

show equal opportunity due to gender, caste and social status. Tale-Danda is based on

the debate of caste-system. A person cannot be judged by his caste or religion. S/he

should be judged by his or her ability. By this play Karnad tries to build a society

eradicated from the structure of caste. He wishes to create a society where people will

sit together, eat together, argue about God together and they are indifferent to caste,

birth or situation.

In our country India, caste is inherited by birth and it cannot be changed in

any way. Karnad composed Tale-Danda in 1989 when the Mandir and Mandal

movement arised. Caste system creates a kind of religious fanaticism which is

responsible for horrible consequence. Tale-Danda is a Kannada play written by

Karnad in the background of Mandir - Mandal conflict. In the twelfth century Kalyan

was a centre of tensions and conflicts. In the play Tale-Danda, hatred is occurred

between man and man and it creates a kind of merciless violence. This type of

violence was not unexpected in the post Gandhian society. Basavanna wants to build a

society which is free from all types of caste-barriers. It reminds us of Gandhi‟s view

of creating a society free from caste restriction. Basavanna‟s character is compared

with the character of Gandhi and the moral fibre of Basavanna‟s character was very

akin to that of Gandhi and so the followers of Basavanna were appeared like the

followers of Gandhi. Basavanna‟s character showed a strong Gandhian empathy for

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the people of lower caste.The character of Bijjala stands in contrast to Basavanna. For

Bijjala, inter-caste marriage means not a violation against social and moral codes but

it creates an inevitable impact upon social and political aspects of his kingdom. So

Karnad‟s representation of these two characters Basavanna and Bijjala stand with

their diametrically polar worldview.

Tale-Danda composed in 1990 is the episode of the life of the twelfth century

Lingayat saint as well as the founder of the movement, Basavanna. Basavanna is the

protagonist of the play who assembled a congregation of poets, mystics, social

revolutionaries and philosophers. His congregation is called „Lingayats‟ and their

religion is called „Lingayatism‟. „Lingayatism‟ is an independent religion in India and

the adherents of this religion are known as „Lingayats‟. This congregation has created

a revolution in the history of India and it also creates a courageous questioning and

social commitment. The adherents of this religion talked of both God and human

beings in the mother tongue of the common people. They believed in the equality of

sexes and they condemned idolatry and temple worship. They opposed caste system

not in theory but in practice. This religion shows a reform movement attributed to

Basavanna and his other followers in the twelfth century. Karnad shows the picture of

Lingayat tradition from more than eight centuries earlier which criticizes brutality,

atrocity and violence committed in the name of religion.

Basavanna establishes “Anubhava Mantapa” as a unique academy of socio-

spiritual and religious experiences. The basic notion of this religious group is that

everybody is a devotee and ultimate offspring of Lord Shiva. Basavanna‟s words are

prominent to the modern Indian socio-political crisis when he says: “What the world

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thinks is immaterial. It is a question of living and breathing human beings. A question

of that boy‟s life, that girl‟s safety.What matters is what we consider right” (Karnad

52). Ananda Lal in his article “We have a Play to Perform Today!” : Karnad‟s Plays

on Stage: 1984-1994 , says that this play is “against a vast and looming cyclorama of

historical fact that constitutes the drama of life” (Lal 234).The play consists of three

Acts. The first act revolves around the character Basavanna, the accusation which he

faces and the effect of these accusations. The second act examines a kind of

repercussion which is erupting out of the marital proposal of Madhuvarasa‟s daughter

with the son of Haralayya.The third act takes us to the climax when Sovideva seizes

his father Bijjala and imprisons him. Bijjala is assassinated by Jagadeva in a conflict

of peevish rebellion. In this play, characters are grouped into two classes – Sharanas

and Brahamanas. King Bijjala, Basavanna, Jagadeva, Haralayya, Madhuvarasa and all

the Sharanas want dismissal of the caste system whereas Sovideva, Manchanna

Kramita and Damodara Bhatta advocate “Vedic dharma”. Karnad wants to focus on

the turbulence within a society and it is exploited by political opportunists.

Casteism and Orthodox Religion:

This play is actually a representation of re-viewing of the social turmoil of Kalyan in

the twelfth century. This play is based on the democratic principles of universal love

and good will. From the very first scene, casteism is prominent. In the first scene,

Jagadeva (Sharana, Brahmin by birth) and Mallibomma (Sharana, Tanner by birth)

enter the street in front of Jagadeva‟s house. As Mallibomma is a tanner by birth so he

thinks that he shouldn‟t even step in the Brahmin Street and to enter into a Brahmin‟s

house is beyond his thought. But when he is forced to come into Jagadeva‟s house by

Jagadeva himself, Bhagirathi, the friend of Jagadeva‟s mother does not like his

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presence and scorns Jagadeva harshly: “This is a Brahmin household. Do you mind

standing a little aside so the women of the house can move about freely? What are we

to do if you plant yourself on the doorstep like a feudal chieftain?” (Karnad 9).

Orthodox religion has greatly affected the radical movement of the Sharanas.

Damodara Bhatta who is the priest of queen takes marriage as a great blow to the

Vedic civilization and it launches an audacious attack on the Hindu religion. Jagadeva

is a young Brahmin who is convented to Sharana hankers for leadership and publicity.

King Bijala is not free from painful experiences inflicted by his caste and lowly

origin. Karnad has introduced some changes and at the same time he has advocated

and propagated spiritual, moral and egalitarian values for peaceful and purposeful life.

The Shudras in the Hindu society were treated in an inhuman way. Through the

Sharana movement, the playwright exposes the exploitative, diplomatic and orthodox

nature of Brahmins and he analyses minutely the pride and self-righteousness of

Sharanas. King Bijjala approved of the sincerity of Sharanas. In the Hindu society,

Jagadeva is a young Brahmin who is convented to Sharana and he hankers for

leadership and publicity. King Bijjala is not a Kshatriya by birth and was not

interested in the success of the movement. Through the “Sharana movement”, Karnad

has fought against the practice of caste system.

In the first scene we understand that Jagadeva being a Brahmin does not bother

about casteism. He has free thinking.When Jagadeva refuses to go in the house

without Mallibomma, Amba, mother of Jagadeva asks Mallibomma to come in. But

Mallibomma explains his identity as the son of Tanner Kariya and Amba gives the

permission to come into their Brahmin house but in that condition that she will purify

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the house after the departure of Mallibomma. Mallibomma‟s entry in the house

becomes a show-off scene for the neighbouring houses so women, children and old

men gather to watch the scene. Attitude of the neighbours proves how much

prominent was caste-system in the contemporary society. Shambashiva Shastri, the

father of Jagadeva is ill and now his condition becomes too much serious. He talks so

many words like a mentally diseased person as he is going to die. Shastri tells

Jagadeva addressing his body as it is a dead body: “Take it off the bed. Be quick.

Why are you ignoring it? Pick it up –” (Karnad 12). “It‟s lying there unattended. Put it

on the floor, fold its legs, otherwise it won‟t fit on the bier. Jagganna – where is

Jagganna? Send for the bamboos and rope” (Karnad 13).It may be that the presence of

Mallibomma makes the condition of Shastri‟s health deteriorate. Shastri probably

cannot tolerate the presence of a Tanner in his house.

In the play a person is not identified by his attitude or behaviour, he is

identified only by his caste, he is considered not as a normal human being just like

Brahmana. In the Scene Two, there is a conflict between Sovideva, the son of Bijjala

and Bijjala himself. Sovideva, the son of Bijjala blames his father Bijjala for

encouraging the son of slaves. Sovideva cannot tolerate his father‟s indulgence of the

Sharanas as he neglects these Sharanas. The relation between Bijjala and Sovideva

and the relation between Bijjala and Rambhavati are indifferent to each other.

Casteism is responsible for this. Bijjala calls his own son by using these words:

“Where is that son of a whore?” (Karnad17). Bijjala tries to bind all castes as well as

all religions into one tune. He gives the description of himself: “I am Bijjala, the

Emperor of Kalyan, the strong - shouldered Kalachurya conqueror!” (Karnad 20).

“I am a Kalachurya. Katta churra. A barber” (Karnad 21).

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And yet you ask the most innocent child in my Empire: “what is Bijjala, son of

Kalachurya Permadi, by caste?” (Karnad 21) and an instant answer will be: “a barber!

One‟s caste is like the skin on one‟s body. You can peel it off top to toe, but when the

new skin forms, there you are again: a barber –a shepherd –a scavenger!” (Karnad

21).In Scene Three, we find the character Manchanna Kramita who is the

representation of a Brahmin and he is an adviser to the king. In Kramita‟s words,

there is a touch of religiosity: “The devotee weeps and God performs a miracle. The

devotee laughs and He performs another. Our gods have been transformed into a mob

of perpetual conjurers” (Karnad 29). Basavanna thinks that the same enthusiasts damn

him as a murderer so Basavanna‟s companions can turn Bijjala into a wonder-worker.

Belief on God:

In the drama, so many characters are present who are religious by heart and they are

totally devoted to God and in their words, God is mentioned. For example, in Scene

Four, Basavanna says: “I hoped to call on him as soon as I returned to Kalyan, but

there was this business at the Treasury. Never got to see him again.God‟s will”

(Karnad 34). Amba comments in a helpless situation: “People are under your spell.

They say Lord Shiva performs miracles for you. That‟s good. God did nothing for us

in this house – not that we are worthy of it!” (Karnad 34). Basavanna‟s another words:

“The Lord has tied us to one another with bonds beyond our comprehension. I‟ll tell

you something – something I have not breathed to anybody else. One night the mystic

Allama and I were sitting talking late into the night. He is one of the few I know to

have attained a state of grace” (Karnad 39). Mentioning of God and Lord by the

characters of the play proves that at that time, people have full belief on God.

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 Priest says that the Brahmin has invoked the departed spirit. In the play, there

is a picture of the smashing of the naked idols in it and the juxtaposition of one temple

into another. Basavanna describes how some people have occupied a Jain temple by

force and power: “Yes, some of our people have occupied a Jain temple there by

force. They are threatening to smash the naked idols in it and turn it into a Shiva

temple” (Karnad 36). In Basavanna‟s words, name of God Shiva is mentioned. Even

in Scene Four, the Kalayya‟s words also present his belief on God. Kalayya:

“Basavanna, these tribals have brought their god with them. You should see that idol.

Rolling eyes. A tongue lolling out. It‟s very funny” (Karnad 41). Jagadeva asks

Basavanna that he knows how the Jains bait us, provoke us – Basavanna thinks that

violence is wrong whatever the provocation. In the name of religion and in the name

of God, something is written there:

The rich
will make temples for Shiva
What shall I,
a poor man,
do?
My legs are pillars,
the body the shrine,
the head a cupola
of gold.
Listen, O Lord of the meeting rivers,
things standing shall fall,
but the moving shall ever stay. (Karnad 36-7)

From the mentioning of the name of God Shiva, we understand that in the play even

the tribals have belief in God. In Madhuvarasa‟s words, we also find the mentioning

of the God Lord Shiva. Madhuvarasa: “Like Lord Shiva himself, we shall drink that

venom and hold it blocked in our throats!” (Karnad 45). Lalita‟s words: “Every full

moon night, Goddess Dyamavva of the Banyan Tree speaks. Through his mother”

(Karnad 48). “Because I am a devotee of the goddess. I know Basavanna forbids it as

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blind superstition, but I am!” (Karnad 49). Bijjala‟s words: “You, men of God, are

truly fortunate. We kings, however, belong to the secular world. (Pointedly.) We are

not so fortunate” (Karnad 53).

So mentioning of God by so many characters proves that at that time, people

have complete faith on God. So belief on God is present that means religion is also

present in this play. In our society, there is different view of religion for different kind

of people. Human being‟s thinking about religion and God is different from each

other. God is nothing but a symbol of completeness.Whenever a human being quests

for completeness, he seeks inspiration and guidance from God. Belief on God is

actually belief on one‟s self. One embraces the path of self improvement guided by

those Godly men who have succeeded in art, science and sports buoyed up by their

unshaken faith in God. Man actually seeks divine help to overcome the hindrances of

life. This divine help is self-help. So one‟s religion is actually one‟s own wanting for

his or her purpose. Many people go to the temple to seek blessing of God for good

performances in their work. But they pray blessing for their own success and for their

own help. So help from God is actually called self-help. Belief on God means belief

on religion. So the existence of religion or God is nothing but the creation of human

being‟s own belief in their own existence and in their self-existence. God means

„Narayana‟ and „Narayana‟ is present in each and every human being and so the

philosopher like Kierkegaard stresses on man‟s subjectivity and he accepts that there

are transcendental values that come from God. Kierkegaard thinks that from religion,

individuals experience both suffering and faith. Faith is being authentic to one‟s self.

Only God can understand reality and no man apprehend reality in its totality. In the

world, there are so many mortals who have no moral conscience to do right things, so

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an authority from divinity is necessary to prevent them from evil deeds or wrong

doings.

Inter-caste Marriage as an Offence:

In the play we see that a marriage ceremony is going to be held between Kalavati, a

Brahmin girl and Sheelavanta, a Cobbler‟s son. But this kind of ceremony is taken as

an offence in the eyes of society. Marriage between a Brahmin daughter and a

Cobbler‟s son is like a bond between the sky and the primordial elements of nature.

So here Karnad weaves theatrical epitomes. Sheelavanta himself does not want

marriage because he is from the lower class. Kalavati is as innocent as a flower and

Sheelavanta does not like to hurt her and does not want to ruin her life as she will be

teased as a Cobbler‟s priestess just after the marriage with Sheelavanta. Sheelavanta

does not find anything wrong in his profession of stitching footwear. But Kalavati

cannot tolerate the bad smell of leather. When Kalavati passes a Cobbler‟s shop, she

holds her nose. Kalavati‟s mother Lalita also cannot accept this marriage because in

her opinion a Brahmin boy is suitable for her gem like daughter Kalavati. After all,

this is a question of her daughter‟s life. Kalavati was told that it was unclean to touch

any leather except deer-skin: “How can she start skinning dead buffalos tomorrow?

Or tan leather?” (Karnad 48). “She gets a splitting headache if she so much as smells

burning camphor. She is so …so…tender. Each time she returns from the cobbler‟s

street, she throws up and takes to bed” (Karnad 48) – all these words said by

Lalitamba indicate that her daughter cannot spend her life with a Sharana or a Cobbler

like Sheelavanta. But at the same time Madhuvarasa, the father of Kalavati accepts

this marriage. He has no hatred for the Sharanas. So the point of view of caste system

is different for different types of persons even in the same family.When the wedding

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procession (Scene Six) with Sheelavanta and Kalavati winds down the streets of

Kalyan, they are taken as a bridal pair.The situation becomes very tense and naturally

the Sharanas become insecure and afraid.This wedding procession is noticed by so

many people from their roof-tops. This matter is considered as shameful. According

to Rig Veda, four varnas flowed out of the Primordial Man:

the Brahmin from the head, the Shudra from the feet. So what we have here in
this wedding is the desecration of the body of that Purusha. How horrifying!
What‟s worse, the person behind this crime is not an insolent Shudra or a
rebellious untouchable –but a Brahmin, endowed with youth, erudition,
eloquence and intelligence! What perversity drives him to this sacrilege –this
profanity? (Karnad 62-3)

Here Indrani who is a courtesan is in favour of Sharanas as the Sharanas are helpful

for the down-trodden and the destitute woman like Indrani. Damodara accepts

differences among religions. To him „dharma‟ is large-hearted:

One‟s caste is like one‟s home – meant for one‟s self and one‟s family. It is
shaped to one‟s needs, one‟s comforts, one‟s traditions. And that is why the
Vedic tradition can absorb and accommodate all differences, from Kashmir to
Kanya Kumari. And even those said to be its victims have embraced its logic
of inequality. (Karnad 63)

But Basavanna‟s view about religion is different from Damodara. He believes in

oneness of God. For him God or religion is same for all kinds of people. For him

Brahmin:

is like the jackal

who eats the vomit-nut,
gets dizzy,
and thinks all creation
is whirling:
why talk of these twice born
who caste-mark their bodies with mud?
If the owl blinded by day
thinks it‟s nightfall
does the world plunge into night,
you crazy fool? (Karnad 63-4)

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At the same time he mocks about Shudras:

The pot is a god. The winnowing

fan is a god. The stone in the
street is a god. The comb is a
god. The bowstring is also a god.
Gods, gods, there are so many
there‟s no place left
for a foot. (Karnad 64)

It is really amazing that in our society the view of caste is totally different for

different people. A person juxtaposes his eyes on caste from his own perspective and

marriage is taken not as a unity between two persons but as a unity between two

castes. Difference between castes becomes the main hindrance at the path of marriage.

But in our society there are some people belonging from higher classes who cannot

tolerate the distinction between caste systems. Basavanna being a Brahmin rebels

against the rigid practices of the caste system and eventually presents his own

theosophy with a casteless society at its core. But there is a hindrance in the life-style

and thinking of high and low-caste. Even today in the villages, caste-system is very

prominent. Marriage between two different castes is considered as a terrific sin as it is

against the social norm. So this kind of ceremony breaks down the rules and

regulations of society.

Caste-Consciousness as a Curse:

The marriage between Sheelavanta and Kalavati is just like an unpleasant event.

Madhuvarasa rightly thinks that the world is awe-struck at the wedding of

Sheelavanta and Kalavati. Inter-caste marriage is taken as a crime in our society and it

creates violence in our society. Here a Brahmin girl chooses to marry an untouchable

boy and there are two hundred thousand people who support it. So, it is just like a

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miracle that Basavanna has performed. So many persons‟ view about marriage is

different. Kakkayya‟s view about Sharana is very generous. According to Kakkayya,

“We are all sharanas. We have surrendered ourselves to Lord Shiva. There is no caste

among sharanas, neither Brahmin nor cobbler. This alliance is a cause for

celebration” (Karnad 45). But Haralayya himself does not want this marriage because

he is conscious about caste: “When your husband proposed this alliance to me, my

first thought was: „I wasn‟t even allowed to dream of upper-caste girls. Now this one

falls right into my son‟s lap!‟” (Karnad 50). Madhuvarasa comments: “The world is

awe-struck at the wedding of Sheela and Kalavati. We sharanas have at last shown

our mettle, our indomitable spirit. And after all that, you want to lay the credit at the

king‟s feet? I can‟t believe it!”(Karnad 74).

Caste consciousness is the main cause which resists people from mingling

with other castes. The origin of caste system is very prominent in our history as it is

an age old phenomenon. From the very beginning of civilization, it is seen that upper-

caste Hindus are always treating the lower-caste people in inhuman ways and now it

has become a tradition. Lower-caste people have to suffer at the hands of upper-caste

people as they are oppressed and exploited. Even in the twentieth century, the conflict

between Hindu and Muslim was prominent. Ayodhya – one of the most ancient

largest and significant of Indian towns is the birthplace of Rama and the agitations

regarding the alleged birthplace of Rama on the site of Babri Mosque started. The

agitations led to the mosque‟s destruction by Hindu activists in a riot in 1992. This

kind of destruction and protests against the policy of caste reservation shows the

religious fanaticism of the contemporary time. Religious fanaticism and

consciousness of religion reminds us of Kushwant Singh‟s novel Train to Pakistan.

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Train to Pakistan (1956), Khushwant Singh‟s debut novel is the prototype of a

conflict of cultures and ethnic violence. It is based on the partition of our country

India in August 1947 which is the main reason of the conflict of cultures and violence

between two castes – Muslims and Hindus which is caused by an acute sense of

fundamentalism. This novel recounts us the story of Mano Majra. Mano Majra is an

obscure and nondescript village in Punjab countryside situated on the borders of India

and Pakistan in the year 1947. The fact is highlighted in the following words: “The

Muslims said the Hindus had planned and started the killing. According to the

Hindus, the Muslims were to blame. The fact is, both sides killed. Both shot and

stabbed and speared and clubbed. Both tortured. Both raped” (Singh1).

In this novel Train to Pakistan, we find a typical picture of violence between

Hindus and Muslims which started from Calcutta and became contagious to the

village Mano Majra. Mano Majra is a multi-ethnic village on the border of India and

Pakistan. During this time, both Hindu and Muslim try to massacre themselves so that

they create a kind of riot and the message was that the government was planning to

transport Muslims from Mano Majra to Pakistan for their safety and security. Mano

Majra, an obscure village is described in the year 1947. At the time of the flood, the

countless Hindus and Sikhs from Bengal to the North West Frontier was forced to be

homeless and fled to their respective community areas.They were transported by

bullock carts, lorries and even on the roof of trains and other members were forced to

go by railroads. Almost a million of them were dead. The fictional village Mano

Majra has a railway station, a Gurdwara and a Mosque. There is the house of a

moneylender named Lala Ram Lal and Lala Ram Lal‟s family is the only Hindu

family among the seventy families. Before the riot, all the people of different religions

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used to live in the village in a cultural harmony. There was a small colony of

shopkeepers and hawkers at the railway station. They were to supply betel leaves,

traveller‟s food, teas, biscuits, cigarettes and sweetmeats.

The whole picture of the village presents a good cultural understanding among

the villagers. Muslim Mullah at the Mosque sings „Allah-o-Akbar‟ and Sikh priests‟

prayer from Gurdwara succeeds them. This context shows the cross-cultural contact

of various types of religion. There is the symptom of cultural and religious harmony

in the village where people of different sects, castes, races and religions live together

accepting the fraternity of brotherhood. But the riot has made them confused

ethnically and culturally in a harmony. At the core of the novel, there is a character

named Jugga – a giant Sikh who performs the role of a „picaro‟ or „vagabond‟ and he

is always in and out of prison. Jugga has a tragic affair with Nooran, the local Imam‟s

daughter. Ramlal, the village money lender and member of Hindu family is looted and

murdered by Malli, a dacoit from the neighbouring village and Jugga gets arrested

under the pretext of suspicion, along with Iqbal Singh. Mano Majra was such a village

where people were illiterate but very religious and at the same time superstitious. In

this village Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs – all have been living together from a long

time. Partition of country does not affect much on them. So, Sub-Inspector rightly

comments:

I am sure no one in Mano Majra even knows that the British have left and the
country is divided into Pakistan and Hindustan. Some of them know about
Gandhi but I doubt if anyone has ever heard of Jinnah. Looting of Hindu
family by Sikh person creates a kind of horrendous conflict between two
religions and it destroys the relation between two religions. But the love story
of Jugga and Nooran – a Sikh boy and Muslim girl is plunged into the abyss of
religion. Division of country as well as division of religion totally destroys the
unity among the people of Mano Majra. But the real striking scene occurs
when a train comes in the summer of 1947 bearing hundreds of corpses in the

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 village. One day at the end of the Summer, the “ghost train” arrives, an
incredible funeral train which is speechless but loaded with the bodies of
thousands of refugees. This ghost train creates a kind of dark force of violence
and revenge. The village is merged with fear and panic with decomposed
bodies. The traditional bonds of friendship and fraternity of brotherhood – all
are totally destroyed. (Singh 8)

The first sentence of the novel is: “The Summer of 1947 was not like other Indian

Summers” (Singh 1). Harmony denigrates into disharmony, lurking suspicion

transforms into intense hatred and the innocent people of Mano Majra are deeply

influenced by selfishness, skepticism, suspicion, mistrust, brutality, atrocity and

cruelty. Religion as well as caste consciousness is an indispensable part of Hindu

society which is deeply rooted in the psyche of Indian people. There are so many

social reformists like Mahatma Pule, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, Rajarshi Chhatrapati

Shahu Maharaj, Mahatma Gandhi, Saint Mira and Saint Kabir who try their best to

remove caste barriers from our society. There are so many reformists like Mahatma

Gandhi and Ambedkar who protested against caste-system and put into inter-caste

marriage in our society. Inter-caste marriage can be chosen as an important way to

eliminate bias, bigotry, dogmas, brutality, atrocity, cruelty and misunderstanding

among different types of castes. Vijay Tendulkar, Bhabani Bhattacharya, Mulk Raj

Anand and Girish Karnad – all these dramatists dramatize the evil aspects of society

to reflect its true face.

Inter-caste marriage is depicted by so many dramatists in their writings.Vijay

Tendulkar in Kanyadaan shows an inter-caste marriage between a Brahmin girl and a

Dalit boy which is nothing but an experiment to eradicate caste distinction from our

society. Jyoti, a young Brahmin girl from a socially and politically active family

wants to marry Arun, a Dalit youth from village. Nath, the father of Jyoti accepts this

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marriage as he wants to reform society by eradicating caste-system. Nath becomes

enthusiastic as he faces opposition from his wife and son and argues in favour of

Jyoti. But Nath‟s decision proves as a false thing. Arun is identified as a person of

different nature. As Arun is from lower-caste, he has already gained bitter experience

of disillusionment and suppression in a caste structured society which make him react

brutally upon his wife and her parents. Arun‟s marriage with an upper-caste Brahmin

girl gives him a golden opportunity to take revenge upon upper-caste. Arun‟s active

voice becomes an instrument which tries to express the suppressed Dalit‟s voice to

construct the caste identity. He feels an authorial right on Jyoti and he starts to beat

and abuse her.

Karnad shows the evil aspect of the society by using drama as a weapon.

Karnad‟s arrangement of inter-caste marriage is a solution to remove caste barrier

from our society. In the play Karnad‟s endeavour is to break the age-old stereotypes.

The plot of Tale-Danda is centred on the great religious upheaval of „Shaivism‟.

„Shaivism‟ is the name which is given to the sects. Karnad‟s Tale-Danda is the drama

of ideas which is based on the religious upheaval and the social reform.This play has a

humanistic approach with an appeal of social justice. The play presents such aspect of

society which accepts human beings only as human beings and it rejects the division

of society on the basis of caste or creed. Here Karnad very clearly observes on the

age-old rituals by the Brahmins and their maintaining distance from the untouchables.

The Brahmin society is so orthodox that it forces Sharana Jagadeva to observe

Brahminical rituals at the death of his father. In this play, inter-caste marriage is taken

as a central issue of “Sharana movement”.

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 In Tale-Danda Karnad juxtaposes the problems of caste war and restrictions

on inter-caste marriage. In Hindu „dharma‟, there are two kinds of inter-Varna

marriages – (a) „Anuloma‟ (hypogamous) marriage – the marriage of a high Varna

man with a lower Varna woman can be tolerated. (b) „Pratiloma‟ (hypergamous)

marriage – the marriage of a lower Varna man with a higher Varna woman is

condemned and unacceptable. In the ancient Manava-Dharmashastra, Manu

condemns the offspring of a Shudra man and a Brahmin woman as „fierce‟

untouchables. Though Inter -Varna marriage was allowed in the Vedic era but this

was strictly banned and so hard restrictions were imposed later on. In 1872, a special

Marriage Act was passed by the English rulers for allowing inter-caste marriages. Dr.

B. R. Ambedkar included inter-caste marriage in the Hindu Code Bill as Hindu

marriage rather than as Civil marriage registered under the Special Marriage Act. “On

Ambedkar Jayanti: Remembering the Annihilation of Caste”, B.R. Ambedkar in his

seminal, unspoken speech, “Annihilation of Caste”, comments: “… intermarriage as a

possible solution to the insidiousness of the caste hierarchy” (Ambedkar). Ambedkar

wrote in a lecture he was to deliver to the Jat-Pat Todak Mandal in Lahore in 1936 at

their annual conference, which was later cancelled: “The real remedy for breaking

caste is inter-caste marriage. Nothing else will serve as the solvent of caste”

(Ambedkar). Ambedkar also says:

Caste is not a physical object like a wall of bricks or a line of barbed wire
which prevents the Hindus from commingling and which has, therefore, to be
pulled down. Caste is a notion; it is a state of mind. The destruction of caste
does not therefore mean the destruction of a physical barrier. It means a
notional change. (Ambedkar)

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Himself a Dalit, Ambedkar married a Brahmin woman. Even today our Indian society

has hold up some dogmatic rituals and keeps it cemented and when these rituals are

broken, it becomes a dangerous matter. Bijjala discusses with Basavanna:

As a child, you tore up your sacred thread and ran away from home. Birth,
caste and creed mean nothing to you. But don‟t you delude yourself about
your companions, friend. If you really free them from the network of brothers,
sisters, sons, daughters, uncles and second cousins, and let them loose in a
casteless society, they will merely sputter about like a pile of fish on the sands
and die! (Karnad 27)

The marriage of Kalavati, daughter of Brahmin parents, Madhuvarasa and Lalitamba,

to Sheelavanta, the son of a Cobbler Haralayya and Kalyani, creates a catastrophic

consequence in the play. Basavanna, despite all his preaching against caste system, is

nonplussed when he hears of this alliance. He tries to explain the enthusiastic

Sharanas: “The orthodox will see this mingling of castes as a blow at the very roots of

the varnashrama dharma. Bigotry has not faced such a challenge in two thousand

years” (Karnad 45). “It‟s a question of life and death for these children…Who will

protect them then?” (Karnad 45-6). When Bijjala comes to know about the marriage,

he goes to meet Basavanna to request him to call it off, because he knows that the

higher castes will not accept it. Damodara Bhatta takes this proposed marriage as a

severe attack on the ancient Hindu culture and the Vedic tradition. He thinks that

inequality is inherent in nature itself and this hierarchy is a fundamental necessity of

human culture. In his view:

One‟s caste is like one‟s home – meant for one‟s self and one‟s family. It is
shaped to one‟s needs, one‟s comforts, one‟s traditions. And that is why the
Vedic tradition can absorb and accommodate all differences, from Kashmir to
Kanya Kumari. And even those said to be its victims have embraced its logic
of inequality. (Karnad 63)

It is this type of marriage that brings harrowing events of betrayal, menacing, anarchy

and destruction on Sharanas and King Bijjala. The prophecy made by the Goddess

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Dyamavva of the Banyan Tree to Haralayya‟s mother on a full moon day: “Rivers of

blood will flow if the marriage takes place” (Karnad 49) and “human limbs will rot in

the streets” (Karnad 49) prove real. The whole city of Kalyan is bathed in the blood of

innocent people because the power mongers and the obscurantist nobilities did not

accept the change. Basavanna and Bijjala‟s pragmatic ideals were overthrown by the

ambition of prince Sovideva and the political intrigues of orthodox forces were

represented by Damodara Bhatta and Manchanna Kramita. Bijjala‟s own son revolts

against him and imprisons him by bribing Bijjala‟s own men. Kallappa‟s situation is

more pathetic because he could not be bribed so he is killed. Bijjala is killed by

Jagadeva very cruelly inside a sanctum. At the climax, Manchanna Kramita

comments about inter-caste marriage:

That inter-caste wedding shook every citizen of Kalyan. For him it meant an
era in which any untouchable could ask for his daughter‟s hand in marriage! A
nightmare! So he supported us against your father. Yet he needs the sharanas
for his profits. It‟s a bond of greed – of mercantile calculation. And that has to
be severed. (Karnad 87)

In the play the bloodshed and chaos both are reminiscent of the atmosphere of

uneasiness during the partition of India. The play depicts a strong opposition and at

the same time, it rejects the social change which creates social and political

restlessness because of handful authorities that persist to maintain a kind of social

order and system as a stigma of our society and culture. When the Sharanas flee

Kalyan, they spread out in all eight directions. Sovideva orders to kill Sharanas

wherever they are caught: “Pursue them. Don‟t let them escape. Men, women,

children – cut them all down. Set the hounds after them…Burn the houses that give

them shelter. Burn their books…Tear them into shreds and consign them to the wells”

(Karnad 101). The new King Sovideva declares:

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 From this moment all sharanas, foreigners, and free thinkers are expelled
from this land on pain of death.Women and the lower orders shall live within
the norms prescribed by our ancient tradition, or else they‟ll suffer like dogs.
Each citizen shall consider himself a soldier ready to lay down his life for the
King. For the King is God incarnate! (Karnad 101)

In the play, Vedic people chanted at the coronation of Sovideva that re-

established the caste order in Kalyan. Thus, all the efforts to establish a casteless

society become futile. The playwright has highlighted on the orthodox and diplomatic

nature of upper ruling class and makes a careful examination of pride and self -

righteousness of Sharanas. At the prospect of an inter-caste marriage both the parents

of Kalavati and Sheelavanta are unwilling to listen to their children and they want to

prove their sincere concern for the movement.

Casteism Affects Condition of Women:

From ages to ages, always women of our society are affected by casteism and

similarly in the play Tale-Danda, the condition of women is affected by casteism.

Madhuvarasa goes on to say: “I shall not hesitate to sacrifice my daughter‟s life to

forward the cause of our great movement” (Karnad 46). He behaves in the manner of

a dogmatic typical father who dares not hesitate to sacrifice the life of his daughter in

the name of Machiavellian ideologies like religion, gotra or caste etc. Basavanna‟s

teachings that no one has a right to sacrifice anyone, not even himself, is soon turned

down by Haralayya who says: “The word „sacrifice‟ strikes terror in me. Too long

have my people sacrificed our women to the greed of the upper castes, our sons to

their cosmic theories of rebirth. No more sacrifices, please” (Karnad 46).

Ironically, even after passing of centuries, the condition of women in our

society has not improved. Even today in the 21st century, through-out the whole world

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the women are sold, bought, abducted, raped and exploited by various ways. Women

are considered only as a means to satisfy the lust of male, specially the lower-caste

women are exploited by higher-caste male. Now if we survey the latest incidents of

crimes committed on women, the rape and physical harassments cases have increased

abundantly and that is enough to uncover the so-called fair image of our nation world-

wide. The incidents of gang rape and selling of women occur openly in all cities. In

16th December, 2012, a gang rape occurred in Munirka, a neighbourhood in South

Delhi. A twenty three year old physiotherapy intern Jyoti Singh Pandey was beaten,

tortured and gang raped in a private bus. In Aligarh, Twinkle Sharma was raped and

strangled very cruelly on 7th June, 2019. Even today, in this 21st century, women are

always the victim of torture and oppression by male dominated society.

The play Tale-Danda deals with such issues which are related to the authority

of parents imposing their decision on their daughters. In our nation, women are not

given the right of taking their own decision. From the decision of career to marriage,

everything for women is destined by their father. When Sheelavanta, the son of

Haralayya, is asked by Kakkayya for his marriage prospectus, the former is

dumbfounded. He looks at his parents for their response and is confused a lot. It

means decision of marriage for a woman is totally under parental control. So, women

of all castes are affected by casteism and patriarchal domination.

Caste-Ridden Politics:

India is a multi-cultural country where it is very difficult to erase the petty-

mindedness regarding one‟s original caste-identity. India is full of caste-ridden

politics.The play has a humanistic approach with an appeal for social justice.

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Basavanna mourns over his inefficiency as he is not able to take out his people from

caste-ridden politics: “There‟s famine raging in Andhra. These poor souls have

trecked for weeks in search of food and shelter. But our people won‟t let them stray

this side of the river because of their low caste. I tell you, for sheer inhumanity our

people have no equal” (Karnad 42).

Moreover, the Sharanas were not satisfied with their own religion as it divides

the Sharanas into two parts – superior Sharanas and inferior Non-Sharanas i.e. a

hierarchy. The marriage arranged by the Sharanas was not a trifling matter because it

stands for “Vedic dharma” and it has branched out its strength over the centuries. In

the context of the post-independent India, the population of Sharanas represents the

consolidation of anti-Brahmanical subaltern collectivities and it helps to gather stram

in different parts of the country. Bijjala remains fettered by his caste-identity and he

typifies the response of many lower caste and outcaste individuals. Basavanna and his

associates represent a highly evolved group of subalterns and help to offer an

idealized vision of a casteless society: “In all my sixty-two years, the only people who

have looked me in the eye without a reference to my lowly birth lurking deep in their

eyes are the sharanas: Basavanna and his men. They treat me as – as what? – (Almost

with a sense of wonder.) as a human being” (Karnad 21).

The playwright not only exposes the exploitative, diplomatic and orthodox

nature of Brahmins but also analyzes the pride and self-righteousness of Sharanas.

Jagadeva is a young Brahmin, who is convented to Sharana, hankers for leadership

and publicity. King Bijjala is not free from painful sufferings inflicted by his caste

and lowly origin. He was approved of sincerity of Sharanas and he was not interested

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in the success of movement. Karnad has introduced some changes and he has

propagated moral, spiritual and egalitarian values for peaceful and purposeful life.The

Shudra in the Hindu society was treated in an inhuman way but through the Sharana

movement, he fought against the orthodox practice of caste system. Karnad actually

presents the hollowness of religion which is full of pretension in the organized

religion of our society.

If we go through Tendulkar‟s Kanyadaan, we see that even after so many

years of independence, Dalits continue to suffer at the hands of the upper castes.

Jyoti‟s mother Seva, champion of women‟s right, is a socialist who works for

untouchables. But Seva is against the marriage and she warns Jyoti about the risk

involved. Arun becomes an object of study for Seva. Seva interrogates Arun about his

education, career, job, income, future plans and ownership of flat in Pune – all these

show Seva‟s authoritarian voice over Dalits. Arun being a talented and creative writer

does not try to imbibe in himself the „cultured‟ and „civilized‟ manners of the middle

class people. He beats Jyoti and abuses her parents for her caste status. „Civilization‟

and „culture‟ – these two are very important for Nath‟s family member. But their son-

in-law is totally lacking in these two aspects. He has no respect for his in-laws and

even he forgets his manliness. Both Nath and Seva understand the ugliness of Dalit

Arun. When a father gives his daughter at the hand of other man (it is called

„kanyadaan‟), he wishes to give her a happy and prosperous life. But here he

sacrifices her daughter only for social experiment and this experiment becomes totally

failed. What a condition of woman in our society where a woman is taken as an object

of experiment.

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 Similarly, if we go through Bhabani Bhattacharya‟s He Who Rides a Tiger

(1952), we can see that how two characters Kalo and Lekha regain their original

security by achieving caste of high Brahminism from the life of blacksmith. At first

we see that Kalo and Lekha, two principal characters of the novel suffer terribly for

hunger and they lose their settlement, profession, morals and goodness. Hence they

decide to ride the tiger-symbolizing relentless hunger. The story revolves around a

single character with its theme being the conflict between an individual and the

society. The protagonist‟s life shows three phases –

The first phase is the background of the hero‟s life. The hero leaves the small town in

order to escape from hunger and poverty and he goes to the big city where he has firm

belief in law, justice and social ethics. In the second phase, the actual conflict occurs.

In order to take revenge on the society, he chooses a path i.e., to ride on the tiger. He

himself becomes a part of the same class of the exploiters. The final phase indicates a

kind of self realization. Soon the protagonist realizes that the tiger is no more under

his control. Instead, he is under the controlling of the tiger. He decides to dismount it.

In the climax of the story, he dismounts and kills the tiger and conquers himself. Kalo,

the blacksmith belonging from the lower class, lives happily with his only daughter,

Chandralekha, in a small town named Jharana. He falls into victim to the devastation

wrought by the man-made famine in Bengal. Leaving his daughter at Jharana in

charge of her aunt he leaves for Calcutta.While travelling in the train he is caught by

the Police for stealing bananas and is given imprisonment for three months. Biten,

another prisoner, advises him to retaliate against the society. No sooner he is released

and he rushes to Calcutta. Destiny leads his life to a pathetic condition. He is forced to

become a pimp in a brothel because now it is the only way to earn his living. He

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decides to call his daughter only after establishing his own smithy. But at this

juncture, he faces a terrific situation which he cannot imagine even in dream. He finds

his own daughter in the harlot house protecting her from sexual assault of one of the

customers. He saves the honour of her daughter. But showing this heart-rending

event, he becomes hostile towards society. He makes Lord Shiva emerged from the

earth with the technique suggested by Biten. So he becomes successful in building a

temple with the financial aid given by a number of devotees. Lekha Christians her

father as Mangal Adhikari and the blacksmith turns into a Brahmin. Kalo starts to

perform a number of rituals in the temple to attract the devotees. He receives response

and honour for the ritual of Shiva‟s milk bath.Vishwanath, a kamar by caste, gives the

milk of Shiva‟s bath to the destitute babies dying of hunger. Lekha helps Kalo to

realize that to feed a hungry baby is more religious than to throw it into the river.

Biten is released from prison. He realises that Kalo has forgotten the pledge of the

revenge and now he is a part and parcel of social service. The friendship of Biten and

Lekha turns into love.

Kalo decides to offer him his daughter and the temple business only in one

condition – that is wearing the sacred thread. Biten is just opposite to Kalo. Biten is

by caste a Brahmin but he has already discarded the caste to avenge the society. He is

reluctant to wear the thread again. The brothel experience deters Lekha to accept

Biten as her husband. She involves herself in all the rituals of the temple. The

devotees find in her the “Mother of seven fold bliss”. But Lekha is fed up with the

hypocritical role which she has been playing with her father. She decides to marry

Seth Motichand, a middle aged rich person in order to punish herself. She thinks that

Motichand is a person who is just like a good rope to hang one with. Kalo rides the

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tiger and his turning into an exploiter is a symbol of his attempt to protest against the

exploitation. An industrious man of a small town is compelled to leave his town by

man-made famine and the plague of hunger. Three months‟ rigorous imprisonment for

such an ordinary crime breaks him. When Kalo is arrested for stealing bananas, his

good nature and past record do not rescue him. The judge‟s question was that why he

want to live? And this question upsets his faith in the value of his life and this

question helps to realize his caste consciousness. The oppressive consciousness of low

birth, poverty, hunger, and three months‟ rigorous imprisonment turn the humble

kamar into a rebel. The development of Kalo as a rebel is nothing but an outcome of a

pernicious system which has to be challenged. A small rebel was born when he sold

his tools and set off for the big city. When he puts on the sacred thread of the

Brahmin, “…a small town smith toiling from dawn to midnight for a fistful of rice …

rode a lie as if it were a tiger…” (Bhattacharya 85). That was the way to take revenge

against the society. A smith is reincarnated as a Brahmin. A convict and harlot house

procurer is turned into the priest of a temple, placing the hand of benediction on the

bowed heads of pious folks. “So had the Wheel of Karma turned!” (Bhatacharya 87).

When the magistrate comes and touches his feet he feels that he has taken the

revenge. He is at the top position than the magistrate. Thus caste consciousness

creates such circumstances in Kalo‟s life that he is compelled to change his caste. But

when he finds the feelings of sadness on his daughter‟s face he feels defeated.

Sometimes the sad face of his daughter makes him think about dismounting the tiger

but suddenly he remembers the miseries of his poverty and he is proud to take

revenge on all the exploiters.When he realizes that his daughter is with him only

physically and far away from him mentally and spiritually, he starts feeling uneasy on

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the back of the tiger. The disguise of a Brahmin begins to suffocate him. He realizes

that material success is futile if it does not lead to true happiness. In revenge, he does

not find self-fulfillment.When Lekha expresses her wish to marry Motichand, Kalo

understands that she is repaying him for his services to her. He understands the reason

of Lekha‟s emotional detachment from him. He decides to dismount the tiger and kill

it. He realizes that he can cheat the world but not himself. At this very moment of

realization the fear of hunger as well as the fear of his future disappears.

Chandralekha, who unwillingly rides the tiger with her father, does not allow herself

to be carried away like her father. She realizes that her father is forgetting his true self

and so she acts as his navigator or the mentor of his conscience. A Kamar girl retains

her original simplicity and contentment while she is acting the role of a high-caste

Brahmin girl. Lekha is a silent protester who actually wants to protest against caste

and evil social system on one hand and her father‟s deceit and fraud on the other

hand. The picture of a woman accepting prostitution due to the poverty and hunger is

very common in our society but Lekha is forced to accept prostitution not out of

poverty and hunger but out of her love for her father. An experience at the brothel

turns her life upside down. In her father‟s “Shiva rising” miracle, her inner voice

forbids her father from cheating the devotees. She gets angry with her father for his

hypocrisy. She utters sarcastic remarks on his Brahminic acts. She decides to become

the fourth wife of Seth Motichand. Her decision opens her father‟s eyes.

The situation of Kalo and Biten are just opposite to each other. Kalo belonging

to the class of the exploited turns himself into an exploiter only to take revenge upon

the exploiters; similarly Biten, who is by caste a Brahmin, allows himself to be

exploited by others as his punishment. By caste he is a Brahmin named Bikash

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Mukherjee, but he personates himself as a man of “a convict class”. He repudiates his

caste and suffers just like a low-caste person. He does not reveal his name and caste to

anyone. But a time comes when Bikash‟s sister commits suicide and he flings his

sacred thread away and renounces his caste. Biten advises Kalo to retaliate by

becoming a Brahmin as he knows that this is the caste which exploits other castes.

Biten feels very guilty for the exploitation of his sister by caste fellow.With the help

of Kalo, he actually takes revenge upon his own caste. Thus we find caste

consciousness of these two persons and it is the main reason for their transformation

into another caste and this transformation totally changes their life.

Similarly in Karnad‟s play Tale-Danda, Karnad exposes the ugly division of

the Hindu society. The play also uses inter-caste marriage as an experiment to cut off

caste distinction from our society and brings social equality on humanistic basis.We

have to kill the spirit of caste consciousness from our inner being. But most of the

human being cannot do so and under the leadership of Basavanna, people form a

reformist cult named„Sharana‟. Through the “Sharana movement”, he fights against

the orthodox practice of caste system. He wants to mingle the entire world with the

tune of one religion. Basavanna, being a social reformer, tries to bring social equality

by arranging an inter-caste marriage and he tries to oppose the caste system not in

theory but in practice. Madhuvarasa offers his daughter in marriage to the son of

Haralayya, a Cobbler by birth though it is against the rules of Brahmin society but

they are ready to face any type of consequences for this marriage.This marriage goes

against the Hindu orthodox society as the Sharanas feel jubilant about their great

achievement. But the whole marriage ceremony turns a wrong step as the higher caste

remains as higher caste and the lower caste as lower caste and the twain shall never

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meet. The people of higher caste do not respect king Bijjala properly: “One‟s caste is

like the skin on one‟s body. You can peel it off top to toe, but when the new skin

forms, there you are again: a barber – a shepherd – a scavenger!” (Karnad 21).

Semiotic Analysis of Religion:

Semiotics means the “study of signs and signifying practices”. According to Umberto

Eco, “semiotics is concerned with everything that can be taken as a sign” (Eco, 7).

Charles Pierce thinks that the importance of semiotics is wide ranging. Pierce says:

“[…] it has never been in my power to study anything, – mathematics, ethics,

metaphysics, gravitation, thermodynamics, optics, chemistry, comparative anatomy,

astronomy, psychology, phonetics, economics, the history of science, whist, men and

women, wine, metrology, except as a study of semiotic” (Pierce 85-6). For Pierce, any

instance of signification contains a sign-vehicle, an object and an interpretation. This

sign determines an interpretation by focusing our understanding on the relation

between sign and object. Contemporary semioticians study signs as a part of semiotic

“sign systems”. The study of religion needs semiotics because semiotics not only

helps to understand key phenomena of religion like myth and ritual but also helps for

secularization or disenchantment of the world. In Christian religion, the sacrifice of

Christ on the cross silenced pagan oracles and abrogated the Jewish ceremonial laws.

Semiotics helps to integrate structural and historical dimensions of the study of

religion. Semiotics offers prospect of connecting the human, social and cognitive

sciences. (Yelle)

In a text, there must be some semiotical analysis but it is very difficult to

derive the semiotical meaning underlying in a text. The story of the play is borrowed

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from really a man named Basavanna who used to live in Kalyan (present Karnataka).

The play highlights the hierarchical structure of the caste system of Hinduism. The

whole play unveils various types of paradigms that can be connected together to

create a kind of complex syntagm. Syntagms are created by the linking of signifiers

from paradigm sets which are chosen on the basis of whether they are conventionally

regarded as appropriate or may be required by some rule system (e.g., grammar).

As the play is written in the backdrop of Mandir - Mandal conflict in India, it

is a syntagmatic exposition of the Mandir and Mandal controversies of 1980s.

Through the semiotic analysis of the play, we can identify the paradigm of the play.

The first paradigm is rooted in the title of the play itself. The very title Tale-Danda is

symbolic itself. „Tale‟ means head which is the upper part of human body and

„Danda‟ means punishment. It splits not only the body but also cuts human existence

and pride. The “paying with your head” is clearly visible in so many paradigms. The

first paradigm starts from the character of Basavanna who is a Brahmin as well as a

poet-priest of Kalyan and at the same time he is a social reformer who revolts against

the religion and cast practices in the twelfth century. He is such a reformer who

advocates a new way of life wherein the divine experience was the centre of life

giving equal opportunity to all aspirants regardless of gender, caste and social status.

He tries to create a world bound with one religion.

Religion and Exploration of Chasms:

Tale-Danda identifies the need to find a kind of solution for religious conflict and

through this play Karnad tries to unite communities. Set in the twelfth century, the

play revives a kind of social upheaval and religious reforms of the period and this

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play connects both with contemporary Indian situations. Karnad creates a character

named Basavanna who dares to challenge the society‟s conventions. The dramatist

creates a maze of history, myth, religion, antiquity and modernity. The title of the play

means “death by beheading” and through this play Karnad shows us a kind of

metaphorical beheading of values which destroys the moral fabric of society.

Karnad‟s main purpose of writing Tale-Danda was to promote a kind of communal

integration and make a society free from communal violence and caste barriers.

Basavanna‟s strength and power lie in his beliefs. He leads a movement called

“Veerashaiva movement”, the members of which movement called themselves

„Sharanas‟ and their main aim is to eradicate the caste system from our society and to

maintain equality of all castes in our society.Divya Pandey comments about the play

Tale-Danda. According to Pandey:

Tale-Danda not only retrieves the history in presenting a documentary of

Veerashaiva‟s resistance to caste-system, it also condemns all kinds of
extremist ideologies in the past as well as the present. The play suggests that
no social change is plausible in extremes of prejudice as well as piety. The
play actually reconstructs the social intimations of “Veerashaiva movement”
and the history of King Baijjala. It helps to penetrate the public faces and
exploring the private anxieties of the advocates of this radical movement.
(Pandey 299)

In the newspaper Muse India, Santhosh Kumar writes:

Basaveswara, popularly known as Basavanna was the central figure of the
movement. He advocated and propagated moral, spiritual and egalitarian
values for peaceful and purposeful life. He established “Anubhava Mantapa” a
unique academy of socio-spiritual and religious experience. It was based on
democratic principles of universal love and brotherhood. Philosopher, poet
and minister Basavanna reformed and revived Veerashaivism in Karnataka.
The basic notion of this cult was that everybody is the devotee and ultimate
offspring of Lord Shiva, so all are equal without any caste or class
discrimination. (N. P.)

It is a dramatic depiction of the undesirable complexities caused by the Hindu myth

of origin of „Varnas‟. By presenting Bijjala, a Shudra and a barber by caste, as the

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king of Kalyan, Karnad actually challenges the myth of „Varnas‟. It is written in the

backdrop of Mandir - Mandal conflict and the drama draws similarities between the

Socio-Religious, Political and Economic conditions of the existing times in the

southern part of India in the twelfth century A.D. In this play, the dramatist has

focused on casteism and for an individual, his or her caste becomes the most

important theme in the play. The play conducts a kind of debate about cultural

politics and religion.

Basavanna endeavours to take the Sharanas to the convert-devotees through the

six phases of bhakti which comprises of the “bhakta phase” in which one engages in

devotion and worship, the “mahesvara phase” in which one engages in discipline

(„nishte‟), the “paradise phase” in which one receives the Lord („avadhana‟), the

“pranalinga phase” in which one moves from „avadhana‟ to experiencing the Lord,

the “sharana phase” in which a devotee surrenders and suffers in love of the Lord and

feels the divine joy (ananda) and finally in the “aikya phase”, one is ultimately united

with the „linga‟ or the Lord and merges completely in Him („samrasa‟).

Leading Role of Caste-System:

Caste system plays a leading role in our society. Karnad challenges the vices of the

caste system and he desires to create equality in society. The evolution of Karnad‟s

character is visible in the course of the play. Basavanna‟s identity is reflected through

his use of Kannada when he goes to compose poetry. His simple soul stirring poems

capture the true essence of life. This poetry is just like a religious sermon which leads

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one to the path of truth, compassion and sympathy:

Do not steal
Do not kill
Do not ever lie
Do not rage . . . (Karnad 21)

His verses mock the caste system and the superstitions which blind a man‟s vision and

his ability to justify anything. He mocks the Shudras‟ idol worship:

The pot is a god. The winnowing

fan is a god. The stone in the
street is a god. The comb is a
god. The bowstring is also a god.
Gods, gods, there are so many
there‟s no place left
for a foot. (Karnad 64)

So in the play debate between religions as well as debate between castes is very

prominent. Tale-Danda is an achievement of Karnad‟s mature age when he has

travelled a long from the time when he wrote his first play Yayati nearly forty years

ago. This play encompasses a way of life and the thinking of an entire community. It

actually tells the story of a community which is settled in a small kingdom in the

twelfth century within the present day geographical boundaries of Karnataka. So from

the very beginning to the end, if we discuss the whole play, we can see that there is

both intra-religious and inter-religious conflict. By the picture of the play we see that

here society is nothing but a statuesque dreamy fairy figure and here caste is

everything. Though the conflict between religions and politics is the main theme of

the play Tale-Danda, but social life also is the main object of this play. One of the

important aspects of Tale-Danda is the reconstruction of the “Veerashaiva

movement” and the story of Bijjala where we portray the public image of Bijjala with

an intimate look at his private life. In the twelfth century, the “Veerashaiva

movement” has hastened the assertion of Karnataka‟s unique literary tradition and it

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has contributed to its later evolution. Today „Veerashaivism‟ is a predominant part of

the establishment despite its anti-established origins and to a great extent it renders its

literary appraisals vulnerable. The origin of the “Veerashaiva movement” can be

traced to times before Basavanna when heretics like Telegu Jommanna, Kembhavi

Bhoganna, Jedara Dasimayya, Kondaguli Keshiraja and Vamshavardhana militantly

advocated abolition of caste and they asserted the prestige and dignity of labour and

social equity and they attempted to evolve a monotheistic order as a counter to the

decaying and soulless Brahminical order. The proselytisation wing of the new order

received a major importance during the reign of Bijjala II in Kalyan. It is better

known as Basava Kalyan (in Bidar) where Basavanna and his “Anubhava Mantapa”

(a seminary where the toiler and artisan castes met and entered into a dialogue) have

acted as a rallying point from far flung areas.

An inter-caste marriage is believed to have precipitated a crisis which will

give the result in a debilitating attack on it by the status quo. These momentous events

are related to the inter-caste marriage and the clashes in its aftermath in which King

Bijjala is said to have been killed and it will form the core of the theme of the play

Tale-Danda. Through this drama, Karnad‟s main aim is to eradicate casteism from

our society. Karnad‟s aim is reflected in the article of “The History and Mystery of

Girish Karnad‟s Tale-Danda”, in which he observes:

…Actually King Bijala was interested neither in the Sharana movement nor in
the Brahmins who opposed it. As the king of the country, he wanted to rule it
without any trouble to himself. In course of time, the relationship between the
king and Basavanna was deteriorating. When the matter of inter-caste
marriage came up the sharanas “were jubilant over it” as Basavanna gave his
consent. But the Brahmins forced the king to stop it. Allayya and Madhuvayya
failed to comply with the king‟s order and so the king had their eyes pulled
out. (Murthy 89)

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 In this drama, Karnad has raised inter-caste marriage as the principle issue of

“Sharana movement”. According to Hindu religion and Vedic system, inter-caste

marriage is considered as a crime in our society. B. R. Ambedkar, who is the

champion of Dalits‟ rights as well as an architect of Indian Constitution, registers

inter-caste marriage under Special Marriage Act. Being a Dalit he marries a Brahmin

woman and Ambedkar thinks that inter-caste marriage is an important way of

annihilating caste from our society.

According to Dhanavel, there are changes as made by Karnad himself. Karnad

being a Dalit marries a Brahmin woman. In the hey-day of Dalit mobilization,

Ambedkar projects only one way which annihilates caste and will make the society

pure from caste system i.e., inter-caste marriage. He noted:

There are many Castes which allow inter- dining. But it is common experience
that inter-dining has not succeeded in killing the spirit of Caste and the
consciousness of Caste. I am convinced that the real remedy is inter-marriage.
Fusion of blood alone can create the feeling of being kith and kin and unless
this feeling of kinship, of being kindred, becomes paramount the separatist
feeling& the feeling of being aliens& created by Caste will not vanish. Among
the Hindus inter-marriage must necessarily be a factor of greater force in
social life than it need be in the life of the non-Hindus. Where society is
already well-knit by other ties, marriage is an ordinary incident of life. But
where society is cut as under, marriage as a binding force becomes a matter of
urgent necessity. The real remedy for breaking caste is inter-caste marriage.
Nothing else will serve as the solvent of Caste. (Dhanavel N.P.)

Jagadeva being blinded by burning ambition demands of ego expected to turn into a

“here of the Sharanas” overnight. So, the whole play shows the reflection of class-

discrepancy and caste-discrepancy. The protagonist Basavanna is the larder who

wants to project a movement and new sect „Lingayatism‟ and he also wants to

encompass the people of all communities to participate in this. This movement

becomes successful because a marriage between a Brahmin girl and a Cobbler boy

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takes place. But due to this marriage, the conformist and orthodox minded people like

Sovideva (King Bijjala‟s son), Manchanna Kramita and Damodara Bhatta oppose the

movement. Sovideva gives orders to overwhelm the movement of Sharanas. For ten

generations, they paraded the land as robber barons and for another five generations,

they are ruled as trusted feudal lords of their emperors. The whole play is interspersed

with various types of descriptions and scenes that make the play more interesting. The

major theme of Karnad‟s play Tale-Danda is the deconstruction of caste and religion

to enrich the value of caste to its real proper meaning and the main purpose of this

play is to give a new outlook for the benefit of the society by eradication of caste.

Karnad exposes the evil effects of social deformity at cultural, social and

psychological levels. Karnad deconstructs the meaning of caste and religion and he

presents a new community of Sharanas who condemn idolatry and temple. Karnad‟s

Tale-Danda exposes the ugly deformity of Hindu society by depicting the twelfth

century communal struggle in the city of Kalyan in the North Kanara when Bijjala

was the king.The ugly face of caste-system in India is exposed in the play. This play

is a political allegory for contemporary caste problem in India. India is a multi-

cultural country and in India it is very difficult to erase the petty-mindedness

regarding one‟s original caste-identity. In the Nineteen century, Renaissance has come

in India and the great works of Raja Rammohan Roy, Dayanand Saraswati, Mahatma

Gandhi and his followers come with legal measures and the Rakshas of casteism like

Raktabij is born again and again and he is presented through the character of Bijjala.

Karnad disagrees with the established tradition of considering a caste or creed

on the strength of physical parentage. Karnad does not belief on the supremacy of

caste system and he thinks that not only caste but also knowledge is the right canon to

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judge a human being. This play presents a creative courageous questioning and social

commitment which is unmatched in the history of Karnad. In this play, Karnad deals

with a sensitive issue i.e., the ugly face of caste system and in our India, caste is

derived from our birth and it cannot be transferred from one caste to another in a way.

In Scene Eleven, Manchanna Kramita, a Brahmin who is the adviser of the king, says:

That inter-caste wedding shook every citizen of Kalyan. For him it meant an
era in which any untouchable could ask for his daughter‟s hand in marriage! A
nightmare! So he supported us against your father. Yet he needs the sharanas
for his profits. It‟s a bond of greed–of mercantile calculation. And that has to
be severed. (Karnad 87)

Jagadeva is an ardent and trusted disciple of Basavanna who in spite of intimate

proximity with Basavanna does not undergo a kind of conversion. Our society is

bounded by some prejudices and our history has proved that when these prejudices

are broken they are proved dangerous. In a discussion with Basavanna, Bijjala tells:

As a child, you tore up your sacred thread and ran away from home. Birth,
caste and creed mean nothing to you. But don‟t you delude yourself about
your companions, friend. If you really free them from the network of brothers,
sisters, sons, daughters, uncles and second cousins, and let them loose in a
casteless society, they will merely sputter about like a pile of fish on the sands
and die! (Karnad 27)

The king expresses his love for Sharanas: “Every sharana seeks only to earn the day‟s

keep, makes no extra demands, treats profits with contempt. … Even those who

despise the sharanas for their beliefs need them for their economic enterprise – as

indeed I do – and so they pour money into the sharana coffers” (Karnad 31). The play

is an illustration of game of power-politics where Jagadeva confesses: “Here my

father was breathing his last. My mother, alone and helpless, was banging her head

against the wall. And I was at the Treasury! You know why? … Tomorrow I shall be

the talk of the town, I told myself. I shall be the hero of the sharanas” (Karnad

37).This play shows that people‟s mentality is very cheap so when Mallibomma, an

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outcast comes to Jagadeva‟s house, the doors of neighbouring houses are filled up

with women and children and old men are watching this scene. In our every day

society, it is seen that when we want help from neighbours, they retreat to extend a

helping hand but they always mock and ridicule our weakness. Gundanna is a Sharana

who talks about the inhumanity of the people when no one approaches to rescue

Haralayya and Madhuvarasa from the butchery of soldiers. Gundanna: “They all

watched, shut inside their houses. I can‟t stop shivering. It was horrible” (Karnad 91).

The playwright has not only highlighted the orthodox and diplomatic nature of

upper ruling class but also makes careful examination of pride and self-righteousness

of Sharanas.We know that caste system is an integral part of Indian thinking and

inter-caste marriage is not a very common phenomenon. The play exposes such

perspectives of Hindu society in which sincerity of action and selfless service of

humanity is a true religion in which all human beings are equal. In this play, the

movement against the social evil is launched by the Sharanas. Caste, occupation and

language – these three are inter-connected in India. One has to raise his voice to

remove caste barrier from our society. It is Basavanna through whose character the

author advocates his philosophy when the saint says:

Some day this entire edifice of caste and creed, this poison-house of
varnashrama, will come tumbling down. Every person will see himself only as
a human being. As a bhakta. As a sharana. That is inevitable. But we have a
long way to go. You know the most terrible crimes have been justified in the
name of sanatana religion. (Karnad 46)

It is a kind of bhakti which is inspired by a kind of mysticism and spirituality in

content and this “Bhakti movement” led by the saint Kabir, Saint Meera, Ramananda,

Narsinh Mehta and others and it emphatically declares that through their devotional

song the only way to attain salvation is the “Human Service”.

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 Tale-Danda reveals history for the purpose of social change and amelioration of

low-caste people. The play expresses the heinous outcomes of the undesirable system

and it deals with the theme of love, humanity and brotherhood. The origin of caste

system is an endemic facet of Indian society and it is as old as the known records of

Indian civilization. The play focuses on the virtues and vices of caste-ridden society in

India which poisonously sweeps into destroy the harmony and peace within a country.

Hindu society in different strata has an ancient authority which propounds the concept

of the origin of human being from different parts of Brahma – i.e.,the God of creation.

The law of Manu (Manusmriti), also known as the Code of Manu, systematized in the

Dharmasutras (compiled between 200 B.C. and A.D. 200), on the basis of the four

„Varna‟ systems. The first reference regarding the „Varna‟ system is found in the Rig

Veda. According to Rig Veda, “the Brahmin from the head, the Shudra from the feet.

So what we have here in this wedding is the desecration of the body of that Purusha.

How horrifying! ” (Karnad 62-3).

Division of caste system is very prominent from ancient time. We are

acquainted with the division of India‟s caste in Sally Hovey‟s book – Xuanzang: A

Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road.Xuanzang was a seventh-century Chinese monk

who completed an epic of sixteen-year journey to discover the heart of Buddhism at

its source in India. It is a splendid story of human struggle and triumph. He is one of

the heroes of Chin and he is introduced for the first time to Western readers in the

book. Sally Hovey Wriggins journeyed in Xuanzang‟s footsteps and he presents

Xuanzang as a perfect man who has transcended common experience. Wriggins gives

us descriptions of perils which Xuanzang faced. On his travels during the seventh-

century, Xuanzang comments about India‟s castes in the book – Xuanzang: A

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Buddhist Pilgrim on the Silk Road (Sally Hovey). In India there are four castes: the

pure and ascetic (Brahmanas), the nobility (Kshatriyas), the merchants (Vaisyas) and

the cultivators (Shudras). Each of these castes can form an exclusive social group.

From innocent time, innocent people have been slaughtered in the name of religion

and caste, but the fact always remains the same and this is the reason for which

casteism still exists. People like Basavanna are born in every era through various

forms like Siddhartha, Gandhi and Vardhamana, but the power-mongers, sectarian

bigotry and religious fanatics weaken the secularism and multi-culturalism. A

description of religion is given on the blurb of the play is noteworthy. A new religion

preaches equality of all human beings. In the eyes of Lord Shiva, all the Sharanas are

equal. Women organized in a marginalized and suppressed groups without voice,

without power and even without consciousness have no right to take their peripheral

position in society. The ugly face of caste system is exposed in a broad way in the

play Tale-Danda. Karnad here builds the meaning of caste with new construction and

presents religion with a new community of Sharanas who condemn idolatry. Tale-

Danda encompasses the way of life and the thinking of an entire community settled in

a small kingdom in the twelfth century. The horror, cruelty, atrocity and brutality of

the contemporary society and the religious fanatics have gripped our national life

today and in the play Tale-Danda, conflict of religiosity is expressed in a broad way.

We know that religion means communalism and communalism means conflict

between various types of religion and caste-violence. In this play Tale-Danda,

communalism and conflict between different religions and caste-violence are

exhibited. So, in the play Tale-Danda, religion is represented perfectly.

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 THE FIRE AND THE RAIN

Belief on God and Caste Hierarchy:

The play The Fire and the Rain (1998) is based on the belief of God. The theme is

borrowed from the well-known legends of Gods and demons. The play The Fire and

the Rain opens with an actor‟s group who expresses their desire to present a dramatic

performance as a means of entertainment for Gods. For nearly ten years, it has not

rained and so land is gripped by drought. So a fire sacrifice of seven years is being

held to propitiate Indra, the God of rains. The arrangement of „yajna‟ is adorned in a

careful way. There are several altars where fire burns at the centre of step-like brick

altars and the priests are offering oblations to the fire and they are singing the

prescribed hymns in unison. The priests are dressed in the long flowing seamless

pieces of cloth and wear sacred threads and Paravasu is the conducting priest or the

Chief Priest and it is his responsibility to notice so that the fire sacrifice will go on

smoothly. But suddenly at the time, an evil omen occurs – a Brahma Rakshasa i.e., a

cursed Brahmin soul, trapped in the limbo between death and rebirth, is moving

around at the sacrificial precincts but it is not seen by normal human eyes.

When the afternoon session is over and the priests begin to disperse, a Courtier

enters with the Actor-Manager. The Actor-Manager has to stand at a distance from the

fire sacrifice because an actor is considered as a human being of low-birth. But the

Courtier is not considered as a human being of low-birth so he rushes into the

protected enclosure of the fire sacrifice and talks to the King. So at that time, caste

division was so prominent in the society that even a person of low-birth has no right

to stand near the fire sacrifice. But the Actor-Manager thinks that the first actors are

the sons of Bharata in the history of theatre and they were Brahmins, but they have

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lost their caste because of their profession and a curse has plunged them into disrepute

and disgrace. If one values one‟s high birth, one should not touch this profession. The

Actor-Manager has accepted this profession of acting so he very regretfully

comments: “today I am a criminal. I have killed my father, a noble Brahmin… I may

now become an actor” (Karnad 108).The actors want to perform the drama because

drama is the fifth Veda which gives birth to the art of drama and it is gifted to Lord

Indra by Lord Brahma and it is an art shifted to Bharata Muni, a human being. So in

the Prologue section, the Actor-Manager says to Paravasu:

Sirs, as is well known to you, Brahma, the Lord of All Creation extracted the
requisite elements from the four Vedas and combined them into a fifth Veda
and thus gave birth to the art of Drama. He handed it over to his son, Lord
Indra, the God of the skies. Lord Indra, in turn, passed on the art to Bharata, a
human being, for the gods cannot indulge in pretence. So if Indra is to be
pleased and bring to an end this long drought which ravages our land a fire
sacrifice is not enough. A play has to be performed along with it. If we offer
him entertainment in addition to the oblations, the god may grant us the rains
we‟re praying for. (Karnad 107)

If we go through Act One, Nittilai and Arvasu‟s love is shown here.We see

that Arvasu is in love with a tribal girl called Nittilai. Arvasu prepares to marry

outside his Brahmin caste, he goes to marry a tribal girl called Nittilai – but for this,

he has to prepare himself before the village elders. It means, in that time society was

totally corrupted by blind superstition for which casteism is given too much priority.

Arvasu is a Brahmin by birth but he wants to sacrifice his caste and community only

to marry a low caste girl named Nittilal, a girl of fourteen, a hunter‟s daughter. So a

person is identified here by his caste and religion and not by his behaviour, his

education and his designation. So, caste hierarchy is prominent in the drama.

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 From my point of view, a human being should be considered by humanity and

not by caste identity. But here a Brahmin boy has to give exam only for the reason

that he wants to marry a tribal girl. The marriage between Brahmin and Tribal is

considered as a great crime in our society. Negligence on lower caste is reflected

through the attitude of so many characters in the play. E.g., Andhaka is a character

who is a Shudra by caste and “was seeking God so he could ask for Universal

Knowledge! And gods don‟t yield to men so easily. He had to mortify himself,

practise austerities, fast, meditate, pray” (Karnad 115). By his words, we can realize

that he has complete faith on God. Yavakri wants to please God so standing in the

middle of a circle of fire, “started offering his limbs to the fire – first his fingers, then

his eyes, then his entrails, his tongue, and at last, his heart – that‟s when the god

appeared to him, restored him limbs, and granted him the boon” (Karnad 115).

This play focuses on the issue of insecurity and jealousy between the main

characters of the play. In this play we can observe a kind of social reality of caste

hierarchy. The king proposes to propitiate Gods through fire sacrifice so that he would

be satisfied to send rain on the earth. In this play, Arvasu seduces Fire which is the

only metaphor and it engulfs the dramatic action of the play. Supernatural element is

also mingled in the play in the form of Brahma Rakshasa which is a key figure in the

play. This Brahma Rakshasa is a cursed Brahmin soul who is caught in a situation

between death and rebirth. The main theme of the story revolves around a seven year

long fire sacrifice planned to satisfy God Indra to bring rain. Indra is the king of Gods,

the lord of rains and at the same time the wielder of the thunderbolt. Indra was clearly

the most popular deity among the poets of the Rig Veda, for almost a quarter all the

hymns are addressed to him. He is the dominant deity of the middle region, the region

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between the Earth and the Heaven. A few of the hymns make him the son of Tvastri,

the Great Father and the Creator of all creatures. His chief characteristic is his power,

his power as the God of battle on humane plane and in mythology as the thunder God

who conquers the demons of drought and darkness winning the light. The most basic

myth which is connected with Indra concerns his battle with the serpent Vritra who is

obstructing the water and the sky.

The king proposes to propitiate God through fire sacrifice so that he would be

satisfied to send rain on the earth. In the Vedic society, fire sacrifice is such a rite that

is considered as pure and ritualistic. This sacrifice or „yajna‟ is performed by priests

and not by common human being. For performing a ritual, a special area must be

consecrated and the sacrificer has to undergo a consecration setting him apart from

the profane world. This sacrifice may be regarded as a pure ritual by which a universe

is recreated. This recreation is performed by the sacrificer like the prototype Prajapati

Brahma who incorporates the universe. So, at that time, there obviously was a strong

belief on God that if anything is prayed from God with heartiest core, this prayer will

be granted by God.

Opposing Binaries of Caste-System:

Karnad creates two opposing binaries in the play The Fire and the Rain – i.e.,

between two brothers – one of whom is Brahmin and the other is non-Brahmin.The

former is orderly, shrewd and the Brahmin obviously maintains rules or discipline and

the latter is romantic, simple and wayward. So the features of the persons of two

castes are totally different from each other. When the play progresses, the binary

oppositions gradually deepen various types of hierarchical relationships in which

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various kinds of power operate – God versus Demon, Yagnya versus Natya, Brahmin

versus Shudra, Ascetic versus Actor-performer and so on. In this play, Karnad has

added interpolation for Nittilai‟s village elders. Nittilai says: “The elders will gather

under the big banyan tree and ask a few questions. You answer them…”

(Karnad110).Arvasu rightly says that it is a rule from Ancient time that Brahmins

don‟t touch other castes so he cannot touch Nittilai. Nittilai is a representative of a

woman of an oppressed class and she belongs to the Shudra caste. Nittilai also cannot

touch Arvasu “because among hunters, girls don‟t touch their betrothed” (Karnad

112). So, according to Nittilai‟s custom, she is given no permission to touch her

husband-to-be. Arvasu requests Nittilai to forget his custom. As a representative of a

homogenized group, Nittilai and Vishakha both are under the male hegemony.

Nittilai, being a tribal woman, is conscious of social ostracism and she is deprived of

right to knowledge by high-caste Hindus. She is given no permission of taking a life-

partner of her own choice. Nittilai‟s character gives us some lessons. Nittilai, being a

woman from lower caste, is presented as a creative, democratic and humanitarian

woman than those of high castes. Nittilai, being a representative of an oppressed class,

progresses towards self-definition by showing that she is different from others and her

personality reflects an evolving consciousness. Nittilai belonging from a tribal custom

grows like an innocent girl who is wandering in the forests and she observes and

traces animal footprints, she notices flora and fauna of the forests and she is such a

woman who is benevolent, liberal, gentle, dynamic, creative and effective. Nittilai‟s

personality is completely shown with her reification through tragic death. Her death

takes place in front of her tribe and it is taken as an act of honour of killing. It is taken

as an act of appeasement for the members of her family. Her death is actually an offer

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to please the rain God Indra and Vritra: “She lies there, her eyes open, bleeding, dying

like a sacrificial animal” (Karnad 172). Her death helps Arvasu to rise and commune

with God.

We can observe caste hierarchy of society in this play. There is a difference

between Brahmin caste and Tribal caste. Tribals are too much free to make a marriage

proposal or declaration. Arvasu being a Brahmin is unaccustomed to this idea and is

both nervous and embarrassed in case of following this tribal custom.

Mythological Background: A Tale from “Vanaparva” of Mahabharata:

Girish Kamad is a master in taking his themes from mythology. The play invokes a

remote world of ancient India - the flora and fauna, deities and demons of the pre -

Mahabharata period. In terms of its content, it serves as a parable of the story of

Mahabharata. The volcanic world of Mahabharata is fraught with demonic desires,

pent-up secret rivalries, themes of incest and murders in the world, where innocence

is made the scapegoat and where both the evil-doers as well as the virtuous are made

to suffer and die. Among the innumerable stories of Mahabharata, Kamad found the

story of Yavakari and Paravasu which is suitable for the plot of his play, The Fire and

the Rain. Kamad comments on the origin of the plot in the opening paragraph of

preface of the play:

The myth of Yavakri (or Yavakrita) occurs in chapters 135-38 of the Vana Parva
(Forest Canto) of the Mahabharata. It is narrated by the ascetic Lomasha to the
Pandavas, as they wander across the land during their exile. I have met Sanskrit
scholars who were unaware of the existence of the myth: it is easy to lose track of a
short narrative like this in the tangled undergrowth that covers the floor of that epic....
It was fortunate for me that Rajaji did not do so, for the moment I read the tale, I
knew it had to be turned into a play. (Kamad, N.P.)

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Existence of God:

The play is based on a myth, i.e., “the myth of Yavakri (or Yavakrita)”, Indra and

Vritra. From the ancient time, the conflict between good and evil was going on. In this

myth, Yavakri is an ambitious person who wants to achieve “universal knowledge”

directly from God and not from any human guru. This myth is taken from the “Vana

Parva” (“Forest Canto”) of the Mahabharata. In the myth of Yavakri, there were two

sages Bharadwaja and Raibhya – both were good friends to each other. Raibhya was

an educated person who had two sons with whom he lived and Bharadwaja only

concentrated on the ascetic practices. Yavakri was the son of Bharadwaja and Yavakri

felt a grievance against the world as he saw that his father did not receive any respect

or recognition. Yavakri therefore went off to the Forest and took tapasya or penance

so that he could gain actual knowledge of the Vedas which comes directly from God.

The rigours of the ascetic practice were that Indra, the lord of Gods, appeared to him

but the purpose of his appearing was only to persuade him and the only process of

gaining knowledge is to study at staying at the feet of guru. Bharadwaja was such a

wise man who was anxious and he warned Yavakri against the delusions of

omnipotence. Here Yavakri comits a crime that is he has molested Raibhya‟s

daughter-in-law.Yavakri‟s misdemeanour has incensed Raibhya and he invoked the

kritya spirit. Tearing a hair from his head, Raibhya oblated it to the fire and from it

sprang a woman who looked like his daughter-in-law and another hair gave birth to a

rakshasa (demon). Vishakha: “I shall invoke the kritya and send a Brahma Rakshasa,

a demon soul, after him. Let Yavakri save himself” (Karnad 128).Yavakri‟s attempt

of gaining knowledge directly from God was an unjustified want. In this myth, God

provides a message to Yavakri as well as to all human beings that knowledge without

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experience is dangerous to humanity. It is a mythical play within a play which is

enacted in the last section and here Indra attempts to destroy Viswa, the son of

Brahma from an earthly woman Vritra. In the play The Fire and the Rain, Karnad

presents conflict between two castes for gaining supremacy. In this myth, we also find

the existence of God. So behind myth existence of God is reflected in this play.

Religious Aspect:

The Kannada title of the play The Fire and the Rain is Agni Mattu Male. The Sanskrit

synonym of the English word Fire is „Agni‟. The word „Agni‟ is a summation of

holiness, ceremony and ritual. „Agni‟ is an inanimate object which is burnt in the

sacrificial altars and it acts as a proof for wedding and it is the same „Agni‟ which is

kindled for cremation process. Besides „Agni‟ itself is the name of a God of Fire.

„Male‟ means rain and rain is the symbol of simplicity and purity. The phrase Agni

Mattu Male counterpoints two physical elements. These two elements are seen as

antagonistic and these elements set up several oppositions between an Indo -Aryan

(Sanskrit) and a Dravidian (Kannada) language and also between the classical „marga‟

and the less exalted „desi‟ traditions. It helps to create a bond between the sacred and

the secular. The word „Fire‟ of the title The Fire and the Rain is symbolic itself. In the

play „Fire‟ or „Agni‟ works as anger as well as revenge in Raibhya, Paravasu and

Yavakri. Fire burns as lust in Vishakha and in the people it burns as hunger due to the

persisting drought. So, in all the people it burns as a symbol of sacrifice without the

accompaniment of light.

In this play Karnad exposes the ugly division of the Hindu society i.e.,

casteism and it reveals a kind of reformist attitude. Karnad thinks that inter-caste

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marriage may be taken as an experiment to cut off caste distinction from our society

and it also will help to bring social equality on humanistic basis. He thinks that the

real remedy of inter-caste marriage is to kill the spirit of caste and the consciousness

of caste. But according to Veda or ancient Hindu religion, inter-caste marriage is a

crime of our society. So Basavanna‟s endeavour to remove our society from casteism

is just like a throwing fire in our society which must need rain. So, rain is necessary to

remove the caste barrier from our society. So, the title The Fire and the Rain indicates

a kind of religiosity.

Different Aspect of Caste System in Women Characters:

Nittilai, a character projected in Karnad‟s The Fire and the Rain, is in a possession of

good qualities like love for humanity and her behaviour is well to all. She is helpful to

others and completely different from high class society. Being a woman of tribal

caste, she does not believe in dogmatism, bigotry and superstition prevalent in

society. Arvasu and Nittilai are in love with each other and they don‟t want to agree

with the boundary of restriction and Arvasu tells firmly: “I‟ll tell him: „I can‟t give up

Nittilai. She is my life. I can‟t live without her – I would rather be an outcaste –”‟

(Karnad 113). Arvasu is ready to sacrifice even his status in the high class Brahmin

society. Nittilai is a traditional Indian woman who opposes against society and she

speaks against the bad practice of male dominance. She is the representative of an

oppressed tribal woman who protests against upper class by saying some words:

Nittilai: “So Father‟s to blame? Do you know why Father called the elders in such

haste?” He always says: “These high-caste men are glad enough to bed our women

but not to wed them” (Karnad 114). Nittilai is the only woman who expresses her

grudge against upper class. So by the words of Nittilai, Karnad highlights the

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difference between the high caste and low caste people and Karnad also shows how

high-caste men are happy to use the low-caste women from very ancient times. In the

play women are always used and justified by their casteism. Nittilai, being an

uneducated girl, does not understand the term “universal knowledge” and thinks that

rain is important for common people. Yavakri is the character who has acquired of

“universal knowledge” from God Indra and he desires for rain. Nittilai rightly says

about Yavakri:

My point is since Lord Indra appeared to Yavakri and Indra is their God of
Rains, why didn‟t Yavakri ask for a couple of good showers? You should see
the region around our village.Parched. Every morning, women with babes on
their hips, shrunken children, shrivelled old men and women gather in front of
my father‟s house –for the gruel he distributes. … And Father says all the land
needs is a couple of heavy downpours. That‟ll revive the earth. Not too much to
ask of a god, is it? (Karnad 116-7)

Nittilai is the prototype of universal humanist presented by Karnad very

artistically. Though Nittilai is illiterate but she is a representative of ideal

womanhood. But her choice to marry Arvasu is considered as a crime by Andhaka

and he says: “You two are brave. It‟s one thing to frolic together as children. But

you‟re not children any longer. You‟re old enough to know that the world can be cruel

and ruthless” (Karnad 112).

Vishakha is a woman of twenty-six years and she belongs to the Brahmin

caste. She is the wife of Paravasu who belongs to high class Brahmin family. Raibhya

is her father-in-law. Both Paravasu and Raibhya are educated and intellectuals. But

being a woman of high caste, she also has to suffer at the hands of male

dominance.Vishakha loves Yavakri but she is forced to marry Paravasu by her

father‟s wish. She says to Yavakri: “Your father must have felt relieved that I went

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away. Paravasu was a better match. I was only his miserable cousin” (Karnad 122).

Vishakha: “The night of the wedding, my husband said to me: „I know you didn‟t

want to marry me. But don‟t worry. I‟ll make you happy for a year”‟ (Karnad 122-

23). Just after one year, he was totally changed and the question of happiness totally

receded into the background. Paravasu uses Vishakha‟s body like an experimenter.

Vishakha: “He left no pore in my body alone. And you –you think a woman is only a

pair of half-formed breasts” (Karnad 123).Vishakha is a character who suffers from a

kind of repression of emotions and desires and she lacks freedom in her married

life.Vishakha‟s relationship with Paravasu is not like a relationship between husband

and wife and through this relationship she wants to erase the memory of her former

lover Yavakri.

In our Indian society, there are some rules and regulations which a citizen has

to follow. Marriage committed between high caste boy and low caste girl is

considered as a crime and it is not allowed by society. Karnad shows the real picture

of arranged marriage and inter-caste marriage. Generally in an arrange marriage, a girl

is not given any permission to choose their husband. In our Indian patriarchal society,

a girl is always forced to marry her father‟s selected bridegroom without any

complaining. Vishakha is not allowed to marry her chosen lover and the same case

happens to Nittilai. Vishakha and Nittilai – both‟s life is merged into tragedy due to

some loophole in the traditional arranged marriage system.

Karnad shows the picture of the false notion of caste system in our society.

Arvasu and Nittilai belong to two different classes – i.e., the priestly and the tribal

class respectively. Though they love each other but society becomes a hindrance at

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the path of their marriage. Arvasu‟s love for tribal girl is considered as an irreligious

activity and it is below the dignity of Brahmin community. In the ancient Vedic

society, low-caste people were deprived of entering the holy places like temples or

sacrificial enclosures. So Karnad juxtaposes the social condition of caste system

which is a social stigma for all ages.

From ancient time, caste hierarchy is going on.Vishakha and Nittilai – both are

the representatives of exploited women and these two women are the victims of the

Brahminical and the Tribal patriarchy respectively. Vishakha being an upper-caste

Brahmin woman of educated family has no social identity. When Paravasu leaves her

for seven years, tragedy comes upon Vishakha‟s life. She suffers due to lack of love

and security as her husband is absent. Vishakha very regretfully says: “I live in this

hermitage, parched and wordless, like a she-devil. And words are like water –

precious. I was afraid to bathe. Now I want to drown. Listen to me. You went away. I

was married off –” (Karnad 122). Vishakha suffers from long time isolation and her

hunger for words and appetite turns her into a psychic patient. In the absence of her

husband, when Vishakha goes to meet her former lover, it is her bad luck that she is

used as an instrument of vengeance by her former lover. Besides, Vishakha is tortured

by her father-in-law. So she is oppressed by her husband, former lover and father-in-

law. Vishakha‟s condition is very common in our society. Her tragedy leads her to a

pathetic death. Nittilai‟s condition is also noticeable. Karnad depicts the parallel story

of Arvasu‟s relationship with a tribal girl named Nittilai. He creates the character

Arvasu as an antithesis to Raibhya, Paravasu and Yavakri. As an actor and as

Nittilai‟s lover Arvasu counterpoints Brahmanism. In The Fire and the Rain this

duality of human beings is presented for the first time as the clear opposition between

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Brahmins and Shudras. Arvasu helps to juxtapose the connective line between the two

worlds. This play mocks at the chain of events leading to the arrival of Lord Indra and

rains. In this play, myth of Yavakri is applied to present aesthetic ritual coherence that

helps to unfold the deeper meaning of life.

Actually in our society, there is a barrier between the Brahmins and the

Shudras. From the ancient time of civilization, our society is always against the

marriage between Brahmin and Shudra.Whats the matter if a man is by birth a

Brahmin or a Shudra! Generally Marriage is called a bond between two minds, but in

reality it is the relation between two castes and two families. Today caste system as

well as system of religion becomes very faint at the bosom of our society. In past,

marriage between two religions was considered as a terrific sin. But today there is a

sea-change. The questioning of the relevance of religion in the present time suggests a

fundamental difference between the present society and the past society.

The Fire and the Rain places the Vedic Brahminical tradition under the

microscope. Two weakest points of the traditional society emerge as the strongest

points of the play – 1) Women class of our society and 2) Shudras, the lower section

of our society. Actually Girish Karnad was a twenty first century dramatist and even

after his death, he is shining today like a pearl and glows in the light of the

contemporary society. Here woman class and the lower strata of our society are

continuing to serve as a problem of our society. In this play, various types of violence

are revealed i.e., physical, psychological, sexual and social etc. In this play, violence

is depicted through false knowledge, bloodshed, pride and betrayal. In The Fire and

the Rain, all the characters like Yavakri, Raibhya and Paravasu crave for supremacy

169
and power. When their desire for gaining supremacy and power are not fulfilled, they

become frustrated and their frustration creates a kind of violence, jealousy, anger, ego

and all these are reasons behind which all the incidents take place in the lives of the

characters of the play. Their misuse of knowledge causes a lot of destruction.

The Fire and the Rain was stark in presentation and the whole story is

revolved round the issue of religion. In the introduction of my thesis, it is defined that

religion means belief in rituals. At the beginning of the The Fire and the Rain, a fire

sacrifice is held to propitiate God Indra so that He would send rain on earth. It means

at that time people has complete faith in religious rituals and this religiosity is

expressed in this play.

Caste Hierarchy in the World of God:

The Epilogue portion of the play The Fire and the Rain shows that the world of Gods

is also restricted by caste-consciousness. When Indra, the God of the world is

conducting a fire sacrifice in his father‟s memory, all the Gods and the best of men

have been invited in this fire sacrifice. Vishwarupa, the brother of Indra is welcomed

in the sacrificial enclosure but Vritra being a demon or Rakshasa is interrupted by

Indra. Though Vritra is the brother of Indra, he is restricted to enter the fire sacrifice

because his mother is a demoness and so demon blood flows in his veins and

according to „Shastra‟, a demon should not be allowed to enter into ritual enclosure.

Indra wants to kill Vishwarupa who creates a challenge to his sovereignty by his

wisdom and gentleness. Vishwarupa is killed innocently when he is offering oblations

to God. If Vritra is present in the sacrifice, Indra will not be able to murder

Vishwarupa. Vritra being a demon by caste is trustworthy to his oath. Vritra‟s father

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gives him life so that he can protect Vishwarupa. Indra being a Brahmin proves to be

treacherous but Vritra proves to be trusty. After Indra‟s committing of treachery to

Vishwarupa, Vritra goes to kill Indra. Vritra angrily says:

You can elude me, Indra. But you can‟t escape me. Even if you fly like a
falcon across ninety-nine rivers I‟ll find you. I‟ll destroy you. I‟ll raze your
befouled sacrifice to the ground. (He pounces on a guard standing nearby and
grabs a torch from his hand and rushes toward the real sacrificial enclosure.)
(Karnad 170-1)

So in this part we can notice that Indra who belongs to the higher caste becomes

unfaithful and Vritra from lower caste is faithful to his words. In our society, always

the lower class people are neglected by the upper class without estimating any

particular reason. So when the Rakshasa flies in the smoke and disappears in the

flames – this scene is watched by the weak and hungry villagers. The next moment is

just like a stampede. So the Brahmins comment: “It‟s the tribals –the savages –

they‟re desecrating the sacrifice – Oh God! This is madness. The doomsday –they are

eating and drinking the food kept for the gods. They‟re levelling the sacrifice to the

ground–” (Karnad 171).

So, mentioning of the word God proves that at that time, people have complete

faith on God. Besides, in the very beginning of the play, a fire sacrifice or „yajna‟ is

arranged to please Indra, the king of all Gods. So, this is an example of ritual. From

the ancient time, it is called that religion means belief on rituals. A ritual is a sequence

of some activities like gestures, words and objects performed in a sequestered place.

Ritual includes worship, rites, sacraments of organized religions, rites of passage,

atonement, purification rites, dedication ceremonies, inaugurations, funerals and other

activities and all these are parts of religion. Besides, superstitious element is presented

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through the presence of Brahma Rakshasa. Brahma Rakshasa is speaking just like a

living being:

I became a Brahma Rakshasa. A soul locked in nothingness like a foetus

stitched up inside its mother‟s sac. You can‟t imagine the horror of that
existence. Nothing to look forward to: no birth, no death; nothingness
stretching endlessly.Your father plucked me out and put me back in time, in
order to kill Yavakri. I didn‟t want to, but I obeyed. And as a result, now I
have something new. Hope.Of release – from this state – (Karnad 146)

In the primeval age, fire was considered as a symbol of respect or an

instrument of terror. Fire-making ceremony is considered as an important part of

satisfying God and calling rain. So, belief on God, belief on ritual and belief on

supernatural things – all these are present in this play and these are the examples of

religiosity. So, in this play, religion is juxtaposed in a broad way.

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Karnad’s View of Religion in Yayati:

Karnad‟s play Yayati portrays Yayati‟s questioning of the values of society and

religion in terms of his own experience. Karnad has used “myth of Yavakri” (“myth

of Yavakri or Yavakrita” occurs in chapter 135-138 of the “Vana Parva” of the

Mahabharata.) with a new perspective in this play. Besides, Karnad exhibits how

marriage is affected by caste-system. Karnad in this play shows how a son sacrifices

his youth only for satisfying his father‟s idiosyncratic satisfaction. Being a father,

Yayati demands his son‟s youth and so a parent‟s aggression against his offspring is

presented in this play. But Pooru sacrifices his youth only for the sake of his father‟s

will.

My presentation of religion is proved here. In the introduction portion of my

thesis I have defined Gita‟s religion that means to perform our duty perfectly and

sincerely. Here a son performs his duty very perfectly so religion is presented here. At

the same timeYayati neglects his duty as a father, so religion is violated here.

Karnad’s View of Religion in Tale-Danda:

In the play Tale-Danda, Karnad emphasizes on communal and caste violence and it

shows the effects of inter-religious conflict. These two terms Hindu and Muslim are

used for the terms of Brahmin and untouchable. But Basavanna, being a Brahmin,

rebels against the rigid practices of caste system and eventually presents his own

theosophy with a casteless society at its core.

In the introduction portion of my thesis, I have said that religion is depicted by

communalism and caste-violence and religion also means rigid practices against cast

system. Karnad has very beautifully portrayed communalism and rigid practices and

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he protests against caste system through the character Basavanna. So, my definition of

religion is proved here.

Karnad’s View of Religion in The Fire and the Rain:

In the play The Fire and the Rain, Karnad has provided excellent combination of

metaphysical, supernatural and divine elements. Conversation with God and finally

God provides rain on earth i.e., a justification to human beings on this earth – all these

are present in this play. Besides, „yajna‟ or fire sacrifice is held to propitiate God

Indra and this fire sacrifice represents the sacred part of religion and this dramatic

performance represents its secular counterpoint. Karnad‟s presentation of Brahma

Rakshasa is an example of superstitious element. In this play, Karnad presents the

aversion and jealousy of man against man and low caste against high caste. Here

Karnad has presented religion very artistically.

So, my opinion that religion means belief on divinity, belief on God and belief

on superstitious elements or rituals – all these are proved in this play in a justified

way.

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