Unit-1 - Introduction To Computer Network

030090501
Computer Network
Unit-1
Introduction to
Computer Network
Prof. Ekta Patel
9662513192
ekta.patel@utu.ac.in
Unit-1 Weightage : 15%

Topic Covered
1. Introduction to Computer Network
2. Network Topology
3. Switching Technique
4. Network Communication Model (OSI & TCP/IP)
5. Addressing (MAC, IP, Port)
6. Example Network (Internet, X.25, Frame Relay)
7. Networking Devices
8. Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer Responsibility
2. Transmission Media
3. Data Rate of Signal
Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 2 CGPIT, UTU

1. INTRODUCTION OF COMPUTER NETWORK
• Introduction
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
• Application
• Types of Computer Network
Back to Outline
What is Computer Network?
▪ Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.
Network
Wireless
Devices
Computers
Wired

Advantages of Computer Network
File Sharing Flexible Access
Entertainment Better Communication

Advantages of Computer Network
Internet Access Inexpensive System
Instant and Multiple Access Resource Sharing

Applications of Computer Network
Email Services Teleconferencing
Business & Finance File & Directory Services
& Many More….

What is Internet?
• The internet is a type of world-wide computer network.
• The internet is the collection of infinite numbers of connected
computers that are spread across the world.
Mobile Network
Network Components Global ISP
PC
Home
Network
server wireless Regional ISP
links
wireless Wired link

laptop
smartphone
router
Institutional
Network
Types of Computer Network
▪ Computer networks can be categories by their size as
well as their purpose.
▪ The size of a network can be expressed by the
geographic area.
▪ Some of the different networks based on size are:
1. Local Area Network - LAN
2. Metropolitan Area Network - MAN
3. Wide Area Network - WAN

Local Area Network
▪ A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that
interconnects computers within a limited area such as a residence,
school, laboratory, university campus or office building.

Metropolitan Area Network
▪ A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network that
interconnects with computer in a metropolitan area like city.
▪ MAN is a larger than LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN.
▪ It is also used to interconnection of several local area network.
Navagam
Morbi
Rajkot
Shapar

Wide Area Network
▪ A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that exists
over a large-scale geographical area.
▪ A WAN connects different networks, including local area networks
(LAN) and metropolitan area networks (MAN).
▪ It may be located with in a state or a country or it may be
interconnected around the world.
Asia
America
Africa

Types of Computer Networks - Summary

Types of Computer Networks - Summary
Basis Of
LAN MAN WAN
Comparison
Full Name Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Network
Meaning A network that connects It covers relatively large It spans large locality &
a group of computers in region such as cities, connects countries
a small geographical towns together. e.g. Internet
area
Ownership of Network Private Private or Public Private or Public (VPN)
Design and Easy Difficult Difficult
Maintenance
Propagation Delay Short Moderate Long
Speed High Moderate Low

Equipment Used NIC, Switch, Hub Modem, Router Microwave, Radio
Transmitter & Receiver
Range(Approximately) 1 to 10 km 10 to 100 km Beyond 100 km
Used for College, School, Hospital Small towns, City State, Country,
Continent
2. NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• Data Flow
• Types of Connection
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Start Topology
• Mesh Topology
Back to Outline
Data Flow
▪ Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex,
or full-duplex as shown in Figure.
Back to Physical Layer

Types of Connection
▪ A network is two or more devices connected through links.
▪ A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one
device to another.

Topologies
▪ Network topology is the arrangement of the various
components(links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.
▪ Types of network topologies :
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid

Bus Topology
▪ Every computer and network device is connected to single cable

▪ It transmits data only in one direction
▪ Cost effective
▪ Used in small networks
▪ Easy to expand joining two cables together
▪ It is used in early LAN connection

Ring Topology
▪ It forms a ring as each computer is connected to another

computer, with the last one connected to the first.
▪ Transmission is unidirectional & sequential way that is bit by bit.
▪ Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding
more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
▪ Cheap to install and expand.

Star Topology
▪ Computers are connected to a single central hub through a cable.

▪ Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
▪ Easy to troubleshoot & Easy to setup and modify.
▪ Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the nodes can
work smoothly.
▪ Hub can be upgraded easily.
Mesh Topology
▪ Point-to-point connection to other devices or fully connected.

▪ Traffic is carried only between two connected devices.
▪ Robust, costly but not flexible.
▪ Fault is diagnosed easily.
▪ More cable resource used in setup.

Tree Topology
▪ It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming
a hierarchy.
▪ Also called hierarchical topology.
▪ Mostly used in Wide Area Network – WAN.
▪ Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
▪ Easily managed and maintained.

Hybrid Topology
▪ A network structure whose design contains more than one

topology is said to be hybrid topology.
▪ It is a combination of two or more topologies.
▪ Flexible & reliable as error detection and easy to troubleshoot.
▪ Scalable as size can be increased easily.

Comparison of Topologies
Bus Ring Star Mesh Tree
Means every Each All the All the It has a root
computer
computer is computers network node and all
and network
connected are nodes are other nodes
device is
to another, connected connected are
connected
with the last to a single to each connected
to single
one hub through other. to it forming
cable.connected a cable. a hierarchy.
Cost Average
Cheap
to the first. High High High
Used in Small Expand Small Expand Expand
Network Network Network Network Network
Troubleshoo Easy, But Difficult; Easy; Difficult; Easy;
t Cables fail Failure of If the hub Installation Central root
then whole one fails then and hub fails,
network computer the whole configuratio network
fails. disturbs the network is n is difficult. fails.
whole down.
network.
3. SWITCHING TECHNIQUE
• Circuit Switching (Connection Oriented)

• Packet Switching (Connection Less)
Back to Outline
Switching Technique
▪ Defines the connection of different network segments
together and process to transmit data packets across the
network.
▪ It is implemented through the use of switching
techniques.
Switched
Networks
Circuit-Switched Packet-Switched
Networks Networks

Circuit Switched Network
▪ A dedicated channel has to be established before the call is made
between users.
▪ The channel is reserved between the users till the connection is active.
▪ For half duplex(one way) communication, one channel is allocated and
for full duplex(two way) communication, two channels are allocated.
▪ It is mainly used for voice communication requiring real time services
without delay.

Circuit Switched Network – Cont…
▪ Communication via circuit switching involves three phases:
1. Circuit Establishment
2. Data Transfer
3. Circuit Disconnect

Packet Switched Network
▪ It is not required to establish the connection initially.
▪ The connection/channel is available to use by users. But when
traffic or number of users increases then it will lead to congestion
in the network.
▪ Packet switched networks are mainly used for data and voice
applications requiring non-real time scenarios.

Differences
Circuit Switching Packet Switching
✓ Dedicated path between ✓ No dedicated path
source and destination
✓ All packets use same path ✓ Packets travel independently
✓ Reserve the entire ✓ Does not reserve bandwidth
bandwidth in advance
✓ Bandwidth wastage ✓ No bandwidth wastage
✓ No store and forward ✓ Supports store and forward
transmission transmission

4. NETWORK COMMUNICATION MODEL
• Protocol
• Standards
• Layered Architecture
• OSI Model
• TCP/IP Model
• Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Model
Back to Outline
What is Protocol?
▪ Human Protocol(Language) ▪ Network Protocol
✔ “what’s the time?” ✔ Set of rules
✔ “I have a question” ✔ machines rather than humans
✔ Introduction Talk ✔ all communication activity in Internet
governed by protocols.
Protocol is define format,

order of message sent
and received among
network entities, and
actions taken on message
transmission and
reception

Standards
▪ Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers.
▪ Standards Organizations :
✔ International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
✔ International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards
Sector (ITU-T)
✔ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
✔ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
✔ Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
2.35
Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.36
THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
2.37
Note
ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
2.38
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
2.39
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2.40
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2.41
Example – Air Plane Travel
Departure Arrival
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)
baggage (check) baggage (claim)
gates (load) gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway landing
airplane routing airplane routing
airplane routing

Protocols Layers
▪ To deals with connecting systems that are open for
communication with other systems.
▪ OSI Layer Model (Open Systems Interconnection)
▪ Developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) with
seven different layers.
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

How OSI Layer Works?

Application Layer
▪ The application layer is responsible for providing services to the

user.

Application Layer – Cont…
▪ This layer provides various services like:
✔ Network virtual terminal
✔ File transfer, access and management
✔ Mail services
✔ Directory services

Presentation Layer
▪ The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,

and encryption.

Presentation Layer – Cont…
▪ This layer is concerned with the syntax which refers to order in
which data is presented and semantics helps in interpreting a
particular pattern.
▪ Presentation layer is responsible for:
✔ Translation
✔ Encryption
✔ Compression

Session Layer
▪ The session layer is responsible for dialog control and

synchronization.

Session Layer – Cont…
▪ This layer is network dialog controller – establishes, maintains,
synchronizes the interaction among computers.
▪ Session layer is concerned with:
✔ Dialog control
✔ Synchronization

Transport Layer
▪ The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message

from one process to another.

Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.55
Transport Layer – Cont…
▪ This layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in
order.
▪ Transport layer is concerned with:
✔ Service-point addressing (port address)
✔ Segmentation and reassembly
✔ Connection control
✔ Flow and error control

Network Layer
▪ The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host.

Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
2.58
Network Layer – Cont…
▪ In this layer, packet is combined with header and data.
▪ In case of data link layer, packet delivers on the same network.
▪ If two different networks are connected then packet is concern
with network layer.
▪ Network layer is concerned with:
✔ Logical addressing e.g. 192.168.1.1 (IP Address)
✔ Routing

Data Link Layer
▪ The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(node) to the next.

Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
2.61
Data Link Layer – Cont…
▪ Data link layer is concerned with:
✔ Framing – divide bits stream into data unit (frame)
✔ Physical addressing
✔ Flow control – avoid over overwhelming
✔ Error control – bit loses, retransmission
✔ Access control

Physical Layer
▪ The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits

from one hop (node) to the next.

Physical Layer – Cont…
▪ Carries the bit stream over a physical media.
▪ Physical Layer is concerned with:
✔ Interface and Medium like guided cables
✔ Representation of bits
✔ Data rate
✔ Synchronization of bits
✔ Line configuration
✔ Physical topology
✔ Transmission mode

Summary – OSI Layer
To allow access to
Application network resource
To translate, encrypt
and compress data Presentation
To establish, manage
Session and terminate sessions
To provide reliable process-
to-process message
delivery and error recovery Transport
To move packets from
source to destination; To
Network
provide internetworking
To organize bits into
frames; To provide hop- Data link
to-hop delivery To transmit bits over a
Physical medium; To provide
mechanical & electrical
specification

TCP/IP Reference Model
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
▪ It was originally defined as having five layers:

▪ TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating
computers to share resources across the network.
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Data Link Layer
5. Physical Network

TCP/IP Model Architecture

Difference
TCP/IP
OSI
(Transmission Control Protocol/
(Open System Interconnection)
Internet Protocol)
It has 7 layers It has 5 layers
OSI provides layer functioning and also TCP/IP model is more based on
defines functions of all the layers protocols and protocols are not
flexible with other layers
In OSI model the transport layer In TCP/IP model the transport layer
guarantees the delivery of packets does not guarantees delivery of
packets
Follows horizontal approach Follows vertical approach
OSI model has a separate presentation TCP/IP doesn’t have a separate
layer presentation layer
OSI is a general model TCP/IP model cannot be used in any
other application
Difference - Cont…
TCP/IP
OSI
(Transmission Control Protocol/
(Open System Interconnection)
Internet Protocol)
Network layer of OSI model provide both The Network layer in TCP/IP model
connection oriented and connectionless provides connectionless service
service
OSI model has a problem of fitting the TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
protocols in the model
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are In TCP/IP, replacing protocol is not
easily replaced as the technology changes easy
OSI model defines services, interfaces and In TCP/IP, it is not clearly separated its
protocols very clearly and makes clear services, interfaces and protocols
distinction between them

Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models
▪ Concepts central to OSI model :

• Services
• Interfaces
• Protocols
▪ Model/Protocol design :
• OSI : Model -> Protocol
• TCP/IP : Protocol -> Model
Computer Network s, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, © Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Critique of the OSI Model
• Bad timing : two elephant theory, after tcp/ip
• Bad technology : error/flow control should be on top layer,

not repeated every, use of presentation and session layer
• Bad implementations : complexity of model and protocol

(tcp/ip already in used)
• Bad politics : European community, bad researcher, bad

programmer

OSI Model Bad Timing
The apocalypse of the two elephants.

Critique of the TCP/IP Model
• Model does not clearly distinguish the concept of
services, interfaces and protocol.
• Protocol stack
• Link layer is not layer its interface.
• Data link layer and physical layer
• Ip and tcp protocol implemented

Protocol Layers: Summary

5. ADDRESSING
• Physical Address
• Logical Address
• Port Address
• Specific Address
Back to Outline
Addresses in TCP/IP
2.77
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.78
Physical Address
▪ MAC Address tells “Who You Are”.
▪ Every NIC has a physical (hardware) address that's known as a
MAC (Media Access Control).
▪ A MAC address is given to a network adapter when it is
manufactured.
▪ MAC Addresses are unique 48-bits hardware number of a
computer, which is embedded into network card (known
as Network Interface Card) during the time of manufacturing.
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

Physical Address Example
• In Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87.
• The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows.
• The computer with physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver.
Logical Address (IP Address)
▪ Each device that connects to the Internet needs a unique
identifying number with which to communicate, called an ‘Logical
Address’ or ‘IP address’.
▪ ‘IP’ stands for ‘Internet Protocol’. It tells “Where You Are”.
▪ There are two versions of IP that currently coexist in the global

Internet: IP version 4 (IPv4) and IP version 6 (IPv6).
▪ No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can

have the same IP address.

Use IP addresses Example
▪ Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting
three LANs.
▪ Each device (computer or router) has a pair of addresses (logical
and physical) for each connection.
▪ In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and
therefore has only one pair of addresses.
▪ Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only two
are shown in the figure).
▪ So each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

▪ Figure shows two computers communicating via the Internet.
▪ The sending computer is running three processes at this time with port
addresses a, b, and c.
▪ The receiving computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k.
▪ Process a in the sending computer needs to communicate with process j

in the receiving computer.
▪ Note that although physical addresses change from hop to hop, logical
and port addresses remain the same from the source to destination.

Port Address
▪ A port number is the logical address of each application or process that
uses a network or the Internet to communicate.
▪ For example, in an incoming message/packet, the IP address is used to

identify the destination computer/node, whereas the port number
further specifies the destination application/program in that computer.
▪ Port numbers are mainly used in TCP and UDP based networks, with an
available range of 0 - 65,535 for assigning port numbers.
▪ A Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal number.

▪ Example :
✔ Port Number 80 for HTTP,
✔ Port Number 23 for Telnet
✔ Port Number 25 for SMTP etc…

Port addresses
2.86
Addressing Comparison
Physical Address Logical Address Port Address
Name MAC (Media Access

IP (Internet Protocol) Port Number
Control)
Data Link layer address

Layer Network layer address Transport layer address
IPv4 : 32-bit address

Address Size 48-bit address IPv6 : 128-bit address 16-bit address
80
Example 00:00:00:a1:2b:cc 192.168.3.12 (IPv4)
OS or User
Provided by Manufacturer ISP
Type Static (Fix) Dynamic Static

6. EXAMPLE NETWORK
• Internet
• X.25
• Frame Relay
Back to Outline
1. Internet
• Is a vast collection different networks that use certain

common protocols and provide certain common services.
3.89
1. Internet
Overview of the Internet architecture
3.90
2. X.25 Network
• X.25 is one of the oldest packet-switched services available.
• It was developed before the OSI Reference Model.
• The X.25 recommendations were first prepared in 1976 and then revised in 1978,
1980 and 1984.
• X.25 is a standard suite of protocols used for packet switching across computer
networks.
• The X.25 protocols works at the physical, data link, and network layers (Layers 1 to
3) of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model. X.25 is one of
the oldest packet-switched services available.
• Each X.25 packets contains up to 128 bytes of data.
3.91
2. X.25 Network
• The X.25 network handles packet assembly at the source device, delivery, and then
dis-assembly at the destination.
• X.25 packet delivery technology includes not only switching and network-layer
routing, but also error checking and retransmission logic should delivery failures
occur.
• X.25 was originally designed more than 25 years ago to carry voice over analog
telephone lines (dialup networks).
• Typical applications of X.25 today include automatic teller machine networks and
credit card verification networks.
3.92
2. X.25 Network
Overview of the X.25
3.93
2. X.25 Network
•Advantages:
• Frame delivery is more reliable

• Frames are delivered in order.
• Retransmission of frame is possible
• Flow & error control is provided at both the data link layer & the network layer.
• X.25 supports the Switched virtual circuits & Permanent circuits
•Disadvantages:
• X.25 is much slower than Frame relay

• It has higher overheads.
• It does not allow transfer of bursty data.
• X.25 is costly
3.94
3. Frame Relay
• Frame Relay is a virtual-circuit wide-area network that was designed in response to
demands for a new type of WAN in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
• Frame relay has evolved from X.25 packet switching and objective is to reduce
network delays, protocol overheads and equipment cost.
• Frame relay can support multiple users over the same line and can establish a
permanent virtual circuit or a switched virtual circuit.
• Packet switching was developed when the long distance digital communication
showed a large error rate.
• To reduce the error rate, additional coding bits were introduced in each packet in
order to introduce redundancy to detect and recover errors.
• But in the modem high speed telecommunication a system, this overhead is

unnecessary and infect counterproductive.
3.95
3. Frame Relay
• Frame relay was developed for taking the advantage of the high data rates and low
error rates in the modem communication system.
• The original packet switching networks were designed with a data rate at the user
end of about 64 kbps.
• But the frame relay networks are designed to operate efficiently at the user's data
rates upto 2 Mbps. This is possible practically because most of the overhead
(additional bits) are striped off.
• Frame relay also is meant for more efficient transmission scheme than the X.25
protocol.
• The biggest difference between Frame Relay and X.25 is that X.25 guarantees data
integrity and network managed flow control at the cost of some network delays.
Frame Relay switches packets end-to-end much faster, but there is no guarantee of
data integrity at all.
3.96
3. Frame Relay Network
Overview of the Frame Relay:
3.97
3. Frame Relay
•Advantages:
• Streamlined communication process.

• The number of functions of a protocol at the user-network interface is
reduced.
• Lower delay.
• Higher throughput.
• Frame relay can be used at access speeds upto 2 Mbps.
• Frame Relay is cost- effective, partly due to the fact that the network buffering
requirements are carefully optimized.
• Compared to X.25, with its store and forward mechanism and full error
correction, network buffering is minimal.
• Frame Relay is also much faster than X.25: the frames are switched to their
destination with only a few byte times delay, as opposed to several hundred
milliseconds delay on X.25.
3.98
3. Frame Relay
•Disadvantages:
• Frames are delivered unreliably.

• Packets may not be delivered in the same sequence as that at the sending end.
• Packets having errors are simply discarded.
• Frame relay does not provide flow control.
• It does not provide the acknowledgement of received packets.
• Frame discarded in case of network congestion. If congestion occurs in the
network, frame (data) is discarded within the network without retransmission
of this frame. The sender must perform retransmission control at his own
responsibility.
3.99
7. NETWORKING DEVICES
• Modem
• Repeater
• Hub
• Bridge
• Switch
• Layer-3 Switch
• Router
• Gateway
Back to Outline
Modem :
▪ Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator.
▪ Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to
another computer network through telephone lines.
▪ The computer network works in digital mode, while analog
technology is used for carrying massages across phone lines.
▪ Modulator converts information from digital mode to analog
mode at the transmitting end and demodulator converts the same
from analog to digital at receiving end.

Repeater :
▪ A repeater operates at the physical layer.
▪ An important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do
not amplify the signal.
▪ When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
▪ It is a 2 port device.

Hub :
▪ A hub operates at the physical layer.
▪ A hub is basically a multiport repeater.
▪ A hub connects multiple wires coming from different branches, for
example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations.

Bridge :
▪ A bridge operates at data link layer.
▪ A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination.
▪ The device that can be used to interconnect two separate LANs is
known as a bridge

Bridge :

Switch :
▪ A Switch (Layer-2) operates at data link layer.
▪ A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can
boost its efficiency(large number of ports imply less traffic) and
performance.
▪ A switch maintains a Switch table which has the MAC addresses of
all the devices connected to it.
▪ A switch can connect the devices only in the same network.

Switch :

Router :
▪ A Router (layer-3) is a network layer device.
▪ Used to connect two different network.
▪ I understand the logical address (ip address).
▪ A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and
has a routing table that is used for making decisions about the
route.

Router :
▪ The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using
routing protocols.

Gateway :
▪ A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks
together that may work upon different networking models.

8. PHYSICAL LAYER
8.1 Physical Layer Responsibility

8.2 Transmission Media
8.3 Data Rate
Back to Outline
8.1 PHYSICAL LAYER RESPONSIBILTIY
▪ Carries the bit stream over a physical media.
▪ Physical Layer is concerned with:
1. Representation of bits (sequence of 0 and 1, encoding)
2. Synchronization of bits (bit rate and clock synchronize)
3. Line configuration (point to point, point to multipoint)
4. Physical topology (bus, ring, star, mesh etc..)
5. Transmission mode (simplex, half-duplex, full duplex)
6. Interface and Medium (guided and unguided media)
7. Data rate (signal, bandwidth, throughput, delay)
Back to Outline
8.2 TRANSMISSION MEDIA
• Guided Media
• Unguided Media
Back to Outline
Transmission Media
A transmission media can be defined as any medium that can carry
information from a source to a destination.
Transmission
Media
Guided Media Unguided Media

(Wired) (Wireless)
Twisted-Pair Coaxial Fiber Optic Radio Infrared

Microwave
Cable Cable Cable Wave Wave

Guided Media
▪ Guided media are those that provide a wired - channel from one
device to another.
▪ Three Guided media commonly used for data transmission are:
Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Twisted Pair Cable
▪ Separately insulated
▪ Twisted together
▪ It is widely used in different kinds of data and voice infrastructure.
▪ The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk
and electromagnetic induction.
▪ Two types of twisted pair cable:
UTP STP
(Unshielded Twisted Pair) (Shielded Twisted Pair)

Twisted Pair Cable – Cont…
▪ UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair)
✔ Ordinary telephone wires
✔ Less expensive
✔ Weak immunity against noise & interferences
✔ Most used in two categories: Cat-3 & Cat-5
✔ Used in laboratory
▪ STP(Shielded Twisted Pair)
✔ An extra metallic shield on each pair
✔ Relatively more expensive
✔ Better performance than UTP
✔ Used in exterior network(outside of building).

Twisted Pair Cable – Cont…
Crosstalk : bleeding of signal from one wire to another (noise)
Attenuation : loss of signal over the period of distance.

Coaxial Cable
Insulator
Inner
Plastic cover Outer conductor Conductor
(shield)
▪ Outer conductor is braided shield

▪ Inner conductor is solid metal
▪ Separated by insulating material, and whole cover by plastic cover
▪ Used in television, long distance telephone transmission
▪ High bandwidth and excellent noise immunity

Coaxial Cable – Cont…
Fig. Coaxial Cable Connector
Fig. Category of Coaxial Cable

Fiber Optic Cable
▪ Glass or plastic core
▪ Laser or light emitting diode
▪ Small size & weight
▪ Used in high bandwidth network
▪ High data rate & lower attenuation

Figure 7.12 Propagation modes
Maximum length : 100 KM, Maximum length : 2 KM,

Speed : 2 Gbps Speed : 100 Mbps
7.123
Fiber Optic Cable
▪ fi
Fig. Fiber Optic Cable Connector

Comparison

Unguided Media
▪ Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor.
▪ This type of communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
1. Radio wave
2. Microwave
3. Infrared Wave
Fig. Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Propagation methods
7.127
Frequency Bands
7.128
Radio wave
▪ Highly regulated
▪ Omni directional antennas
▪ Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems
▪ Penetrate through walls
▪ Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
are normally called radio waves

Microwave
▪ Waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
Microwaves.
▪ Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight
communications
▪ Used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks
▪ Higher frequency ranges cannot efficiently penetrate walls

Infrared wave
▪ Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a
closed area using line-of-sight propagation
▪ Used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared
communication.
▪ Relatively directional
▪ Cheap, easy to build but they do
not pass through solid objects

8.3 DATA RATE
• Analog and Digital Signal

• Cycle/Period
• Frequency
• Bandwidth
• Data rate limits
• Noiseless Channel (Nyquist bit rate)
• Noisy Channel (Shanon capacity)
• Performance
• Throughput
• Delay (Latency)
• Loss
Back to Outline
Analog and Digital Signal
▪ Data can be analog or digital.
▪ Analog data are continuous and take continuous values.
▪ Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
▪ Data transfer in signal form.

Analog Signal
▪ In data communications, we commonly use periodic analog signals
and nonperiodic digital signals.
▪ Periodic analog Signal :
✔ Period : period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, signal needs to
complete 1 cycle.
✔ Frequency : Frequency refers to the number of periods in 1 Second.

Analog Signal

Analog Signal
▪ Frequency and period are the inverse of each other.
▪ f is stand for frequency and T for Time.

▪ Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
▪ Change in a short span of time means high frequency.
▪ Change over a long span of time means low frequency.
▪ If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.
▪ If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

Units of period and frequency

Digital Signal
▪ Digital Signal : A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an
infinite bandwidth.

Digital Signal
▪ The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

Bandwidth
▪ Bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given
path in specific time.
▪ Analog Signal Bandwidth : Bandwidth is expressed in terms of the

difference between the highest-frequency signal component and
the lowest-frequency signal component.
✔ Analog bandwidth is expressed in hertz (Hz).
▪ Digital Signal Bandwidth : Digital Bandwidth is how much

information can be carried in a given time period (usually a
second) over a wired or wireless communications link.
✔ Digital bandwidth is expressed as bits (of data) per second (bps).

Bandwidth Example-1
▪ Question :
▪ If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its
bandwidth?
▪ Solution :
▪ Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

Bandwidth Example-2
▪ Question :
▪ A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency
is 60 Hz. What is the lowest frequency?
▪ Solution :
▪ Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then

Data Rate Limit
▪ A very important consideration in data communications is how
fast we can send data, in bits per second. over a channel.
▪ Data rate depends on three factors:

1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
▪ Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data

rate:
✔ Nyquist for a noiseless channel.
✔ Shannon for a noisy channel.

Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
▪ Noiseless Channel BitRate Formula :
BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2(L)
▪ In the above equation,
- Bandwidth is the capacity of the channel,

- L is the number of signal levels used to represent data, and
- BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second

▪ Example-1 :
▪ Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate
can be calculated as

▪ Example-2 :
▪ Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz

transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send
2 bits).
▪ The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

▪ Example-3 :
▪ A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per
level?
▪ We calculate the number of bits from the formula.
▪ Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
▪ In reality we cannot have a noiseless channel.
▪ Shannon capacity to determine the theoretical highest data rate for a

noisy channel.
Capacity = bandwidth * log2 (1+SNR)
▪ Bandwidth is the bandwidth of a channel

▪ SNR is the signal to noise ration
▪ Capacity is a capacity of the channel in bits per second.
▪ Example : 1
▪ Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the
signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so
strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is
calculated as
▪ This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of

the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data
through this channel.

▪ Example : 2
▪ We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the
capacity is calculated as
▪ This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860
kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can either
increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the signal-to-noise
ratio.

▪ Example : 3
▪ The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that

SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical
channel capacity can be calculated as

Performance
▪ One important issue in networking is the performance of the
network—how good is it?
▪ Some important parameter :

1. Bandwidth
2. Throughput
3. Delay (Latency)
4. Loss of Packet

1. Bandwidth
▪ Bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given
path in specific time.
▪ Analog Signal Bandwidth : Bandwidth is expressed in terms of the

difference between the highest-frequency signal component and
the lowest-frequency signal component.
✔ Analog bandwidth is expressed in hertz (Hz).
▪ Digital Signal Bandwidth : Digital Bandwidth is how much

information can be carried in a given time period (usually a
second) over a wired or wireless communications link.
✔ Digital bandwidth is expressed as bits (of data) per second (bps).

2. Throughput
▪ Throughput is Measures of how fast we can actually send data
through a network.
▪ Bandwidth is Potential measurement of a link and Throughput is

an actual measurement of how fast we can send data.

3. Delay (Latency)
▪ Delay
✔ As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the subsequent
node (host or router) along this path, the packet suffers from several
types of delays at each node along the path.
dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtran + dprop
Where
dnodal = Total Delay
dproc = Processing Delay
dqueue = Queuing Delay
dtran = Transmission Delay
dprop = Propagation Delay
3. Delay (Latency)
▪ Processing Delay (dproc) :
✔ The time required to examine the packets header and determine where to
direct the packet.
✔ To check bit level error
✔ Determine output link
✔ Delay in terms of microseconds

3. Delay (Latency)
▪ Queuing Delay (dqueue) :
✔ A time to wait at output link for transmission.
✔ Depends on congestion level of router.
✔ If queue is empty then delay will be zero.
✔ If queue is full (heavy traffic) then delay will be long.
✔ Delay in terms of micro second to millisecond.

3. Delay (Latency)
▪ Transmission Delay (dtran = L/R) :
✔ An amount of time required for the router to transmit the packet.
✔ Its depends on packet length(L) and transmission rate(R) of link.

3. Delay (Latency)
▪ Propagation Delay (dprop= d/s) :
✔ A time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to router B.
✔ Depends on the length of physical medium(d) link and propagation speed(s)
of link
✔ Delay in terms of millisecond.

3. Delay (Latency)
▪ Filling the link with bits for case 1 :

4. Packet Loss
▪ Packet loss is the failure of one or more transmitted packets to
arrive at their destination.
▪ The loss of data packets depends on the switch queue/buffer. The
loss of data packets increases with the increases in the traffic
intensity.
▪ It affects the performance
of the network.

Outline - Revised
▪ What is Computer Network? Connected each other
▪ Advantages of Computer Network
▪ Applications of Computer Network
▪ Type of Computer Network LAN, MAN, WAN
▪ What is Internet? Infinite nos. of connected computers across the world
▪ What is Protocol? Set of Rules
▪ The Network Edge Host-end system & edge router
▪ The Network Core Circuit Switched & Packet Switched
▪ Transmission Media Guided- Wired & Unguided-Wireless
▪ Network Topologies Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree, & Hybrid
▪ Protocol Layers OSI Layer & TCP/IP Layer
▪ Delay, Loss & Throughput

Important Link
1. https://theconversation.com/how-the-internet-was-born-from-
the-arpanet-to-the-internet-68072
2. https://www.internetsociety.org/internet/history-internet/brief-
history-internet/

References
▪ Books :
1. Behrouz Forouzan - "Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking", TMH.
2. Andrew S. Tanenbaum - "Computer network", Pearson education.
▪ Website/Link :
1. https://www.darshan.ac.in/DIET/CE/GTU-Computer-Engineering-
Study-Material
2. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/network-devices-hub-repeater-
bridge-switch-router-gateways/

Thank You

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Unit-1 Weightage : 15%

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 2 CGPIT, UTU

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 4 CGPIT, UTU

Entertainment Better Communication

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 5 CGPIT, UTU

Instant and Multiple Access Resource Sharing

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 6 CGPIT, UTU

Business & Finance File & Directory Services

& Many More….

wireless Wired link

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 9 CGPIT, UTU

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Speed High Moderate Low

Back to Physical Layer

Back to Physical Layer

Back to Physical Layer

▪ Every computer and network device is connected to single cable

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▪ It forms a ring as each computer is connected to another

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 20 CGPIT, UTU

▪ Computers are connected to a single central hub through a cable.

▪ Point-to-point connection to other devices or fully connected.

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 22 CGPIT, UTU

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 23 CGPIT, UTU

▪ A network structure whose design contains more than one

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 24 CGPIT, UTU

• Circuit Switching (Connection Oriented)

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 27 CGPIT, UTU

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Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 31 CGPIT, UTU

Protocol is define format,

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We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

Topics discussed in this section:

Topics discussed in this section:

ISO is the organization.

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

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Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 44 CGPIT, UTU

▪ The application layer is responsible for providing services to the

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 45 CGPIT, UTU

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 47 CGPIT, UTU

▪ The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 48 CGPIT, UTU

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 50 CGPIT, UTU

▪ The session layer is responsible for dialog control and

Unit: 1 - Introduction to Computer Networks 51 CGPIT, UTU

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▪ The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message

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