Actuators and

Sensor
Module-2 Content
Sl No Topic Date planned Date Executed
1 Sensors – Oxygen (02/EGO) Sensors, Throttle
Position Sensor (TPS)
2 Engine Crankshaft Angular Position (CKP)Sensors
3 Hall effect Position Sensor, Shielded
Field Sensor, Optical Crankshaft Position Sensors
4 Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor – Strain gauge
and Capacitor capsule
5 Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT) Sensor, Intake Air
Temperature (IAT) Sensor
6 Knock Sensor, Airflow rate sensor, Throttle angle Sensor
7 Actuators: Fuel Metering Actuator,
8 Fuel Injector, Ignition Actuator. Exhaust After-Treatment
Systems – AIR
9 Catalytic Converter, Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
10 Evaporative Emission Systems.
 Automotive Sensors & Actuators
• Automotive manufacturers are continuously increasing the use
of electronics systems to;
– improve vehicle performance
– Safety
– passenger comfort.
• Sensors and actuators integrated with automotive control
computers, help optimize vehicle performance while
improving reliability and durability.
 Variables to be Measured
• The superset of variables sensed in engine control includes the following:
1. Mass air flow (MAF) rate
2. Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (possibly heated)
3. Throttle plate angular position
4. Crankshaft angular position/RPM
5. Coolant temperature
6. Intake air temperature
7. Manifold absolute pressure (MAP)
8. Differential exhaust gas pressure
9. Vehicle speed
10. Transmission gear selector position
In addition to measurements of the above variables, engine control is also based on the
status the vehicle as monitored by a set of switches. These switches include the following:
1. Air conditioner clutch engaged
2. Brake on/off
3. Wide open throttle
4. Closed throttle
1. Planar broad-band Lambda oxygen
sensor LS U4
• To determine the oxygen concentration in the exhaust gas

8 Oxygen pump cell

1 Exhaust gas with internal and external pump
2 Exhaust pipe electrode
3 Heater 9 Porous protective layer
4 Control electronics 10 Gas-access passage
5 Reference cell with 11 Porous diffusion barrier
reference-air passage Ip Pump current
6 Diffusion gap Up Pump voltage
7 Nernst concentration UH Heater voltage
cell URef Reference voltage (450 mV)
Us Sensor voltage
 Operating concept
• The exhaust gas enters the actual measuring chamber
(diffusion gap) of the Nernst concentration cell through
the pump cell's gas access passage.
• In order that the excess-air factor λ can be adjusted in
the diffusion gap, the Nernst concentration cell
compares the exhaust gas in the diffusion gap with the
surrounding air in the reference-air passage.
• By applying the pump voltage Up across the pump
cell's platinum electrodes, oxygen from the exhaust gas
can be pumped through the diffusion barrier and into
or out of the diffusion gap.
• With the help of the Nernst concentration cell, an
electronic circuit in the ECU controls the voltage Up
across the pump cell in order that the composition of
the gas in the diffusion gap remains constant at λ = 1.
 2. Accelerator-pedal sensors/ Throttle
Position Sensor (TPS)
• In conventional engine-management systems, the driver transmits
his/her wishes for acceleration, constant or lower speed, to the
engine by using the accelerator pedal to intervene mechanically at the
throttle plate (gasoline engine) or injection pump (diesel engine).
• Intervention is transmitted from the accelerator pedal to throttle plate
or injection pump by means of a Bowden cable or linkage.
• On today's engine-management systems, the Bowden cable and/or
linkage have been superseded and the driver's accelerator pedal
inputs are transmitted to the ECU by an accelerator-pedal sensor.
Throttle Angle Sensor: A Potentiometer
Potentiometer-type accelerator-pedal sensor:
• potentiometer across which there is a voltage which is a function of the
accelerator pedal setting.
• In the ECU, a programmed characteristic curve is used to calculate the
accelerator-pedal travel or its angular setting from this voltage.
• A second (redundant) sensor is incorporated for diagnosis purposes
and for use in case of malfunction.
• The voltage across this potentiometer is always half that across the first
potentiometer.
• This provides two independent signals which are used for trouble-
shooting
 3.1 Inductive engine-speed (rpm) sensors
(Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor)

Used for measuring:

• Engine rpm,

• Crankshaft position (for information on the

position of the engine pistons).
• The sensor is mounted directly opposite a ferromagnetic trigger wheel
from which it is separated by a narrow air gap.

• It has a soft-iron core (pole pin) (4), which is enclosed by the solenoid
winding (5).

• The pole pin is also connected to a permanent magnet (1), and a magnetic
field extends through the pole pin and into the trigger wheel.

• The level of the magnetic flux through the winding depends upon whether
the sensor is opposite a trigger-wheel tooth or gap.

• When the trigger wheel rotates therefore, this causes a fluctuation of the
flux which in turn generates a sinusoidal voltage in the solenoid winding
which is proportional to the rate of change of the flux
• On solenoid -valve-controlled engine- management systems a 60-
pitch trigger wheel is normally used, although 2 teeth are omitted
so that the trigger wheel has 60 - 2 = 58 teeth. The very large tooth
gap (7) is allocated to a defined crankshaft position and serves as a
reference mark for synchronizing the ECU.

1 Permanent magnet
2 Sensor housing
3 Engine block
4 Pole pin
5 Solenoid winding
6 Airgap
7 Trigger wheel with
reference-mark gap
 3.2 Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor
(Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor)
• This sensor consists of a permanent magnet with a
coil of wire wound around it. A steel disk that is
mounted on the crankshaft (usually in front of the
engine) has tabs that pass between the pole pieces of
this magnet.
• The passage of each tab can correspond to the TDC
position of a cylinder on its power stroke, although
other reference positions are also possible.
• This sensor is of the magnetic reluctance type and is
based on the concept of a magnetic circuit.
Magnetic Reluctance Crankshaft Position Sensor
 The coil voltage, Vo,
begins to increase
from zero as a tab
begins to pass
between the pole
pieces, reaches a
maximum, then falls
to zero when the tab
is exactly between the
pole pieces. Then it
increases with the
opposite polarity,
reaches a maximum,
and falls to zero as the
tab passes out of the
gap between the pole
pieces.

Output Voltage Waveform from the Magnetic

Reluctance Crankshaft Position Sensor Coil
• The voltage generated by the reluctance sensor is determined by the strength of
this magnetic flux. The strength of magnetic flux is, in turn, determined by the
reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

The change in magnetic flux induces a voltage, Vo, in the sensing coil that is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Since the magnetic flux
must be changing to induce a voltage in the sensing coil, its output voltage is zero
whenever the engine is not running, regardless of the position of the crankshaft.
This is a serious disadvantage for this type of sensor because the engine timing
cannot be set statically.
 3.3 Hall Effect Position Sensor
(Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor)
• This sensor is similar to the reluctance sensor in that it
employs a steel disk having protruding tabs and a magnet for
coupling the disk to the sensing element.
• Another similarity is that the steel disk varies the reluctance of
the magnetic path as the tabs pass between the magnet pole
pieces.

The Hall Effect:

• The Hall element is a small, thin, flat slab of semiconductor
material.
• When a current, I, is passed through this slab by means of an
external circuit as shown in Figure, a voltage is developed
across the slab perpendicular to the direction of current flow
and perpendicular to the direction of magnetic flux.
• This voltage is proportional to both the current and magnetic
flux density that flows through the slab.
 The Hall Effect

Waveform of Hall Element Output

Voltage for Position Sensor
• In Figure , the current, I, is represented by electrons, e, which have
negative charge, flowing from left to right. The magnetic flux
flows along the legs of the magnet as indicated and is generally
perpendicular to the face of the semiconductor Hall element.

Output Waveform: Since Vo is proportional to the magnetic flux density, it

reaches maximum when any of the tabs is symmetrically located between the
magnet pole pieces (corresponding to TDC of a cylinder). If the disk is driven by
the camshaft, then the disk must have as many tabs as the engine has cylinders.
Therefore, the disk shown would be for a 4-cylinder engine. It is important to
realize that voltage output versus crankshaft angle is independent of engine
speed. Thus, this sensor can be used for setting the engine timing when the
engine is not running (e.g., when it is being motored at the end of an assembly
line).
 3.4 Shielded Field Sensor
(Engine Crankshaft Angular Position Sensor)
• In this method, the Hall element is normally exposed to a
magnetic field and produces an output voltage.

• When one of the tabs passes between the magnet and the sensor
element, the low reluctance of the tab and disk provides a path
for the magnetic flux that bypasses the Hall-effect sensor
element, and the sensor output drops to near zero.
3.5 Optical Crankshaft Position Sensor
• In a sufficiently clean environment a shaft position can also be
sensed using optical techniques.
• Again, as with the magnetic system, a disk is directly coupled to the
crankshaft. This time,
• the disk has holes in it that correspond to the number of tabs on the
disks of the magnetic systems.
• Mounted on each side of the disk are fiber-optic light pipes.
• The hole in the disk allows transmission of light through the light
pipes from the light-emitting diode (LED) source to the
phototransistor used as a light sensor.
• Light would not be transmitted from source to sensor when there is
no hole because the solid disk blocks the light.
4. Manifold Absolute Pressure Sensor
(MAP)
4.1 Strain Gauge MAP Sensor:
• This sensor uses a silicon chip that is approximately 3
millimeters square.
• Along the outer edges, the chip is approximately 250
micrometers (1 micrometer = 1 millionth of a meter)
thick, but the center area is only 25 micrometers thick and
forms a diaphragm.
• The edge of the chip is sealed to a pyrex plate under
vacuum, thereby forming a vacuum chamber between the
plate and the center area of thesilicon chip.
Typical Silicon-
Diaphragm Strain
Gauge MAP Sensor
• The resistance of the sensing resistors changes in proportion to the
applied manifold pressure by a phenomenon that is known as piezo
resistivity.
• Piezo resistivity occurs in certain semiconductors so that the actual
resistivity (a property of the material) changes in proportion to the
strain (fractional change in length).
• The strain induced in each resistor is proportional to the diaphragm
deflection, which, in turn, is proportional to the pressure on the
outside surface of the diaphragm. This pressure is the manifold
pressure.
• An electrical signal that is proportional to the manifold pressure is
obtained by connecting the resistors in a circuit called a Wheatstone.
• The voltage regulator holds a constant dc voltage across the bridge.
The resistors diffused into the diaphragm are denoted R1, R2, R3, and
R4.
• When there is no strain on the diaphragm, all four resistances are
equal, the bridge is balanced, and the voltage between points A and B
is zero.
• When manifold pressure changes, it causes these resistances to change
in such a way that R1 and R3 increase by an amount that is
proportional to pressure; at the same time, R2 and R4 decrease by an
identical amount.
• This unbalances the bridge and a net difference voltage is present
between points A and B
• The differential amplifier generates an output voltage proportional to
the difference between the two input voltages (which is, in turn,
proportional to the pressure).
4.2 Capacitor Capsule MAP Sensor
 5. Engine Coolant Temperature (ECT)
Sensor
• A typical coolant sensor, consists of a thermistor mounted in a
housing that is designed to be inserted in the coolant stream.
This housing is typically threaded with pipe threads that seal
the assembly against coolant leakage.
• A thermistor is made of semiconductor material whose
resistance varies inversely with temperature.
• For example, at –40°C a typical coolant sensor has a resistance
of 100,000 ohms. The resistance decreases to about 70,000
ohms at 130°C.
• The sensor is typically connected in an electrical circuit in
which the coolant temperature sensor resistance is denoted RT.
• This resistance is connected to a reference voltage through a
fixed resistance R.
• The sensor output voltage, VT, is given by the following equation:

• The sensor output voltage varies inversely with temperature; that

is, the output voltage decreases as the temperature increases.
6. Knock Sensor
• This sensor is employed in closed-loop ignition timing to prevent
undesirable knock.
• One way of controlling knocking is to sense when knocking begins and
then retard the ignition until the knocking stops. A key to the control
loop for this method is a knock sensor.
• A knock sensor using magneto strictive techniques is shown in Figure.
• Magnetostriction is a phenomenon whereby the magnetic properties of a
material depend on stress (due to an applied force).
• When sensing knock, the magneto strictive rods, which are in a
magnetic field, change the flux field in the coil due to knock-induced
forces.
• This change in flux produces a voltage change in the coil. This voltage
is used to sense excessive Knock.
• Other sensors use piezoelectric crystals or the piezo resistance of a
doped silicon semiconductor. Whichever type of sensor is used, it forms
a closed-loop system that retards the ignition to reduce the knock
detected at the cylinders. The problem of detecting knock is
complicated by the presence of other vibrations and noises in the engine.
7. Airflow Rate Sensor/ Mass Airflow
Sensor (MAF)
• The MAF sensor is a variation of a classic air
flow sensor that was known as a hot wire
anemometer and was used, for example, to
measure wind velocity for weather
forecasting.
• Operation: the MAF sensor generates a continuous signal
that varies nearly linearly with true mass air flow Rate.
• The MAF sensor is a variation of a classic air flow sensor
that was known as a hot wire anemometer and was used,
for example, to measure wind velocity for weather
forecasting.
• In the MAF, the hot-wire, or sensing, element is replaced by
a hot-film structure mounted on a substrate.
• On the air inlet side is mounted a honeycomb flow
straightener that “smooths” the air flow (causing nominally
laminar air flow over the film element).
• At the lower portion of the structure is the signal
processing circuitry.
ACTUATORS
 1. Fuel Injector
• A fuel injector is (in essence) a solenoid-
operated valve. The valve opens or closes to
permit or block fuel flow to the engine.
• The valve is attached to the movable element
of the solenoid and is switched by the
solenoid activation.
Schematic Drawing of
a Solenoid
• In a fuel injector with no current flowing, the solenoid movable element is held
down against the stop, covering the aperture or nozzle.
• Fuel is thereby blocked from flowing from the pressurized fuel chamber into the
aperture.
• When current flows through the solenoid coil, the movable element is switched
upward, the aperture is exposed, and fuel (under pressure) sprays through this
aperture.
• The fuel flow rate through the nozzle is constant for a given regulated fuel pressure
and nozzle geometry; therefore, the quantity of fuel injected into the air stream is
proportional to the time the valve is open.
• The control current that operates the fuel injector is pulsed on and off to deliver
precise quantities of fuel.
Schematic Drawing of Fuel Injector
• Consider an idealized fuel injector as shown in Figure, in which the injector is
open when the applied voltage is on and is closed when the applied voltage is
off. In this idealization, the control voltage operating the fuel injector is a
binary pulse train (i.e., either on or off ). For a pulse train signal, the ratio of
on time t to the period of the pulse T (on time plus off time) is called the duty
cycle.
• This is shown in Figure in next slide. The fuel injector is energized for time t
to allow fuel to spray from the nozzle into the air stream going to the intake
manifold. The injector is deenergized for the remainder of the period.
• Therefore, a low duty cycle, is used for a high air/fuel ratio (lean mixture),
and a high duty cycle is used for a low air/ fuel ratio (rich mixture).
Pulse Mode Fuel Control Signal to Fuel Injector
 2. Ignition Actuator
• The equivalent of an actuator for the ignition
system on an engine is the combination of the
spark plug, the ignition coil, and driver
electronic circuits.
• This is the subsystem that receives the electrical signal from the
engine controller and delivers as its output the spark that ignites
the mixture during the end of the compression stroke.
• The primary circuit of the coil (depicted as the left portion P of the
coil is connected to the battery and through a power transistor to
ground.
• For convenience, the collector, emitter, and base are denoted c, e,
and b respectively. The coil secondary S is connected to one or
more spark plugs.
• The electronic controller supplies base current to the power transistor, rendering
it fully conductive (i.e., in saturation). When it is conducting, the transistor acts
essentially like a closed switch. A relatively large current (denoted Ip) flows
through the primary windings of the coil (P), creating a relatively large magnetic
field that is linked to the secondary coil.
• At the appropriate time for ignition the controller switches off the base current,
causing the transistor to be nonconducting. At this instant the primary current
drops to zero very quickly, causing the magnetic field strength to drop rapidly
also.
• The very rapid drop in the magnetic field (linked to the secondary S) generates a
very high voltage (30,000 to 50,000 volts), which, in turn, creates the spark
across the spark plug electrodes, igniting the mixture and, finally, initiating the
power stroke for the engine.
 3. Catalytic Converter
• The oxidizing catalytic converter has been one of the more
significant devices for controlling exhaust emissions since the era of
emission control began.
• The purpose of the oxidizing catalyst (OC) is to increase the rate of
chemical reaction, which initially takes place in the cylinder as the
compressed air–fuel mixture burns, toward an exhaust gas that has a
complete oxidation of HC and CO to H2O and CO2
• The extra oxygen required for this oxidation is often supplied by
adding air to the exhaust stream from an engine-driven air pump.
This air, called secondary air, is normally introduced into the
exhaust manifold.
• The most significant measure of the
performance of the OC is its conversion
efficiency, nc.

• Where Mo is the mass flow rate of gas that has

been oxidized leaving the converter Mi is the
mass air flow rate of gas into the converter
• The conversion efficiency of the OC depends
on its temperature. Above about 300°C, the
efficiency approaches 98% to 99% for CO and
more than 95% for HC.
Oxidizing Catalytic Converter
Oxidizing Catalyst Conversion Efficiency versus Temperature
• Another catalytic converter configuration that is extremely important for modern emission
control systems is called the three-way catalyst (TWC).
• It uses a specific catalyst formulation containing platinum, palladium, and rhodium to
• reduce
• NOx and oxidize HC and CO all at the same time. It is called three-way because it
simultaneously reduces the concentration of all three major undesirable exhaust gases by
about 90% if used optimally.
• The conversion efficiency of the TWC for the three exhaust gases depends mostly on the
air/fuel ratio.
• Unfortunately, the air/fuel ratio for which Nox conversion efficiency is highest corresponds
to a very low conversion efficiency for HC and CO and vice versa. However, as shown in
Figure in next slide, there is a very narrow range of air/fuel ratio (called the window) in
which an acceptable compromise exists between NOx and HC/CO conversion efficiencies.
• The conversion efficiencies within this window are sufficiently high to meet the very
stringent EPA requirements established so far.
Conversion Efficiency of a TWC
 4. Exhaust Gas Recirculation Actuator
• Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is utilized to reduce NOx emissions.

• When the correct amount of EGR has been determined by the controller
based on measurements from the various engine control sensors, the
controller sends an electrical signal to the EGR actuator.

• Typically, this actuator is a variable-position valve that regulates the EGR

as a function of intake manifold pressure and exhaust gas pressure.

• This actuator is a vacuum-operated diaphragm valve with a spring that

holds the valve closed if no vacuum is applied.
EGR Actuator Control
EGR Control
• The vacuum that operates the diaphragm is supplied by the intake manifold and is

controlled by a solenoid-operated valve. This solenoid valve is controlled by the output

of the control system.

• The amount of valve opening is determined by the average pressure on the vacuum side

of the diaphragm. This pressure is regulated by pulsing the solenoid with a variable-

duty-cycle electrical control current.

• The control mode selection logic determines when EGR is turned off or on. EGR is

turned off during cranking, cold engine temperature (engine warmup), idling,

acceleration, or other conditions demanding high torque.

• In many EGR control systems the controller monitors the differential pressure between
the exhaust and intake manifold via a differential pressure sensor (DPS). With the
signal from this sensor the controller can calculate the valve opening for the desired
EGR level.
• The amount of EGR required is a predetermined function of the load on the engine
(i.e., power produced).
5. Evaporative Emission Systems
• The purpose of the evaporative emission control system is to trap and hold
gasoline vapors, also called volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• The evaporative control (EVAP) system includes the charcoal canister,
hoses, and valves.
• These vapors are routed into a charcoal canister, then into the intake airflow,
where they are burned in the engine instead of being released into the
atmosphere.
• The EPA requires EVAP systems on cars because gasoline fuel vapors contain a variety
of different hydrocarbons (HC). The lighter elements in gasoline evaporate easily,
especially in warm weather. These include aldehydes, aromatics, olefins, and higher
paraffins. These substances react with air and sunlight (called a photochemical reaction)
to form smog.
• Aldehydes are often called instant smog because they can form smog without
undergoing photochemical changes.
• The bad thing about fuel vapors is that fuel evaporates any time there is fuel in the tank. That
means if the fuel system is unsealed or open to the atmosphere, it can pollute 24 hours a day
even if the vehicle is not being driven.
• Uncontrolled evaporative emissions like this can account for as much as 20 percent of the
pollution produced by a motor vehicle.
• The EVAP system totally eliminates fuel vapors as a source of air pollution by sealing off the
fuel system from the atmosphere. Vent lines from the fuel tank and carburetor bowl route
vapors to the EVAP storage canister, where they are trapped and stored until the engine is
started.
• When the engine is warm and the vehicle is going down the road, the PCM then opens a
purge valve allowing the vapors to be siphoned from the storage canister into the intake
manifold. The fuel vapors are then burned in the engine.