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Final - GAS ENGINE
Final - GAS ENGINE
Final - GAS ENGINE
GAS ENGINE OPERATION
Objective of course
The purpose is;
Not to instruct in Engine design
To understand
B i
Basic construction of different engine
t ti f diff t i
Operation of engine
Objective of course
Reciprocating internal
combustion Engine
combustion Engine
Share the experience of Engines
Share the experience of Engines
installed at our gas line ‐ DSP
Course outline
Types of engine
Types of engine
Construction of internal
combustion engine
b ti i
Operation of internal combustion
engine
ENGINE
A machine to convert energy
into useful mechanical
into useful mechanical
motion
A device which transforms
A device which transforms
one form of energy into
another form
another form
HEAT ENGINE
A device which transforms the
chemical energy of a fuel
into thermal energy and
h l d
utilizes this thermal energy
to perform useful work
to perform useful work
Thermal energy Mechanical Energy= Heat Engine
GAS ENGINE
Generally the term
gas engine refers to
gas engine refers to
a heavy duty, slow
such an engine revolving industrial
A gas engine is engine capable of
might also be
might also be running
machine that
called a gaseous continuously at full
converts
fueled engine, output for periods
chemical approaching a high
approaching a high
spark ignited
spark ignited
energy of a gas fraction of 8,760
engine, or
into mechanical hours per year, for
natural gas many years, with
motion
engine
engine. indefinite lifetime,
unlike say a
gasoline
automobile engine
automobile engine
GAS ENGINE
Different Gaseous fuels
coal gas
Natural
gas etc.
A gas producer
gas
engine uses
fuel in form
of gas like;
f lik
Landfill
Biogas
gas
The Terms used in Engine operation
The Terms used in Engine operation
• Diameter of the cylinder is
Di t f th li d i
called bore
• The larger the bore, the greater
B
Bore the area on which the gases
have to work.
• The distance the piston travels
Th di h i l
down in the cylinder is called
the stroke.
• The longer this distance is, the
Stroke greater the amount of air–fuel
mixture that can be drawn into
the cylinder.
The Terms used in Engine operation
The Terms used in Engine operation
• EEngine size is described as
i i i d ib d
displacement.
• Displacement is the cubic inch
(cu in ) or cubic centimeter (cc)
(cu. in.) or cubic centimeter (cc)
volume displaced or swept by all
ment
of the pistons.
• The formula to calculate the
e
displacem
Engine
displacement of an engine is
basically the formula for
determining the volume of a
cylinder multiplied by the number
cylinder multiplied by the number
E
of cylinders. [¶/4xd2xL]
• Bore x bore x stroke x 0.7854 x
y
number of cylinders
The Terms used in Engine operation
The Terms used in Engine operation
• The compression ratio of an
engine is an important
consideration when rebuilding
or repairing an engine.
Compressiion
• Compression ratio (CR) is the
ratio of the volume in the
ratio of the volume in the
cylinder above the piston
rratio
when the piston is at the
bottom of the stroke to the
bottom of the stroke to the
volume in the cylinder above
the piston when the piston is
at the top of the stroke
at the top of the stroke.
The Terms used in Engine operation
The Terms used in Engine operation
• Compression ratio is the ratio
Compression ratio is the ratio
of the total cylinder volume
Compressiion
(when the piston is at the
b tt
bottom of its stroke) to the
f it t k ) t th
rratio
clearance volume (when the
piston is at the top of its
stroke).
t k )
The Basic concept
The Basic concept
• Work is done when a force moves something a distance
work
• An object need some push to move it; this push is called
force
Force • Force come from energy
Force come from energy
• Ability to do work. Any thing which can do work has energy
Energy
How Chemical energy can be
converted into work
d k
• Energy
Energy contained in a fuel in the form of chemical
contained in a fuel in the form of chemical
Chemical bonding
energy
• Flow of heat is called thermal energy
Thermal
• Combustion of fuel give off heat and we convert
energy chemical energy into thermal energy
chemical energy into thermal energy
• The
The rotation of shaft of the engine produce
rotation of shaft of the engine produce
Mechanical mechanical energy
energy
How Chemical energy can be
converted into work
d k
• The rotating shaft of an Engine can be joined to the
shaft of a pump or compressor.
Work
•Chemical, thermal or electrical energy can be used to
p
produce the mechanical energy of a shaft’s rotation.
gy
•This mechanical energy is then available to do work.
Horsepower (HP)
• It
It is the amount of energy needed to lift 33000 pounds one foot in one
is the amount of energy needed to lift 33000 pounds one foot in one
minute.
Horsepower is a measure of speed at which work is done.
HP depends on how much work is being done and on how fast it is done.
Mechanical efficiency of a machine depends on how much work it can produce from
the HP or energy supplied to it
h HP li d i
How Chemical energy can be converted into work
gy
Combustion Engine is the
device which coverts
chemical energy of fuel
chemical energy of fuel
into mechanical work
If engine combustion If combustion occurs out
occurs within the power side the chamber, the
chamber, the engine is engine is called an
called an internal external combustion
combustion engine. engine.
WORKING PRINCILE OF ENGINE
For Doing Work
Needs Force
FForce is pressure multiplied by
i l i li d b
unit area
Pressure may obtained from many sources;
Wind – Wind
mills Water – water wheel
and pile drivers
Gravity –– throwing some
Gravity throwing some
thing from height
WORKING PRINCILE OF ENGINE
• H
Heat can be obtained by of fuel
b b i db ff l
• Substance tends to expand or contract by changing
amount of heat.
H t
Heat • Heat acts in the same way and to a far greater extent on
Heat acts in the same way and to a far greater extent on
gases than metals
• At a constant volume pressure is
d
directly proportional to temp.
l l
WORKING PRINCILE OF ENGINE
Burning of fuel Pressurization of gas
Work=Force x
distance
G i
Getting
Expansion of gas
force and displacement
HISTORY OF GAS ENGINE
In the 19th century many experiment with gas
engines
His work was further researched and
improved by a German engineer Nikolaus
August Otto, now recognised as the inventor
of the first 4‐stroke internal‐combustion
f th fi t 4 t k i t l b ti
engine to efficiently burn fuel directly in a
piston chamber.
HISTORY OF GAS ENGINE
In August 1864 Otto met Eugen Langen who, being technically trained,
glimpsed the potential of Otto'ss development, and one month after the
glimpsed the potential of Otto development and one month after the
meeting, founded the first engine factory in the world, NA Otto & Cie. At
the 1867 Paris World Exhibition their improved engine was awarded the
Grand Prize
The best known builder of gas engines in the UK was Crossley, but
there were several other firms based in the Manchester area as well.
there were several other firms based in the Manchester area as well.
Tangye Ltd. sold its first gas engine, a 1 nominal horsepower two‐cycle
type, in 1881, and in 1890 the firm commenced manufacture of the
four‐cycle gas engine. [
CURRENT MANUFACTURERS
Manufacturers of gas engines include
g g
Kawasaki Heavy Industries,
MTU Friedrichshafen,
GE Jenbacher,
Caterpillar Inc.,
Perkins Engines,
MWM,
Cummins,
Wärtsilä,
Dresser Waukesha
Dresser‐Waukesha,
TYPES OF ENGINES
• IC engine is an engine where
Internal
combustion of fuel occurs in a
combustion
combustion chamber.
b ti h b
• EC engine is a heat engine where an
External
External
internal working fluid is heated by
l k fl d h db
combustion
combustion in an external source.
TYPES OF IC ENGINES
Intermittent Continuous
combustion
combustion Reciprocating
Reciprocating
combustion
b
engines
engines engines
4‐Stroke engine Gas turbines
2‐Stroke engine Jet engines
6 St k
6‐Stroke engine
i Most rocket engines
Most rocket engines
Wankel rotary
engine
i
Classification of Heat Engines
Heat Engine
IC Engine EC Engine
Open cycle
Open cycle Gasoline
Gasoline Steam
Steam Steam
Steam
Gas Turbine Engine Engine turbine
Wankel Diesel
Diesel Stirling Close cycle
Close cycle
Engine Engine Engines gas turbine
ENGINE CLASSIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 10‐7 Automotive engine cylinder arrangements.
WORKING OF E C ENGINES
Working fluid is heated by combustion in an external
source, through engine wall or heat exchanger
Fluid expands and acting on engine mechanism and
produces motion
produces motion
The fluid is then cooled, compressed and re
The fluid is then cooled, compressed and re‐used
used or
or
dumped.
FOUR STROKE IC ENGINE
BASIC ENGINE CONSTRUCTION
OPERATION CYCLES
OPERATION CYCLES
THERMO DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
TWO STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
A two‐stroke engine is an internal
combustion engine that
b ti i th t
completes the process cycle in
one revolution of the crankshaft
(
(an up stroke and a down stroke
k d d k
of the piston).
TWO STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
MAJOR COMPONENT OF TWO‐STROKE ENGINES
Cylinder: A cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes an up and down motion.
Piston: A cylindrical component making an up and down movement in the cylinder.
Combustion chamber: A portion above the cylinder in which the combustion of the
C b ti h b A ti b th li d i hi h th b ti f th
fuel‐air mixture takes place.
Intake and exhaust ports: An intake port allows the fresh fuel‐air mixture to enter the
combustion chamber and an exhaust port discharges the products of combustion.
Two‐stroke engines important advantages over four‐
stroke engines
stroke engines
g
• Do not have valves; which simplifies their construction and
l
lowers their weight.
h h
• Fire once every revolution; This gives two‐stroke engines a
significant power boost.
• Two‐stroke engines can work in any orientation; which can be
important in something like a chainsaw. [A standard four‐
stroke engine may have problems with oil flow unless it is
upright, and solving this problem can add complexity to the
pright and sol ing this problem can add comple it to the
engine.]
• Two‐stroke engines are lighter, simpler and less expensive to
manufacture.
manufacture
• The combination of light weight and twice the power gives
two‐stroke engines a great power‐to‐weight ratio compared
to many four stroke engine designs
to many four‐stroke engine designs.
YYou don't normally see two‐stroke
d ' ll k
g
engines in cars, however. That's
because two‐stroke engines have a
couple of significant disadvantages
couple of significant disadvantages
that will make more sense once we
look at how it operates
look at how it operates.
TWO STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
A two‐stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that
completes the process cycle in one revolution of the crankshaft
(an up stroke and a down stroke of the piston).
(an up stroke and a down stroke of the piston).
This is accomplished by using the end of the combustion stroke
and the beginning of the compression stroke to perform
simultaneously the intake and exhaust (or scavenging)
functions.
In this way, two‐stroke engines often provide high specific
power, at least in a narrow range of rotational speeds.
TWO STROKE ENGINE
Disadvantages:
• The lack of lubrication system that protects
the engine parts from wear. Accordingly, the
the engine parts from wear. Accordingly, the
2‐stroke engines have a shorter life.
• 2
2‐stroke
stroke engines do not consume fuel
engines do not consume fuel
efficiently
• Engines produce lots of pollution.
Engines produce lots of pollution.
• Sometimes part of the fuel leaks to the
exhaust with the exhaust gases.
exhaust with the exhaust gases.
In conclusion, based on the
In conclusion based on the
advantages and disadvantages, the 2‐
stroke engines are supposed to
stroke engines are supposed to
operate in vehicles where the weight
of the engine is required to be small
of the engine is required to be small,
and the it is not used continuously for
l
long periods of time.
i d f ti
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Comparison of Two and Four Stroke Engines
The cycle completes in one revolution
The cycle completes in one revolution Thermodynamics cycle completes in two
Thermodynamics cycle completes in two
1. of Crankshaft. One power is obtained revolution of Crankshaft. One power is
in every revolution of Crankshaft. obtained in two revolution of Crankshaft.
Turning moment is uniform and Turning moment is not uniform and
2
2.
hence lighter flywheel can be used. hence heavier flywheel can be used.
The size of the engine is lighter and The size of the engine is heavier and
3.
more compact. bulkier.
Higher rate of wear and tear. Greater Lower rate of wear and tear. Lesser
4.
cooling and lubrications are required. cooling and lubrications are required.
No Valve mechanisms are used. But
Valve mechanisms are used for opening
Valve mechanisms are used for opening
5. there are only ports are available
and closing of inlet and exhaust valves.
regulates by piston itself.
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Comparison of Two and Four Stroke Engines
The initial cost of the engine are less. The initial cost of the engine are high.
6.
Volumetric efficiency is low due to
V l t i ffi i i l d t Volumetric efficiency is high due to more
V l t i ffi i i hi h d t
7.
lesser time for induction. time for induction.
Used where low cost, compactness, Used where high efficiency is required. ie
9. g g
light weight ie in mopeds, Scooters,
p , , in Buses, Trucks, Tractors,
, , ,
Motor cycles etc. Generators,Power generation etc.
Wankel engine (rotary engine)
g ( y g )
The Wankel cycle
• The shaft turns three times for each rotation of
The shaft turns three times for each rotation of
the rotor around the lobe and once for each
orbital revolution around the eccentric shaft.
• The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not
g ( y g )
have piston strokes.
• It operates with the same separation of phases
as the four‐stroke engine with the phases
taking place in separate locations in the
taking place in separate locations in the
engine.
• Three power strokes occur per rotor revolution
due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of the rotor to
due to the 3:1 revolution ratio of the rotor to
the eccentric shaft, only one power stroke per
shaft revolution actually occurs.
• This engine provides three power 'strokes' per
revolution per rotor giving it a greater power‐
l i i i i
to‐weight ratio than piston engines.
Wankel engine (rotary engine)
g ( y g )
CONTINUOUS
COMBUSTION ENGINES
COMBUSTION ENGINES
Gas turbines
Gas turbines
A rotary machine similar in principle to a steam
A rotary machine similar in principle to a steam
turbine
It consists of three main components:
It consists of three main components:
1. Compressor; air is compressed
2 Combustion chamber; combustion of air‐fuel
2. C b i h b b i f i f l
mixture
3 Turbine; flue gases expands resulting in work
3. T bi fl d lti i k
output
Jet engine
Jet engine
• Jet
Jet engines take a large volume of hot gas
engines take a large volume of hot gas
from a combustion process
• Feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the
Feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the
jet to high speed.
• As the jet accelerates through the nozzle, this
A h j l h h h l hi
creates thrust and in turn does useful work.
Jet Engine
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ENGINE EXHAUST
Air pollution is main problem of internal combustion engines
p p g
The main emissions are; Carbon dioxide/ and CO gas , Some soot,
Th i i i C b di id / d CO S t
Nitrogen and Sulfur oxides
Some un‐combusted hydrocarbons, depending on the operating
conditions and the fuel‐air ratio.
The effects of inhaling particulate matter have been studied in
humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular
issues, and premature death.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ENGINE EXHAUST
Significant contributions to
noise pollution are made by
noise pollution are made by
internal combustion engines.
Air–fuel
Air fuel ratio (AFR)
ratio (AFR)
AFR is an important measure for anti‐
pollution and performance‐tuning reasons.
AFR is the mass ratio of air to fuel present
in an internal combustion engine.
a te a co bust o e g e
Lambda (λ)= Actual AFR/Stoichiometric AFR for a
given mixture.
λ =1.0 [At stoichiometry]
λ < 1.0 [Rich mixtures]
λ> 1.0 [lean mixtures]
Stoichiometric air‐fuel ratios of common fuels
Natural gas
l 14.5 : 1 9.7 : 1 5.8%
A gas engine differs from a petrol engine in the way the
fuel and air are mixed. A petrol engine uses a carburetor
or fuel injection but a gas engine often uses a venturi
f li j i b i f i
system to introduce gas into the air flow.
The weak point of a gas engine compared to a diesel
engine is the exhaust valves, since the gas engine
exhaust gases are much hotter for a given output, and
this limits the power output.
THANKS
Basic Engine Construction
Basic Engine Construction
• Components and Function
– Engine block
bl k
– Cylinder head
– Combustion chamber
Combustion chamber
• Auxiliaries of IC Engine
‐ Air intake system
‐ Exhaust system
‐ Fuel supply system
‐ Ignition system
Ignition system
‐ Cooling system
‐ Lubricating system
‐ Starting system
56
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Contains:
Contains:
– Cylinder bores
– Pistons and rings
– Connecting rods
– Crankshaft
– Bearings
– Timing gears
– Oil
Oil pan and filter
d filt
– Camshaft and lifters (pushrod engines)
– Flywheel or flexplate
Flywheel or flexplate
57
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Cylinder bores:
Cylinder bores:
– Round hole cast in block
• Bored to a precise diameter
Bored to a precise diameter
• Smooth finish
– Guide for piston
Guide for piston
– Contains forces generated during 4‐stroke cycle
58
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Pistons:
– Moves up and down in cylinders
• Creates low pressure to draw in mixture
Creates low pressure to draw in mixture
• Compresses mixture for ignition
• Transmits forces of combustion to rotate crankshaft
• Pushes exhaust gases out of cylinder
59
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Rings
– Mounted in grooves on piston
– Takes up clearance in cylinder required for piston
expansion
• Compression
– 2 top rings
2 top rings
– Seal combustion chamber
• Oil control
– Bottom ring on piston
Bottom ring on piston
– Scrapes oil from cylinder as piston moves down on power stroke
60
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Connecting rods:
Connecting rods:
– Connect pistons and crankshaft
– Upper end is connected to piston pin
pp p p
• Uses bushing to allow movement on pin
– Lower end is split to allow installation on
crankshaft journal
• Bearing requires oil film at all times to prevent metal to
metal contact with journal
metal contact with journal
61
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Crankshaft:
– Changes reciprocating motion to rotary motion
– Provides turning force to wheels
– Crankshaft “throws” connect to rods
– Crank “journal” is machined surface for rod bearings
• Rod bearings allow rod to rotate on crank journal
– Flywheel or flexplate is mounted on rear of crank and
transfers power to transmission
transfers power to transmission
– Pulleys mounted on front of crank drive accessories such
as alternator or A/C compressor
62
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Bearings:
– Rod and main bearings
• Bearing
Bearing inserts are held in place with locking tab
inserts are held in place with locking tab
• Must have small hole for oil lubrication
• Pressurized oil keeps bearing from contacting journal
p g gj
63
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Timing gears:
Timing gears:
– Allows crankshaft to turn camshaft
– Can be chain or belt
Can be chain or belt
– Usually found on the front of the engine
64
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Oil pan and filter:
Oil pan and filter:
– Pan serves as reservoir for oil
– Covers bottom of crankcase
Covers bottom of crankcase
– Made from:
• Stamped steel
Stamped steel
• Aluminum
• Plastic
– Contains pickup assembly for oil pump
– Oil filter is usually mounted on engine block
Oil filter is usually mounted on engine block
65
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Camshaft and lifters (pushrod engines):
Camshaft and lifters (pushrod engines):
– Camshaft lobes open valves
– Lifters sit on top of lobes and transmit motion to
Lifters sit on top of lobes and transmit motion to
pushrods
– Pushrods transmit motion to cylinder head rocker
Pushrods transmit motion to cylinder head rocker
arms to open valves
– Contains distributor drive gear if equipped
Contains distributor drive gear if equipped
– Camshaft must be timed to crankshaft
66
Engine Block
Engine Block
• Flywheel or flexplate:
Flywheel or flexplate:
– Flywheel is heavy steel plate mounted to crankshaft
• Smoothes out power pulses to keep engine spinning smoothly
• Serves as mounting surface for clutch on manual transmission
– Flexplate is thin plate that bolts crankshaft to torque
converter for automatic transmission
converter for automatic transmission
– Both have external ring gear for starter operation
67
Cylinder Head
Cylinder Head
• Covers cylinders
• Forms top of combustion chamber
• Contains intake and exhaust valves and springs
• Contains spark plugs
Contains spark plugs
• Bolted to engine block with head bolts
• Head gasket is placed between block and cylinder head
g p y
• Can be made from cast iron or aluminum
68
Combustion Chamber
Combustion Chamber
• Area formed by bottom of cylinder head and top of piston
• Air and fuel mixture is compressed and ignited in chamber
and applies force from combustion to piston
• Spark plug protrudes into chamber
Spark plug protrudes into chamber
• Chamber is sealed by:
– Valves
– Piston rings
– Head gasket
• Chamber is exposed to very high pressures and high
temperatures
69
Air Intake System
Air Intake System
• The system for taking in fresh air
from atmosphere to be mixed
with fuel for combustion:
70
Exhaust System
Exhaust System
• The system for discharging the
product of combustion from the
engine:
71
Fuel Supply System
Fuel Supply System
• The system for storing the fuel and
controlling the rate of fuel supply at
t lli th t ff l l t
various load and speed conditions of
the engine:
Simple Carburettor
Electronic fuel injection
72
Fuel Supply System
Fuel Supply System
• The system for storing the fuel and
controlling the rate of fuel supply at
t lli th t ff l l t
various load and speed conditions of
the engine:
73
Ignition System
g y
• The system for igniting the fuel and air mixture inside the
cylinder to initiate combustion reaction:
74
Ignition System
g y
• The system for igniting the fuel and air mixture inside the
cylinder to initiate combustion reaction:
75
Cooling System
g y
• The system for cooling those parts of engine those constantly
withstand high temperature during the running period and thus
extending engine longivity:
extending engine longivity:
76
Lubrication System
y
• The system for supplying lubrication oil in the moving parts of the
engine to prevent metal‐metal direct contact and generation of
heat due to it:
heat due to it:
77
Lubrication System
y
• The flow path for lubricating oil inside an IC engine is as
below:
• Oil sump
(chamber)
• Strainer
• Pump
• Filter
Filt
• Main oil
Gallery
• Holes/passa
ges/channel
s
• Return to
Sump
78
Starting System
g y
• The system for starting the engine by using electric‐driven
motor and gear arrangements:
• Typical starting systems are of 4‐types;
Manual hand cranking
Electric motor
Pneumatic motor
P i
Another smaller engine
79
FOUR STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
Most automotive engines use the four‐stroke cycle of events, begun by the
M t t ti i th f t k l f t b b th
starter motor which rotates the engine.
The four‐stroke cycle is repeated for each cylinder of the engine.
• Intake stroke
• Compression stroke
• Power stroke
• Exhaust stroke
Exhaust stroke
The four cycles refer to intake, compression, combustion (power), and
exhaust cycles that occur during two crankshaft rotations per power cycle of
the four cycle engines
the four cycle engines.
FOUR STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
The cycle begins at Top Dead Centre (TDC), when the
piston is farthest away from the axis of the crankshaft.
A cycle refers to the full travel of the piston from Top
Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)
Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC).
COMPRESSION stroke: with both
intake and exhaust valves closed,
the piston returns to the top of
the cylinder compressing the air,
or fuel‐air mixture into the
combustion chamber
b ti h b of the f th
cylinder head.
FOUR STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
POWER stroke: this is the start of the second
revolution of the engine. While the piston is close
l f h hl h l
to Top Dead Center, the compressed air–fuel
mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, usually by a
spark plug or fuel is injected into the diesel engine
spark plug, or fuel is injected into the diesel engine,
which ignites due to the heat generated in the air
during the compression stroke. The resulting
massive pressure from the combustion
p of the
compressed fuel‐air mixture forces the piston back
down toward bottom dead centre.
FOUR STROKE ENGINE OPERATION
EXHAUST stroke: during the exhaust
stroke, the piston once again returns
to top dead center while the
exhaust valve is open This action
exhaust valve is open. This action
evacuates the burnt products of
combustion from the cylinder by
expelling the spent fuel‐air mixture
out through the exhaust valve(s).
THERMO DYNAMIC ANALYSIS‐ FOUR STROKE ENGINE
The idealized four‐stroke cycle p‐V diagram:
A: the
A h intake stroke is performed by an
i k k i f db
isobaric expansion
y
B: followed by the p
compression stroke,
performed by an adiabatic compression.
C: Through the combustion of fuel an
isochoric process is produced, followed by
an adiabatic expansion, characterizing
di b i i h ii
power stroke.
the p
D: The cycle is closed by an isochoric
process and an isobaric compression,
characterizing the exhaust stroke