Ultraviolet

UV radiation is also produced by electric arcs. Arc welders must wear eye
protection and cover their skin to prevent photokeratitis and serious sunburn.
Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10
nm[1] (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter
than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in
sunlight, and constitutes about 10% of the total electromagnetic radiation output
from the Sun. It is also produced by electric arcs, Cherenkov radiation, and
specialized lights, such as mercury-vapor lamps, tanning lamps, and black lights.
Although long-wavelength ultraviolet is not considered an ionizing radiation
because its photons lack the energy to ionize atoms, it can cause chemical
reactions and causes many substances to glow or fluoresce. Many practical
applications, including chemical and biological effects, derive from the way that
UV radiation can interact with organic molecules. These interactions can involve
absorption or adjusting energy states in molecules, but do not necessarily involve
heating.[citation needed]

Short-wave ultraviolet light damages DNA and sterilizes surfaces with which it
comes into contact. For humans, suntan and sunburn are familiar effects of exposure
of the skin to UV light, along with an increased risk of skin cancer. The amount of
UV light produced by the Sun means that the Earth would not be able to sustain life
on dry land if most of that light were not filtered out by the atmosphere.[2] More
energetic, shorter-wavelength "extreme" UV below 121 nm ionizes air so strongly
that it is absorbed before it reaches the ground.[3] However, ultraviolet light
(specifically, UVB) is also responsible for the formation of vitamin D in most land
vertebrates, including humans.[4] The UV spectrum, thus, has effects both
beneficial and harmful to life.

The lower wavelength limit of human vision is conventionally taken as 400 nm, so
ultraviolet rays are invisible to humans, although people can sometimes perceive
light at shorter wavelengths than this.[5] Insects, birds, and some mammals can see
near-UV (NUV) (i.e., slightly shorter wavelengths than what humans can see).[6]

Visibility
Ultraviolet rays are invisible to most humans. The lens of the human eye blocks
most radiation in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are
blocked by the cornea.[7] Humans also lack color receptor adaptations for
ultraviolet rays. Nevertheless, the photoreceptors of the retina are sensitive to
near-UV, and people lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive near-UV
as whitish-blue or whitish-violet.[5] Under some conditions, children and young
adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths around 310 nm.[8][9] Near-UV
radiation is visible to insects, some mammals, and some birds. Birds have a fourth
color receptor for ultraviolet rays; this, coupled with eye structures that
transmit more UV gives smaller birds "true" UV vision.[10][11]

History and discovery

"Ultraviolet" means "beyond violet" (from Latin ultra, "beyond"), violet being the
color of the highest frequencies of visible light. Ultraviolet has a higher
frequency (thus a shorter wavelength) than violet light.

UV radiation was discovered in 1801 when the German physicist Johann Wilhelm Ritter
observed that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum
darkened silver chloride-soaked paper more quickly than violet light itself. He
called them "(de-)oxidizing rays" (German: de-oxidierende Strahlen) to emphasize
chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays", discovered the
previous year at the other end of the visible spectrum. The simpler term "chemical
rays" was adopted soon afterwards, and remained popular throughout the 19th
century, although some said that this radiation was entirely different from light
(notably John William Draper, who named them "tithonic rays"[12][13]). The terms
"chemical rays" and "heat rays" were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and
infrared radiation, respectively.[14][15] In 1878, the sterilizing effect of short-
wavelength light by killing bacteria was discovered. By 1903, the most effective
wavelengths were known to be around 250 nm. In 1960, the effect of ultraviolet
radiation on DNA was established.[16]

The discovery of the ultraviolet radiation with wavelengths below 200 nm, named
"vacuum ultraviolet" because it is strongly absorbed by the oxygen in air, was made
in 1893 by German physicist Victor Schumann.[17]

Subtypes
The electromagnetic spectrum of ultraviolet radiation (UVR), defined most broadly
as 10–400 nanometers, can be subdivided into a number of ranges recommended by the
ISO standard ISO 21348:[18]

Name Abbreviation Wavelength

(nm) Photon energy
(eV, aJ) Notes/alternative names
Ultraviolet A UV-A 315–400 3.10–3.94,0.497–0.631 Long-wave UV, black
light, not absorbed by the ozone layer: soft UV.
Ultraviolet B UV-B 280–315 3.94–4.43,0.631–0.710 Medium-wave UV, mostly
absorbed by the ozone layer: intermediate UV; Dorno radiation.
Ultraviolet C UV-C 100–280 4.43–12.4,0.710–1.987 Short-wave UV,
germicidal UV, ionizing radiation at shorter wavelengths, completely absorbed by
the ozone layer and atmosphere: hard UV.
Near ultraviolet N-UV 300–400 3.10–4.13,0.497–0.662 Visible to birds,
insects, and fish.
Middle ultraviolet M-UV 200–300 4.13–6.20,0.662–0.993
Far ultraviolet F-UV 122–200 6.20–10.16,0.993–1.628 Ionizing radiation at
shorter wavelengths.
Hydrogen
Lyman-alpha H Lyman-α 121–122 10.16–10.25,1.628–1.642 Spectral line at 121.6
nm, 10.20 eV.
Extreme ultraviolet E-UV 10–121 10.25–124,1.642–19.867 Entirely ionizing
radiation by some definitions; completely absorbed by the atmosphere.
Vacuum ultraviolet V-UV 100–200 6.20–124,0.993–19.867 Strongly absorbed
by atmospheric oxygen, though 150–200 nm wavelengths can propagate through
nitrogen.
Several solid-state and vacuum devices have been explored for use in different
parts of the UV spectrum. Many approaches seek to adapt visible light-sensing
devices, but these can suffer from unwanted response to visible light and various
instabilities. Ultraviolet can be detected by suitable photodiodes and
photocathodes, which can be tailored to be sensitive to different parts of the UV
spectrum. Sensitive UV photomultipliers are available. Spectrometers and
radiometers are made for measurement of UV radiation. Silicon detectors are used
across the spectrum.[19]

Vacuum UV, or VUV, wavelengths (shorter than 200 nm) are strongly absorbed by
molecular oxygen in the air, though the longer wavelengths around 150–200 nm can
propagate through nitrogen. Scientific instruments can, therefore, use this
spectral range by operating in an oxygen-free atmosphere (commonly pure nitrogen),
without the need for costly vacuum chambers. Significant examples include 193-nm
photolithography equipment (for semiconductor manufacturing) and circular dichroism
spectrometers.

Technology for VUV instrumentation was largely driven by solar astronomy for many
decades. While optics can be used to remove unwanted visible light that
contaminates the VUV, in general; detectors can be limited by their response to
non-VUV radiation, and the development of solar-blind devices has been an important
area of research. Wide-gap solid-state devices or vacuum devices with high-cutoff
photocathodes can be attractive compared to silicon diodes.

Extreme UV (EUV or sometimes XUV) is characterized by a transition in the physics

of interaction with matter. Wavelengths longer than about 30 nm interact mainly
with the outer valence electrons of atoms, while wavelengths shorter than that
interact mainly with inner-shell electrons and nuclei. The long end of the EUV
spectrum is set by a prominent He+ spectral line at 30.4 nm. EUV is strongly
absorbed by most known materials, but synthesizing multilayer optics that reflect
up to about 50% of EUV radiation at normal incidence is possible. This technology
was pioneered by the NIXT and MSSTA sounding rockets in the 1990s, and it has been
used to make telescopes for solar imaging. See also the Extreme Ultraviolet
Explorer satellite.

Some sources use the distinction of "hard UV" and "soft UV". For instance, in the
case of astrophysics, the boundary may be at the Lyman limit (wavelength 91.2 nm),
with "hard UV" being more energetic;[20] the same terms may also be used in other
fields, such as cosmetology, optoelectronic, etc. The numerical values of the
boundary between hard/soft, even within similar scientific fields, do not
necessarily coincide; for example, one applied-physics publication used a boundary
of 190 nm between hard and soft UV regions.[21]

Solar ultraviolet

Levels of ozone at various altitudes (DU/km) and blocking of different bands of

ultraviolet radiation: In essence, all UVC is blocked by diatomic oxygen (100–200
nm) or by ozone (triatomic oxygen) (200–280 nm) in the atmosphere. The ozone layer
then blocks most UVB. Meanwhile, UVA is hardly affected by ozone, and most of it
reaches the ground. UVA makes up almost all UV light that penetrates the Earth's
atmosphere.
Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits
ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where
it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars (such as O- and B-type) emit
proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of
Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light,
40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400
W/m2 in vacuum.[22]

The atmosphere blocks about 77% of the Sun's UV, when the Sun is highest in the sky
(at zenith), with absorption increasing at shorter UV wavelengths. At ground level
with the sun at zenith, sunlight is 44% visible light, 3% ultraviolet, and the
remainder infrared.[23][24] Of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's
surface, more than 95% is the longer wavelengths of UVA, with the small remainder
UVB. Almost no UVC reaches the Earth's surface.[25] The fraction of UVB which
remains in UV radiation after passing through the atmosphere is heavily dependent
on cloud cover and atmospheric conditions. On "partly cloudy" days, patches of blue
sky showing between clouds are also sources of (scattered) UVA and UVB, which are
produced by Rayleigh scattering in the same way as the visible blue light from
those parts of the sky. UVB also plays a major role in plant development, as it
affects most of the plant hormones.[26] During total overcast, the amount of
absorption due to clouds is heavily dependent on the thickness of the clouds and
latitude, with no clear measurements correlating specific thickness and absorption
of UVB.[27]

The shorter bands of UVC, as well as even more-energetic UV radiation produced by

the Sun, are absorbed by oxygen and generate the ozone in the ozone layer when
single oxygen atoms produced by UV photolysis of dioxygen react with more dioxygen.
The ozone layer is especially important in blocking most UVB and the remaining part
of UVC not already blocked by ordinary oxygen in air.

Blockers, absorbers, and windows

Ultraviolet absorbers are molecules used in organic materials (polymers, paints,
etc.) to absorb UV radiation to reduce the UV degradation (photo-oxidation) of a
material. The absorbers can themselves degrade over time, so monitoring of absorber
levels in weathered materials is necessary.

In sunscreen, ingredients that absorb UVA/UVB rays, such as avobenzone,

oxybenzone[28] and octyl methoxycinnamate, are organic chemical absorbers or
"blockers". They are contrasted with inorganic absorbers/"blockers" of UV radiation
such as carbon black, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide.

For clothing, the ultraviolet protection factor (UPF) represents the ratio of
sunburn-causing UV without and with the protection of the fabric, similar to sun
protection factor (SPF) ratings for sunscreen.[citation needed] Standard summer
fabrics have UPFs around 6, which means that about 20% of UV will pass through.
[citation needed]

Suspended nanoparticles in stained-glass prevent UV rays from causing chemical

reactions that change image colors.[citation needed] A set of stained-glass color-
reference chips is planned to be used to calibrate the color cameras for the 2019
ESA Mars rover mission, since they will remain unfaded by the high level of UV
present at the surface of Mars.[citation needed]

Common soda–lime glass, such as window glass, is partially transparent to UVA, but
is opaque to shorter wavelengths, passing about 90% of the light above 350 nm, but
blocking over 90% of the light below 300 nm.[29][30][31] A study found that car
windows allow 3-4% of ambient UV to pass through, especially if the UV was greater
than 380 nm.[32] Other types of car windows can reduce transmission of UV that is
greater than 335 nm.[32] Fused quartz, depending on quality, can be transparent
even to vacuum UV wavelengths. Crystalline quartz and some crystals such as CaF2
and MgF2 transmit well down to 150 nm or 160 nm wavelengths.[33]

Wood's glass is a deep violet-blue barium-sodium silicate glass with about 9%

nickel oxide developed during World War I to block visible light for covert
communications. It allows both infrared daylight and ultraviolet night-time
communications by being transparent between 320 nm and 400 nm and also the longer
infrared and just-barely-visible red wavelengths. Its maximum UV transmission is at
365 nm, one of the wavelengths of mercury lamps.

Artificial sources
"Black lights"

Two black light fluorescent tubes, showing use. The longer tube is a F15T8/BLB 18
inch, 15 watt tube, shown in the bottom image in a standard plug-in fluorescent
fixture. The shorter is an F8T5/BLB 12 inch, 8 watt tube, used in a portable
battery-powered black light sold as a pet urine detector.
Main article: Blacklight
A black light lamp emits long-wave UV-A radiation and little visible light.
Fluorescent black light lamps work similarly to other fluorescent lamps, but use a
phosphor on the inner tube surface which emits UV-A radiation instead of visible
light. Some lamps use a deep-bluish-purple Wood's glass optical filter that blocks
almost all visible light with wavelengths longer than 400 nanometers.[34] The
purple glow given off by these tubes is not the ultraviolet itself, but visible
purple light from mercury’s 404 nm spectral line which escapes being filtered out
by the coating. Other black lights use plain glass instead of the more expensive
Wood's glass, so they appear light-blue to the eye when operating.
Incandescent black lights are also produced, using a filter coating on the envelope
of an incandescent bulb that absorbs visible light (see section below). These are
cheaper but very inefficient, emitting only a small fraction of a percent of their
power as UV. Mercury-vapor black lights in ratings up to 1 kW with UV-emitting
phosphor and an envelope of Wood's glass are used for theatrical and concert
displays.

Black lights are used in applications in which extraneous visible light must be
minimized; mainly to observe fluorescence, the colored glow that many substances
give off when exposed to UV light. UV-A / UV-B emitting bulbs are also sold for
other special purposes, such as tanning lamps and reptile-husbandry.

Short-wave ultraviolet lamps

9 watt germicidal UV bulb, in compact fluorescent (CF) form factor

Commercial germicidal lamp in butcher shop

Shortwave UV lamps are made using a fluorescent lamp tube with no phosphor coating,
composed of fused quartz or vycor, since ordinary glass absorbs UV-C. These lamps
emit ultraviolet light with two peaks in the UV-C band at 253.7 nm and 185 nm due
to the mercury within the lamp, as well as some visible light. From 85% to 90% of
the UV produced by these lamps is at 253.7 nm, whereas only 5–10% is at 185 nm.[35]
The fused quartz tube passes the 253.7 nm radiation but blocks the 185 nm
wavelength. Such tubes have two or three times the UV-C power of a regular
fluorescent lamp tube. These low-pressure lamps have a typical efficiency of
approximately 30–40%, meaning that for every 100 watts of electricity consumed by
the lamp, they will produce approximately 30–40 watts of total UV output. They also
emit bluish-white visible light, due to mercury's other spectral lines. These
"germicidal" lamps are used extensively for disinfection of surfaces in
laboratories and food-processing industries, and for disinfecting water supplies.

Incandescent lamps
'Black light' incandescent lamps are also made from an incandescent light bulb with
a filter coating which absorbs most visible light. Halogen lamps with fused quartz
envelopes are used as inexpensive UV light sources in the near UV range, from 400
to 300 nm, in some scientific instruments. Due to its black-body spectrum a
filament light bulb is a very inefficient ultraviolet source, emitting only a
fraction of a percent of its energy as UV.

Gas-discharge lamps
Main article: Gas-discharge lamp
Specialized UV gas-discharge lamps containing different gases produce UV radiation
at particular spectral lines for scientific purposes. Argon and deuterium arc lamps
are often used as stable sources, either windowless or with various windows such as
magnesium fluoride.[36] These are often the emitting sources in UV spectroscopy
equipment for chemical analysis.

Other UV sources with more continuous emission spectra include xenon arc lamps
(commonly used as sunlight simulators), deuterium arc lamps, mercury-xenon arc
lamps, and metal-halide arc lamps.

The excimer lamp, a UV source developed in the early 2000s, is seeing increasing
use in scientific fields. It has the advantages of high-intensity, high efficiency,
and operation at a variety of wavelength bands into the vacuum ultraviolet.

Ultraviolet LEDs

A 380 nanometer UV LED makes some common household items fluoresce.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can be manufactured to emit radiation in the
ultraviolet range. In 2019, following significant advances over the preceding five
years, UV-A LEDs of 365 nm and longer wavelength were available, with efficiencies
of 50% at 1.0 W output. Currently, the most common types of UV LEDs are in 395 nm
and 365 nm wavelengths, both of which are in the UV-A spectrum. The rated
wavelength is the peak wavelength that the LEDs put out, but light at both higher
and lower wavelengths are present.

The cheaper and more common 395 nm UV LEDs are much closer to the visible spectrum,
and give off a purple color. Other UV LEDs deeper into the spectrum do not emit as
much visible light[37] LEDs are used for applications such as UV curing
applications, charging glow-in-the-dark objects such as paintings or toys, and
lights for detecting counterfeit money and bodily fluids. UV LEDs are also used in
digital print applications and inert UV curing environments. Power densities
approaching 3 W/cm2 (30 kW/m2) are now possible, and this, coupled with recent
developments by photo-initiator and resin formulators, makes the expansion of LED
cured UV materials likely.

UV-C LEDs are developing rapidly, but may require testing to verify effective
disinfection. Citations for large-area disinfection are for non-LED UV sources[38]
known as germicidal lamps.[39] Also, they are used as line sources to replace
deuterium lamps in liquid chromatography instruments.[40]

Ultraviolet lasers
Main article: Excimer laser
Gas lasers, laser diodes, and solid-state lasers can be manufactured to emit
ultraviolet rays, and lasers are available that cover the entire UV range. The
nitrogen gas laser uses electronic excitation of nitrogen molecules to emit a beam
that is mostly UV. The strongest ultraviolet lines are at 337.1 nm and 357.6 nm in
wavelength. Another type of high-power gas lasers are excimer lasers. They are
widely used lasers emitting in ultraviolet and vacuum ultraviolet wavelength
ranges. Presently, UV argon-fluoride excimer lasers operating at 193 nm are
routinely used in integrated circuit production by photolithography. The
current[timeframe?] wavelength limit of production of coherent UV is about 126 nm,
characteristic of the Ar2* excimer laser.

Direct UV-emitting laser diodes are available at 375 nm.[41] UV diode-pumped solid
state lasers have been demonstrated using cerium-doped lithium strontium aluminum
fluoride crystals (Ce:LiSAF), a process developed in the 1990s at Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory.[42] Wavelengths shorter than 325 nm are commercially
generated in diode-pumped solid-state lasers. Ultraviolet lasers can also be made
by applying frequency conversion to lower-frequency lasers.

Ultraviolet lasers have applications in industry (laser engraving), medicine

(dermatology, and keratectomy), chemistry (MALDI), free-air secure communications,
computing (optical storage), and manufacture of integrated circuits.

Tunable vacuum ultraviolet (VUV)

The vacuum ultraviolet (V-UV) band (100–200 nm) can be generated by non-linear 4
wave mixing in gases by sum or difference frequency mixing of 2 or more longer
wavelength lasers. The generation is generally done in gasses (e.g. krypton,
hydrogen which are two-photon resonant near 193 nm)[43] or metal vapors (e.g.
magnesium). By making one of the lasers tunable, the V-UV can be tuned. If one of
the lasers is resonant with a transition in the gas or vapor then the V-UV
production is intensified. However, resonances also generate wavelength dispersion,
and thus the phase matching can limit the tunable range of the 4 wave mixing.
Difference frequency mixing (i.e., f1 + f2 − f3) as an advantage over sum frequency
mixing because the phase matching can provide greater tuning.[43]
In particular, difference frequency mixing two photons of an ArF (193 nm) excimer
laser with a tunable visible or near IR laser in hydrogen or krypton provides
resonantly enhanced tunable V-UV covering from 100 nm to 200 nm.[43] Practically,
the lack of suitable gas / vapor cell window materials above the lithium fluoride
cut-off wavelength limit the tuning range to longer than about 110 nm. Tunable V-UV
wavelengths down to 75 nm was achieved using window-free configurations.[44]

Plasma and synchrotron sources of extreme UV

Lasers have been used to indirectly generate non-coherent extreme UV (E-UV)
radiation at 13.5 nm for extreme ultraviolet lithography. The E-UV is not emitted
by the laser, but rather by electron transitions in an extremely hot tin or xenon
plasma, which is excited by an excimer laser.[45] This technique does not require a
synchrotron, yet can produce UV at the edge of the X-ray spectrum. Synchrotron
light sources can also produce all wavelengths of UV, including those at the
boundary of the UV and X-ray spectra at 10 nm.

Human health-related effects

Further information: Health effects of sunlight exposure
The impact of ultraviolet radiation on human health has implications for the risks
and benefits of sun exposure and is also implicated in issues such as fluorescent
lamps and health. Getting too much sun exposure can be harmful, but in moderation,
sun exposure is beneficial.[46]

Beneficial effects
UV light (specifically, UV-B) causes the body to produce vitamin D,[47] which is
essential for life. Humans need some UV radiation to maintain adequate vitamin D
levels. According to the World Health Organization:[48]

There is no doubt that a little sunlight is good for you! But 5–15 minutes of
casual sun exposure of hands, face and arms two to three times a week during the
summer months is sufficient to keep your vitamin D levels high.

Vitamin D can also be obtained from food and supplementation.[49] Excess sun
exposure produces harmful effects, however.[48]

Vitamin D promotes the creation of serotonin. The production of serotonin is in

direct proportion to the degree of bright sunlight the body receives.[50] Serotonin
is thought to provide sensations of happiness, well-being and serenity to human
beings.[51]

Skin conditions
UV rays also treat certain skin conditions. Modern phototherapy has been used to
successfully treat psoriasis, eczema, jaundice, vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, and
localized scleroderma.[52][53] In addition, UV light, in particular UV-B radiation,
has been shown to induce cell cycle arrest in keratinocytes, the most common type
of skin cell.[54] As such, sunlight therapy can be a candidate for treatment of
conditions such as psoriasis and exfoliative cheilitis, conditions in which skin
cells divide more rapidly than usual or necessary.[55]

Harmful effects

Sunburn effect (as measured by the UV index) is the product of the sunlight
spectrum (radiation intensity) and the erythemal action spectrum (skin sensitivity)
across the range of UV wavelengths. Sunburn production per milliwatt of radiation
intensity is increased by nearly a factor of 100 between the near UV-B wavelengths
of 315–295 nm
In humans, excessive exposure to UV radiation can result in acute and chronic
harmful effects on the eye's dioptric system and retina. The risk is elevated at
high altitudes and people living in high latitude areas where snow covers the
ground right into early summer and sun positions even at zenith are low, are
particularly at risk.[56] Skin, the circadian system, and the immune system can
also be affected.[57]

The differential effects of various wavelengths of light on the human cornea and
skin are sometimes called the "erythemal action spectrum".[58] The action spectrum
shows that UVA does not cause immediate reaction, but rather UV begins to cause
photokeratitis and skin redness (with lighter skinned individuals being more
sensitive) at wavelengths starting near the beginning of the UVB band at 315 nm,
and rapidly increasing to 300 nm. The skin and eyes are most sensitive to damage by
UV at 265–275 nm, which is in the lower UV-C band. At still shorter wavelengths of
UV, damage continues to happen, but the overt effects are not as great with so
little penetrating the atmosphere. The WHO-standard ultraviolet index is a widely
publicized measurement of total strength of UV wavelengths that cause sunburn on
human skin, by weighting UV exposure for action spectrum effects at a given time
and location. This standard shows that most sunburn happens due to UV at
wavelengths near the boundary of the UV-A and UV-B bands.

Skin damage

Ultraviolet photons harm the DNA molecules of living organisms in different ways.
In one common damage event, adjacent thymine bases bond with each other, instead of
across the "ladder". This "thymine dimer" makes a bulge, and the distorted DNA
molecule does not function properly.
Overexposure to UV-B radiation not only can cause sunburn but also some forms of
skin cancer. However, the degree of redness and eye irritation (which are largely
not caused by UV-A) do not predict the long-term effects of UV, although they do
mirror the direct damage of DNA by ultraviolet.[59]

All bands of UV radiation damage collagen fibers and accelerate aging of the skin.
Both UV-A and UV-B destroy vitamin A in skin, which may cause further damage.[60]

UVB radiation can cause direct DNA damage.[61] This cancer connection is one reason
for concern about ozone depletion and the ozone hole.

The most deadly form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is mostly caused by DNA
damage independent from UV-A radiation. This can be seen from the absence of a
direct UV signature mutation in 92% of all melanoma.[62] Occasional overexposure
and sunburn are probably greater risk factors for melanoma than long-term moderate
exposure.[63] UV-C is the highest-energy, most-dangerous type of ultraviolet
radiation, and causes adverse effects that can variously be mutagenic or
carcinogenic.[64]

In the past, UV-A was considered not harmful or less harmful than UV-B, but today
it is known to contribute to skin cancer via indirect DNA damage (free radicals
such as reactive oxygen species).[citation needed] UV-A can generate highly
reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in
turn can damage DNA. The DNA damage caused indirectly to skin by UV-A consists
mostly of single-strand breaks in DNA, while the damage caused by UV-B includes
direct formation of thymine dimers or cytosine dimers and double-strand DNA
breakage.[65] UV-A is immunosuppressive for the entire body (accounting for a large
part of the immunosuppressive effects of sunlight exposure), and is mutagenic for
basal cell keratinocytes in skin.[66]

UVB photons can cause direct DNA damage. UV-B radiation excites DNA molecules in
skin cells, causing aberrant covalent bonds to form between adjacent pyrimidine
bases, producing a dimer. Most UV-induced pyrimidine dimers in DNA are removed by
the process known as nucleotide excision repair that employs about 30 different
proteins.[61] Those pyrimidine dimers that escape this repair process can induce a
form of programmed cell death (apoptosis) or can cause DNA replication errors
leading to mutation.

As a defense against UV radiation, the amount of the brown pigment melanin in the
skin increases when exposed to moderate (depending on skin type) levels of
radiation; this is commonly known as a sun tan. The purpose of melanin is to absorb
UV radiation and dissipate the energy as harmless heat, protecting the skin against
both direct and indirect DNA damage from the UV. UV-A gives a quick tan that lasts
for days by oxidizing melanin that was already present and triggers the release of
the melanin from melanocytes. UV-B yields a tan that takes roughly 2 days to
develop because it stimulates the body to produce more melanin.