Quote for the week

“Attitude is a choice. Happiness

is a choice. Optimism is a
choice. Respect is a choice.
Whatever choice you make
makes you. Choose wisely.”
 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the strategy for a

study and the plan by which the
strategy is to be carried out.

It specifies the methods and

procedures for data collection,
measurement and analysis of data.
 RESEARCH DESIGN

• A research design is a set of

instructions to the investigator to
gather and analyze his data in certain
ways. It is therefore a control
mechanism.
 Purpose of Research Design
1. To provide answers to research
questions.
• Research designs enables the
researcher to answer research
questions as validly, objectively,
accurately, dependably and
economically as possible.
• Research design sets up the framework
for adequate tests of the relations
among variables.
2. To control error variance of the
particular research problem.
 Research Designs
Experimental research designs
• This is undertaken to determine the possible
cause-and-effect relationships through
experimental and control groups.

• An experiment usually involves two groups of

subjects, an experimental group and a control
group.

• In experimental research, the independent

variable is directly manipulated.
 It normally involves . . .
1. Statement of hypothesis;
2. The selection of samples/subjects;
3. Allocation of samples to different
experimental conditions;
4. Introduction of planned change on one or
more of the variables;
5. Measurement on a small number of the
variables;
6. Control of other variables.
A typical example . . .
• The Hawthorne studies—a series of
studies conducted in the 1920s and
30s which provided new insights into
individual and group behavior.

• Experimental design is the most

conclusive of scientific methods.
• The major hypothesis concerned was
whether people observing a theft will
be more likely to report it

(1)If they are alone when they observe

the crime or

(2)If they are in the company of

someone else.
 ‘Bystanders & thieves’ Study
• In this experiment, participants were asked
to come to an office where they had
opportunity to see a person steal some
money from a receptionist's desk.

• A confederate of the experimenter (of

course) did the stealing.
• The independent variable (s)?
–The state of either being alone or
being in the company of other
people when observing the theft.
–Lone observers/ company of
observers

• Dependent variable
–Reports of the theft
• The results suggested that
bystanders were more likely to report
the theft if they observed it alone
rather than in another person’s
company.
 Consider this . . .
• Does a sales presentation that
describes product benefits in the
introduction of the message lead to
improved retention of product
knowledge?
 Descriptive research design
• Describes systematically a situation or a
population.

• Descriptive research involves the

collection of data in order to test
hypotheses or to answer questions
concerning the current status of the
subjects of the study.
• Some examples of descriptive research
studies:

1. A Study on time management practices

of university lecturers

2. Parents’ perception about

summer/vacation school?
• If the research is concerned with finding
out who, what, where, when, or how much,
then the study is descriptive.
 Forms of descriptive research
1. Case study
– Is the development of detailed,
intensive knowledge about a single
case (or a few cases).
– It can be the life of an important
person, organization, or institution.
– The case study method is utilized
when one wishes to gain a rich
understanding of a particular case (s).
 2. Correlational research
• Is a form of associational research,
where two or more variables are
studied without any attempt to
influence them.
• It is a type of descriptive research
because it describes an existing
relationship between variables.
 Examples
• Teacher’s clarity and its relationship
to students’ achievement and
satisfaction.
• The relationship of student ability
and small-group interaction to
student achievement
• The relationship between age and
reading ability
Basic steps in correlational research
1. Problem identification
2. Sample selection
3. Instruments
4. Data collection
5. Data analysis and discussion of results
 The Nature of Correlation

• Correlational research studies almost

always use the correlation coefficient to
indicate the degree of relationship
between two variables.

• The correlation coefficient is a number

ranging from 1 (a perfect positive
correlation) through 0 (no relationship
between the variables) to -1 (a perfect
negative correlation).
 3. Survey

– A survey is an attempt to collect

data from members of a
population in order to determine
the current status of that
population with respect to one or
more variables.
• Survey research involves acquiring
information about one or more groups
of people – about their
characteristics, opinions, attitudes, or
previous experience by asking them
questions and presenting your
finding.
• The survey method is a common
strategy in business research.
– The basic idea behind survey
methodology is to measure
variables by asking people
questions about a particular topic
or issue and then to examine
relationships among the variables.
Types of Survey:
1. Cross-sectional design - The most
commonly seen survey , which asks
questions of people at one point in time.

– It is the study of a particular

phenomenon at a particular time.

2. Longitudinal design-- this method

collects information at different points in
time in order to study changes over time.
 Steps in survey research
1. Problem definition– researchers need to
define clearly their objectives in
conducting a survey.
2. Selection of the sample
3. Instrumentation (questionnaire and
interview are most common)
4. Data analysis and evaluation
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• “Those who forget the past are

condemned to repeat it!” George
Santayana 1905

• Historical research is also called

Historiography.
 Historical research
• Historical research is the
systematic collection and
evaluation of data to describe,
explain, and thereby understand
actions or events that occurred in
the past.
• It focuses exclusively on past
occurrences and events.
The purpose of historical research
1. To make people aware of what
happened in the past so they may learn
from past failures and successes.

2. To learn how things were done in the

past to see if they might be applicable to
present-day problems and concerns.

3. To test hypotheses concerning

relationships or trends.
Examples.
1. An In-depth study on the Turnaround
strategies of Ghana International Airline

2. Why tertiary lecturers have enjoyed greater

prestige than secondary school teachers
since 1940.

3. Trends in reading instruction, 1940- 2005.

4. Factors leading to the development and

growth of entrepreneurship.
 SOURCES OF DATA FOR
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• Primary sources
–Originate with the people actually
involved in the historical event.

–Direct results of the historical event.

 SOURCES OF DATA FOR
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• Secondary sources
–Result from “after-the-fact” reports of
an historical event.
 Locating relevant sources

• Documents– annual reports, news

papers, books, diaries, etc;

• Numerical records– any type of

numerical data in printed form: test
scores, budgets, census reports,
etc;
• Oral statements and records–
stories, songs, and other forms
of oral expressions;
• Relics– this refers to any object
whose physical or visual
characteristics can provide some
information about the past. Eg:
artwork, clothing, building,
monuments, furniture, etc.
 CONDUCTING HISTORICAL
RESEARCH

1. Define the problem/topic.

2. Form a hypothesis.

3. Decide on useful and appropriate

sources.
 CONDUCTING HISTORICAL
RESEARCH
4. Evaluate historical sources for genuine
documents and accurate information.

5. Integrate and synthesize data.

6. Interpret results with reference to

the original hypothesis.
 Qualitative research design
• Sometimes, a researcher want to obtain an in-
depth look at a particular situation, individual, or
events.

• To document or portray a situation and attempt

to describe, as fully and as richly as possible,
what he/she sees.

• The researcher asks “how do these people act?”

or how are things done?” or “how are people
portrayed”?
 Qualitative research design
– Research studies that investigate the quality
of relationships, activities, situations, are
known as qualitative research.

– it involves methods of data collection and

analysis that are non-quantitative

– It aims to achieve an in-depth understanding

of a situation.
– Qualitative data consist of written records of
observed behavior that are analyzed
qualitatively (detailed description).

– It is based on meanings expressed through

words.

– Qualitative data may be collected through

Observation, interviewing, content analysis
(analysis of the written or visual contents of
documents).
 General characteristics of
qualitative research
1. The natural setting is the direct source of
data, and the researcher is the key
instrument in qualitative research.
• Qualitative researchers go directly to the
particular setting in which they are interested
to observe and collect their data.
• Examples include, classroom, observing
lecturers in their classroom, and in general
directly observing and interviewing
individuals involved in the study.
2. Qualitative data are collected in the form
of words, pictures rather than numbers.
• The kinds of data collected include interview
transcripts, photographs, audio recordings,
video tapes, diaries, official records, text
book passages, and anything else that can
convey the actual words or actions of
people.
3. Qualitative researchers tend to analyze
their data inductively.

• Qualitative research do not, usually

formulate a hypothesis beforehand and then
seek to test it out. Rather, much time is
spent on data collection before research
questions/hypotheses are considered.
 Steps in qualitative research
1. Identification of the phenomenon to be
studied.

2. Identify the participants in the study.

3. Generate hypotheses. Contrary to most

quantitative studies, hypotheses are not
posed by the researcher at the start
4. Data collection. The researcher collects
data by observing, in-depth interviews
and examining various documents and
records relevant to the study.

• There is no “treatment of data” in a

qualitative research.
5. Data analysis. Analyzing the data in a
qualitative study essentially involves
synthesizing the information the
researcher obtains from various sources
(e.g. interviews, content analysis,
observation) into a coherent description
of what he/she has observed or
otherwise discovered.

• Data analysis in qualitative research

relies heavily on description.
6. Drawing conclusions
• In qualitative research, conclusions are
drawn continuously throughout the course of
a study. Thus, conclusions are integrated in
the study.