Unit 2 - Answer Key

AP Chemistry Notes © 2020 by Gordon Watson is licensed under Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International.
Unit 2 - Molecular and Ionic

Compound Structure and Properties
2.1 Types of Chemical Bonds

2.2 Intramolecular Force and Potential Energy
2.3 Structure of Ionic Solids
2.4 Structure of Metals and Alloys
2.5 Lewis Diagrams
2.6 Resonance and Formal Charge
2.7 VSEPR and Bond Hybridisation
ISPS Chemistry Mar 2022 page 1 Molecular and Ionic Compound Structure and Properties
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2.1 Types of Chemical Bonds
Electronegativity Values
The key to understanding why different types of bonds exist is an understanding of the
importance of electronegativity - the ability to attract shared electrons.
In essence, our 4 different labels for bonding (metallic, ionic, polar covalent & pure covalent) are
really just different ways in which electrons can be shared.
4 Main Types of Bonding
All bonding is based on the attractions (and repulsions) that exist between charged particles. The
strength of bonding is governed by Coulombs Law:
F ∝ q1 q2

r2
Metallic Bonding - minimal (but equal) sharing
- atoms with similar low electronegativities (metals)
- leads to delocalised electrons
- Fattraction results from multiple attractions between positive
cores (temporary cations) and delocalised electrons

Pure Covalent Bonding - strong equal sharing
- atoms with very similar high electronegativities (non-metals)
- electrons localised midway between both atoms
- Fattraction results from mutual attractions between two
positive nuclei and the equally shared pair of electrons
Polar Covalent Bonding - unequal sharing

- atoms with different high electronegativities (non-metals)
- electrons localised closer to atom of higher electronegativity
- Fattraction results from uneven attractions between two
positive nuclei and the unequally shared pair of electrons

Ionic Bonding - very unequal sharing
- atoms with very different electronegativities (metal/non-metal)
- electrons transferred to atom of higher electronegativity
- Fattraction results from multiple attractions between positive
cations and negative anions
Metallic bond:
electrons shared
equally but
delocalised
The crossover between highly polar cvalent and ionic can be diffcult: if non-metal—non-metal
then best to assume highy polar covalent and if metal—non-metal then asssume ionic.
Properties Related to Bonding
The properties of a substance will help determine the type of bonding but care is needed as
different structures (e.g. molecular or network) and the presence of other attractions (particlarly
between molecules) will also have a mojor effect on properties. In general,
Metallic Bonding - delocalised electrons mean they are good conductors of both
heat and electricity and can reflect light (shiny).

- multiple attractions mean that they often have high MPts &
high BPts - most are solids at room temperature
- delocalised electrons allow bonds to break and reform
easily so metals are ductile and malleable

Covalent Bonding - localised electrons mean they are poor conductors of both
heat and electricity and tend to absorb light (matt)

- multiple attractions in networks result in very high MPts &

BPts - solids at room temperature
- localised attractions in molecules result in low MPts &
BPts - solids, liquids or gases at room temperature
- localised electrons make it difficult for bonds to reform easily
so tend to be soft or brittle

Ionic Bonding - localised electrons mean they are poor conductors of both
heat and electricity when solid - but when ions are free to move
(when molten or in solution), then they become good

conductors
- directional nature make it difficult for ionic bonds to reform
easily so tend to be brittle
During Unit 3, you will take a more detailed look at the connection between properties and types
of bonding - in particular, the wide variety of properies found in covalent substances due to the
existence of attractions between molecules (intermolecular) which can be more important than
the attractions found within molecules (intramolecular).
2.1 Practice Problems
1. On the basis of the information opposite, which of
the following arranges the binary compounds in
order of increasing bond polarity?
O
A CH < SiCl < SF
4 4 4
B CH4 < SF4 < SiCl4
C SF4 < CH4 < SiCl4 D SiCl4 < SF4 < CH4
2. Which of the following has the bonds arranged in order of decreasing polarity?
O
A H−F > N−F > F−F B H−I > H−Br > H−F
C O−N > O−S > O−Te D Sb−I > Sb−Te > Sb−Cl
3. Which of the following scientific claims about the bond in the molecular compound HF is
most likely to be true?
A There is a partial negative charge on the H atom.
B Electrons are shared equally between the H and F atoms.
C The bond is extremely weak
O
D The bond is highly polar
4. Which of the following compounds contains both ionic and covalent bonds?
A SO3 B C2H5OH C MgF2 D H2S O

E NH Cl 4
5. Two pure elements react to form a compound. One element is an alkali metal, X, and the
other element is a halogen, Z. Which of the following is the most valid scientific claim
that can be made about the compound?
A It has the formula XZ2.
B It does not dissolve in water.
O
C It contains ionic bonds.
D It contains covalent bonds.
6. The elements C and Se have the same electronegativity value, 2.55. Which of the following
claims about the compound that forms from C and Se is most likely to be true?
A The carbon-to-selenium bond is unstable.
O
B The carbon-to-selenium bond is nonpolar covalent.

C The compound has the empirical formula CSe .
D A molecule of the compound will have a partial negative charge on the carbon atom.
7. Of the following compounds, which is the most ionic?
A SiCl4 B BrCl C PCl3 D Cl2O O

E CaCl 2
8. Of the following single bonds, which is the LEAST polar?
A N—H B H—F C O—F D I—F O E O—H
2.2 Intramolecular Force & Potential Energy
Covalent Bonding & Potential Energy
F ∝ q1 q2

r2
For simple covalent molecules such
as H2, the balance between attractive
and repulsive forces is at an optimum
when the internuculear distance, r, is
74 pm (74 x 10-12 m).
This is equivalent to:-
covalent radius = 37 pm
H—H bond length = 74 pm
The stronger the Force of attraction, F , the more energy will be released (exothermic) when the
H—H bond forms (or more energy will be needed (endothermic) to break the H—H bond). This is
called Bond Energy and, for H2 :
Bond Energy = 432 kJ mol-1
For atoms that have similar values of q1 and q2 , the size of the atoms will be the main factor that
determines the Force of attraction, F, and hence the bond energy.
The Halogens in Group 17 all have the same
effective nuclear charge of 7+ due to the
screening effect of their inner shells of
electrons.
Their outer shell each contain 7 electrons, 7-
Cl2 - 3 shells, covalent radius = 100 pm
- bond length = 199 pm ( r = 199)
- bond energy = 243 kJ mol-1
Br2 - 4 shells, covalent radius = 114 pm
- bond length = 228 pm ( r = 228)
I2 - 5 shells, covalent radius = 133 pm
- bond length = 266 pm ( r = 266)
F⬃ as r⬀
The Hydrogenhalides will also have
similar values of q1 and q2 .
All the halogens have the same
effective nuclear charge of 7+ due
to the screening effect of their inner
shells of electrons.
Each hydrogen has an effective
charge of 1+.
F⬃ as r⬀
Whilst it could be tempting to argue the other way round - that increasing attraction results in a
decrease in bond length - Colombs Law only provides us with the ability to describe the Force of
attraction in terms of charge and distance.
Similarly with our next example - multiple Bonds.
Carbon has the ability to form single bonds,
C—C in which one pair of electrons are
shared. For example, ethane

Carbon can also form double bonds, C = C
in which two pairs of electrons are shared.
For example, ethene

Carbon can also form triple bonds, C ≡ C
in which three pairs of electrons are shared.
For example, ethyne

Again, the shorter the bond the higher the bond energy.
F⬃ as r⬀
Ionic Bonding & Potential Energy
F ∝ q1 q2

r2
For isolated ions such as Na+(g) and
Cl—(g), the balance between attractive
and repulsive forces is at an optimum
when the internuculear distance, r, is
236 pm (236 x 10-12 m).
This is equivalent (but not equal) to:-
Naionic radius + Clionic radius
102 + 181 = 283
The reason why internuclear distance ( r = 236 pm) is not the same as the sum of the ionic radia
(as it was for covalent radia) is due to the different ways in which covalent radia and ionic radia
are determined. Covalent radia are measured while atoms are overlapping so the radia meaured
(half the distance between the two nuclei) is reduced. The determination of ionic radia does not
allow for overlap so will be 'full size'.
In the Potential Energy diagram above, there will be a degree of overlap so internuclear distance
is less than sum of the ionic radia. However, when comparing ionic compounds, the sum of the
ionic radia can be used as an indiction of the value of r in F = q1 q2 / r2 .
There is also no 'single bond' in ionic
compounds so the minimum potential
energy (-589 kJ mol-1) is not a bond energy.
Since each ion is forming several attractions
with several neighbouring ions of opposite
charge, a better measure of the strength of the
ionic bond is to look ,at Melting Point or the
Lattice Enthalpy.
Lattice
Sum Ionic MPt
Compound Formula Enthalpy
Radii (pm) (°C)
(kJ mol-1)
sodium chloride Na+ Cl— 283 801 787
sodium fluoride Na+ F— 235 996 923
calcium oxide Ca2+ O2— 240 2898 3401 F⬀ as q⬀
strontium oxide Sr2+ O2— 258 2531 3369
barium oxide Ba2+ O2— 275 1972 3054 F⬃ as r⬀
1. Which of the following can be inferred
from the diagram opposite that shows
the dependence of potential energy on
the internuclear distance between two
atoms?
A The atoms form a bond with
a bond length of 25 pm .
B

O The atoms form a bond with
a bond length of 75 pm.
C The net force between the atoms is attractive at 25 pm.
D The net force between the atoms is attractive at 75 pm

2. Which of the following graphs correctly shows the relationship between potential energy
and internuclear separation for two hydrogen atoms?
A B
C D
3. The potential energy as a function
of internuclear distance for three
diatomic molecules, X2, Y2, and Z2,
is shown in the graph opposite.
Based on the data in the graph,
which of the following correctly
identifies the diatomic molecules,
X2, Y2, and Z2?
X2 Y2 Z2 X2 Y2 Z2
A H2 O N2 O2 B H2 O2 N2
C N2 O2 H2 D O2 H2 N2
4. The potential energy of a system of two

atoms as a function of their internuclear
distance is shown in the diagram opposite.
Which of the following is true regarding
the forces between the atoms when their
internuclear distance is x?

O
A The attractive and repulsive forces are
balanced, so the atoms will maintain an
average internuclear distance x.
B There is a net repulsive force pushing the atoms apart,
so the atoms will move further apart
C There is a net attractive force pulling the atoms together,
so the atoms will move closer together.
D It cannot be determined whether the forces between atoms are balanced, attractive,
or repulsive, because the diagram shows only the potential energy.
5. Based on the data in the tables opposite,
which of the following statements provides
the best prediction for the boiling point of
NaCl ?

O
A NaCl will have a lower boiling point than NaF because the coulombic attractions are
weaker in NaCl than in NaF .
B NaCl will have a boiling point between that of NaF and MgO because the covalent
character of the bonds in NaCl is intermediate between that of MgO and NaF.
C NaCl will have a higher boiling point than MgO because the ions are spaced farther
apart in NaCl .
D NaCl will have a higher boiling point than MgO because the energy required to
transfer electrons from the anion to the cation is larger in NaCl than in MgO .
6. The lattice energy of a salt is related to the energy required to separate the ions. For which
of the following pairs of ions is the energy that is required to separate the ions largest?
(Assume that the distance between the ions in each pair is equal to the sum of the ionic
radii.)
A Na+(g) and Cl−(g) B Cs+(g) and Br−(g)

C O Mg2+(g) and O2−(g) D Ca2+(g) and O2−(g)
7. The melting point of MgO is higher than that of NaF. Explanations for this observation
include which of the following?
I. Mg2+ is more positively charged than Na+.
II. O2- is more negatively charged than F-.
III. The O2- ion is smaller than the F- ion.
A I only
B O I and II only
C I and III only
D II and III only
D I, II and III
2.3 Structure of Ionic Solids
Revision of Some Properties

- localised electrons mean they are poor conductors of both
heat and electricity when solid - but when ions are free to move
(when molten or in solution), then they become good

conductors
increase as charge on ion increases
increase as size of ion decreases

- directional nature make it difficult

for ionic bonds to reform
easily so tend to be brittle
Forming Ionic Compounds
A lot of things happen during the formation
of a typical ionic compound such as NaCl or
CsF.
Typically, the metal is a solid and it will be
necessary to break apart the metal atoms,
breaking metallic bonds in the process:
e.g. Na(s) ⇨ Na(g)
(sublimation or atomisation)
Typically, the non-metal is a molecule and

covalent bonds will need to be broken:
e.g. Cl—Cl(g) ⇨ 2Cl(g)
(bond energy or dissociation)
The metal atoms will then need to lose electron(s):

e.g. Na(g) ⇨ Na+(g) + e-
(ionisation)
While the non-metal atoms gain electron(s): e.g. Cl(g) + e- ⇨ Cl-(g)
(electron affinity)
Notice that most of the steps involved are

endothermic so our gaseous ions are very
high energy - very unstable.
The stability all comes from the final step,
when the gaseous ions begin to attract/repel
each other and come together to form the
lattice or network.
e.g. Na+(g) + Cl-(g ⇨ NaCl(s)

(lattice energy)
Ionic Lattice Structures
The final arrangement of the ions will, as always,
be governed partly by the need to maximise attractions
but mainly by the need to minimise repulsions.
Obvious deviations such as
and
will not happen and the normal arrangement will be
to have alternating cations and anions in all
directions;
The exact detailed arrangements of ions does not need

to be known but the role of ionic radii in determining
structure should be understood. In general, cations
are smaller than anions but it is the relative sizes that

will determine the structure.
Structure 1: as seen in sodium chloride NaCl,

Na+ - 116 pm
Na+ / Cl— = 116/167 = 0.69
Cl— - 167 pm
In this structure the relatively small size of the Na+ ion
means that a maximum of 6 Cl— ions can be attracted.
Structure 2: as seen in caesium chloride CsCl,

Cs+ - 181 pm
Cs+ / Cl— = 181/167 = 1.08
Cl— - 167 pm
In this structure the relatively large size of the Cs+ ion
means that a maximum of 8 Cl— ions can be attracted.
As previously shown, ionic radii play

a significant role in determining the
strength of the ionic bond as shown by
melting point and lattice energy.
Difference in structure could make
comparisons more difficult but the vast
majority of simple ionic substances will
have the sodium chloride structure.
1. Which of the following correctly indicates whether the
solid represented by the particulate model shown opposite
conducts electricity and explains why or why not?
A It conducts electricity because it is made of
positive and negative ions.

B It conducts electricity because it is made of
particles of different sizes.
O
C It does not conduct electricity because its ions cannot move freely within the solid.
D It does not conduct electricity because there are small spaces between the particles.
2. The particle-level diagram opposite represents the structure of solid KF.

Although the molar mass of KCl is greater than that of KF, the density
of KCl is actually less than that of KF.
Which of the following representations of the
structure of KCl best helps to explain this phenomenon?
A O
B

C D

3.

The energy required to dissociate an ionic solid into gaseous ions (lattice energy) for the
compounds NaF and MgF2 is shown in the table above.
On the basis of Coulomb’s law, which of the following best helps to explain the large
difference between the lattice energies of NaF and MgF2 ?
A The solubility of MgF2 is less than that of NaF .

B The electronegativity of Mg is greater than that of Na .
C The mass of the Mg cation is greater than that of the Na cation.
D O The charge of the Mg cation is larger than that of the Na cation.
4. Of the following diagrams, which best represents the structure of solid KF ?
A B

O
C D

5. Which of the following diagrams best illustrates how a displacement in an ionic crystal
results in cleavage and brittleness?
A O
before displacement after displacement
B before displacement after displacement

C before displacement after displacement

D before displacement after displacement

2.4 Structure of Metals and Alloys
Metallic Lattices
Metallic lattices (elements and alloys) benefit
from many strong interactions at short
distances.
F = q1 q2 / r2
Melting points can be used to compare the
strengths of metallic bonds.
For example, mercury is a liquid at room
temperature, and caesium melts at 28.4°C,
whereas tungsten melts at 3680°C.
Metals can form alloys so easily because replacing one
metal atom with another metal atom rarely disrupts the
strength of the metallic bonding too much.
For example, an alloy of sodium and potsssium can be
made, but the alloy formed is a liquid at room
temperature showing that the metallic bond is slightly
weaker.
Alloys can be divided into two main categories: substitutional alloys and interstitial alloys.
These alloys are both homogeneous mixtures in which components are dispersed randomly
but uniformly. The type of alloy formed is largely determined by relative atomic sizes.
Substitutional alloys are formed when the two metallic

components have similar atomic radii and similar
chemical-bonding characteristics.
Brass is an example of a substitutional alloy. Zinc and
copper atoms are of very similar size so the original
structure is maintained, though strengthened.
This alloy retains properties such as malleability and
ductility as metallic bonding is easily re-established.
Interstitial alloys are formed when the atoms added are

much smaller than the main metal stoms. Typically, the
interstitial element is a non-metal that makes covalent
bonds to the neighboring metal atoms.
Steel is an interstitial alloy with much smaller carbon

atoms in the spaces between the iron atoms.
The presence of the carbon atoms enhances the
structure so steel is harder than the original iron, but it
will also be less malleable and less ductile as a result.
The wide variety of alloys makes it difficult

to make accurate predictions about properties,
but, in general, alloys will be poorer conductors,
less malleable, less ductile but stronger/harder.
Also, in general, smaller atoms that are able to
form interstitial alloys will have a more
disruptive effect on metallic bonding, making
it harder to displace atoms resulting in
stronger alloys.
1. Copper atoms and zinc atoms have the same atomic radius, 135 picometers. Based on this
information, which of the following diagrams best represents an alloy containing only
copper and zinc atoms?

A B

O
C D

2. A particle-level diagram of a metallic

element is shown opposite. Typically,
metals are both malleable and ductile.
The best explanation for these properties
is that the electrons involved in bonding
among metal atoms are
A unequally shared and form nondirectional bonds
B unequally shared and form highly directional bonds
C O equally shared and form nondirectional bonds
D equally shared and form highly directional bonds
3. Steel is an alloy containing Fe atoms and C atoms. Which of the following diagrams best
represents the particle-level structure of steel?

A B

O

C D

4.
To make Au stronger and harder, it is often alloyed with other metals, such as Cu and Ag.
Consider two alloys, one of Au and Cu and one of Au and Ag, each with the same mole
ratio of Au.
If the Au/Cu alloy is harder than the Au/Ag alloy, then which of the following is the best
explanation based on the table above.
A Cu has two common oxidation states, but Ag has only one.

B Cu has a higher melting point than Au has, but Ag has a lower melting point than
Au has.
C

O Cu atoms are smaller than Ag atoms, thus the interfere more with the displacement
of atoms in the alloy.
D Cu atoms are less polarizable than Au or Ag atoms, thus Cu has weker interparticle
forces.
5. Which of the following diagrams best depicts an alloy of Ni and B?

O
A B

C D

11. Steel is an alloy consisting of Fe with a small amount of C. Elemental Cr can be added to
steel to make the steel less likely to rust; Cr atoms react with oxygen in the air to form a
nonreactive layer of chromium oxide on the surface of the steel, preventing the oxidation
of underlying Fe atoms.
A sample of steel-chromium alloy contains 15 percent Cr by mass. Which of the following
diagrams best shows a particle-level view of a surface section and an interior section of the
alloy represented below at the left? (The atomic radii of the atoms involved are given in the
table below at the right.)
B

O
2.1 - 2.4 Quick Check FRQ - some questions were used in Unit 1
1. Answer the following questions related to the chemical bonding in substances containing
halogens.
a) What type of chemical bond is present in the molecules of halogens such as Cl2?
The response indicates that the bond is covalent. (No explanation is required,
however, the bond is covalent because the two atoms have the same electronegativity
and will form a nonpolar covalent bond.)
b) All of the halogens have the same molecular formula. Which molecule will have the
longest bond length? Justify your choice in terms of atomic structure.
The response indicates Iodine or I2 .
The response gives an explanation such as the following.
I2 has the longest bond length because the radius of the atom is greater than the radii
of the other halogen atoms. Thus, the distance between the nuclei of atoms
in I2 is greater than it is in smaller halogens.
c) Cl2 reacts with the element Sr to form an ionic compound. Based on periodic
properties, identify a molecule, X2 , that is likely to to react with Sr in a way similar
to how Cl2 reacts with Sr. Justify your choice.
The response meets both of the criteria below:
F2 , Br2 , I2 or At2 is written.
the element chosen is in the same group or family as Cl2 .
d) A graph of potential energy versus internuclear distance for two Cl atoms is given
below. On the same graph, carefully sketch a curve that corresponds to
potential energy versus internuclear distance for two Br atoms.
The sketched curve meets both ( 2 marks) of the criteria below:
The curve has its minimum value to the right of where the given curve has its
minimum value(because the length of the bond is greater than that of the bond).
The minimum value of the curve is higher than (i.e., above) the minimum value of
the given curve (because the strength of the bond is less than that of the bond).
2. White gold is a common alloy of gold and
palladium that is often used in jewelry.
The atomic radii of the metals are given in
the table opposite
A particular ring is made from an alloy that is 75 mole percent gold and 25 mole percent
palladium.
Using the box below, draw a particle-level diagram of the solid alloy consisting of 12 atoms
with a representative proportion of atom types.
Your diagram should clearly indicate whether the alloy is interstitial or substitutional. Use
empty circles for gold and shaded circles for palladium.
1 point is earned for the correct number of each type of circle.

1 point is earned for showing an acceptable arrangement (i.e., regular array of circles of
about the same size).
Diagram should show 12 circles in a regular array, 9 empty and 3 shaded.
2.5 Lewis Diagrams
Molecular Models
When it comes to representing covalent molecules we have a number of different ways of
'modelling' their structures:
CH4
molecular lewis structural molecular
formula diagram formula orbital model
perspective ball-and-stick space-filling electrostatic

formula model model potential map
Many of these models will already be familiar to you. In the lessons that follow, we will be
progressing through Lewis Diagrams to Molecular Orbitals (Hybridisation) to allow us to
better understand the shapes of molecules and will make good use of Perspective Formulae to
show these 3D shapes on 2D paper. Underpinning all of this will be our Valence Shell Electron
Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory.
Lewis Symbols
Lewis symbols are a natural progression from our 'electrons in boxes' approach used earlier.
However, there is one very significant

difference. These boxes represent
atomic orbitals and, in the valence
shell, there are two types (s and p ) at
two slightly different energies.
As will be explained in more detail in a
later lesson, when reacting with other
atoms these atomic orbitals 'mix and
merge' (hybridise) to form 4 identical
molecular orbitals.
'Atomic'
Carbon
'Molecular'
Carbon
So, in Lewis Symbols, we place our electrons N, E, S & W ( in any order) around the symbol for
the atom, first singly and then pairing up.
Though we will be concentrating mainly on covalent molecules, Lewis symbols can also be used
to represent ionic reactions:
Notice, that the ions end up with filled valence

shells like the nearest Noble Gas - the 'stable octet'.
Lewis Structures - the Octet Rule
A Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding in
which shared electron pairs are shown either as lines or as
pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are shown as
pairs of dots on individual atoms. Only valence electrons are
shown in a Lewis structure.
Though (as always) there are exceptions - a correct Lewis
structure should result in a stable octet (or stable duet in the
case of hydrogen) for each atom in the molecule.
This often referred to as the Octet Rule - An atom other than
hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by eight
valence electrons.
Pairs of electrons shared between two atoms (bonding pairs)
are usually represented by a line. Pairs of electrons that belong
to a single atom (lone pairs) are represented by a pair of dots.
On occassions, a lone pair can then be used to form a bond.

The hydrogen has lost an
electron (so H+) to the chlorine.
It then forms a covalent bond
(shares a pair of electrons)
with the nitrogen.
This type of covalent bond (both shared electrons donated by one atom) is often called a Dative or
Coordinate covalent bond. Notice that the positive charge that was part of the hydrogen ion (H+) is
now shared between all 5 atoms in the ammonium ion (NH4+ ). The ammonium ion is both ionic
and covalent.
Many compounds are held together by multiple bonds, that is,
bonds formed when two atoms share two or more pairs of electrons.
If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond is called a double bond. Double bonds
are found in molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and ethylene (ethene - C2H4).
A triple bond arises when
two atoms share three pairs
of electrons, as in the
nitrogen molecule (N2):
The acetylene molecule (ethyne - C2H2) also contains a

triple bond, in this case between two carbon atoms:
Applying the Octet Rule - Rules for Drawing Simple Lewis Structures
Drawing a Lewis structure is a skill that is easier to show than to describe on paper.
Written rules and worked examples can take up a lot of pages and can make simple
things look more difficult than they are. Therefore, I'm going to make use of some
excellent videos and would encourage you to watch each one before working
through each section of Notes.
Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions

Drawing Lewis structures for
polyatomic ions - covalent
molecules with charges - is
very similar except that the
number of valence electrons
increases for anions and
decreases for cations.
..
..
— —
— — —
—
.. — .. —
.. — ..
..
..
..
..
.. — ..
—
—
—
—
—
.. — ..
..
..
..
..
.. ..
.. —
—
—
..
..
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Hypervalent molecules -
As already mentioned, atoms convert atomic
orbitals into molecular orbitals when
bonding together. Smaller atoms are usually
limited to using just their s and p orbitals to
create 4 hybrid molecular orbitals - 4 pairs of
electrons - stable octet.
Larger atoms also have the option of using some of the empty d orbitals. This can produce 5, 6, 7,
8 or more orbitals resulting in central atoms that will often have electrons in excess of a stable
octet.
..
.. —.. — .. .. .. .. .. ..
..
.. ..
..
.. ..
.. — —..
.. .. ..
..
——..
—
..
..
.. ..
..
..
..
..
.. ..
—.... ....
..
.. ..
—
..
.. ..
—
—
—
..
.. — .. .. .. .. ..
..—
—
—
..
—
..
..
..
..
..
..
phosphorus trichloride phosphorus pentachloride sulfur tetrachloride sulfur hexachloride
PCl3 PCl5 SF4 SCl6
number of V.E. = 26 number of V.E. = 40 number of V.E. = 34 number of V.E. = 48
number of B.E. = 6 number of B.E. = 10 number of B.E. = 8 number of B.E. = 12
number of lone pairs = number of lone pairs = number of lone pairs = number of lone pairs =
20 / 2 = 10 30 / 2 = 15 26 / 2 = 13 36 / 2 = 18
O
stable octet? Y / N stable octet? Y / N O stable octet? Y / N O stable octet? Y / N O
.. ..
.. .. .. .. ..
..
.. . .. ..
.. — —..
.. ..
— ..
.... —....
..
— ..
—..
....
—
..
..— ..
.. — — ..
.. ..
..
—
—..
—
.. ..
.. — ..
—
..
.
..
..
..
..
— .. .. .. ..—
.. —
.. .. —
..
..
..
.. ..
..
xenon tetrachloride xenon hexafluoride xenon pentafluoride ion thionyl chloride

XeF4 XeF6 XeF 5
+
SOCl2
number of V.E. = 36 number of V.E. = 50 number of V.E. = 42 number of V.E. = 26
number of B.E. = 8 number of B.E. = 12 number of B.E. = 10 number of B.E. = 8
number of lone pairs = number of lone pairs = number of lone pairs = number of lone pairs =
28 / 2 = 14 38 / 2 = 19 32 / 2 = 16 18 / 2 = 9
stable octet? Y / NO stable octet? Y / N O stable octet? Y / N O stable octet? Y / N O

Electron Deficient molecules -

Generally, these are molecules with central atoms from groups 2 and 3 and outer atoms that are
hydrogen or other atoms that do not form multiple bonds. For example, in the Lewis structures of
beryllium dihydride, BeH2 , and boron trifluoride, BF3 , the beryllium and boron atoms each have
only four and six electrons, respectively - less than the stable octet expected.
An atom like the boron atom in BF , which does not have 8 electrons,
is very reactive. It readily combines with a molecule containing an atom
with a lone pair of electrons. For example, NH3 reacts with BF because
the lone pair on nitrogen can be shared with the boron atom:
Organic molecules -

The Lewis structures for many organic molecules can be written quickly and easily as they often
just require the drawing of lines to represent pairs of bonding electrons:
However, the presence of halogens, oxygen or nitrogen atoms will require lone pairs to be added
to the traditional structural formula:
Since all these atoms (except hydrogen) will normally form a stable octet, it can be easier to
simply draw a structural formula as normal and then add the lone pairs needed to achive the
stable octet:
1 bond 3 lone pairs
2 bonds 2 lone pairs
3 bonds 1 lone pair
4 bonds 0 lone pairs
1. Which of the following has as a central atom with less than an octet of electrons?
O BH

A H2O B NH3 C 3
D CH4 E SiH4

2. Which of the following has two lone pairs of electrons?
O

A H O 2
B NH3 C BH3 D CH4 E SiH4
3. Which of the following is isomeric with CH3CH2CHO ?
O CH COCH

A CH3CH2CH2CH3 B CH3CH2CH2OH C 3 3
D CH3COOH E CH3CH2CH2NH2
4. The electron-dot structure (Lewis structure) for which of the following molecules would
have two unshared pairs of electrons on the central atom?
O

A H S B2
NH3 C CH4 D HCN E CO2
5. Which of the following molecules contains only single bonds?
O

A CH3COOH B CH3CH2COOCH3 C CH 2 6
D C6H6 E HCN
6. Which of the following is an isomer of CH3OCH3 ?
O

A CH3CH3 B CH3COOH C CH CH OH 3 2
D CH3CH2CH3 E CH3CH2OCH2CH3
2.6 Resonance and Formal Charge
Limitations with the Lewis Model
Though extremely useful, there are a few limitations with Lewis Structures:
① They tend to present a 'black & white' versions of a molecule whereas the reality can
sometimes involve 'shades of grey':

For example, Lewis structures for ozone, O3 , would show one single and one double
bond, whereas the reality is 2 identical bonds that are 'in between' - shorter than
single bonds but longer than double bonds.
Similarly, Lewis structures show negative charges on either of the outside oxygens
whereas the reality is that the charge is shared equally over both outside oxygens.
② Less serious is the fact that they encourage a 2D view (N,S,E & W) of molecules,
whereas we often need to consider the 3D shape (tetrahedral) of a molecule.
CH4

③ Even less serious is the fact that they can struggle with odd numbers of electrons
that don't fit into our electron pairs/stable octet Model.
For example, the free radical NO2• has 17 valence electrons.
Putting bonds between the atoms uses up 4 of these electrons. O—N—O
..O — N — ..O
.. ..
Allocating lone pairs to the oxygen atoms uses up 12 electrons. ..
..
..O — N — ..O
.. . ..
Leaving only 1 electron to be allocated to the nitrogen atom.
..
..
The oxygen atoms have a stable octet but nitrogen only has
..O — N = O..
. ..
5 electrons. We can improve this by creating a double bond.
..
..
Again, the reality can be somewhat different:
Assigning Formal Charges
In some of the previous examples, charges have been included into the Lewis Diagrams. Having
applied our rules to NO2•, we ended up with:
.. ..
. ..
O — N = O
..
..
If we formally share out the electrons (including those in inner shells) and compare with the
number of protons, we see that some of our atoms are no longer balanced and will, as a result,
have overall charges associated with them:
.. ..
. ..
O—N=O
..
..
inner shell electrons belong to only that atom
lone pairs belong to only that atom 8p 7p 8p
single electrons belong to only that atom 9e 6e 8e
each atom owns one electron from each bonding pair 1- 1+ 0
In a similar way, we can identify the location of charge within polyatomic ions:
8p 8p
Most
8e 0 8e 0 polyatomic ions involve oxygen
atoms so it can be useful to note that
.. ..
..
..
..
..
single bonded oxygen atoms will often

.. ..
7p
—
—
—
.. ..
8p 8p
carry
7e 0 — — a negative charge while double
..
..
9 e 1- 9 e 1-
—
.. ..
—
bonded oxygens are usually neutral.
.. —
..
..
8p 8p 8p
9 e 1- 8e 0 8e 0
Often we can predict the structure of an ion, such as the phosphate ion, PO43-,
using these observations rather than following the rules to a formal Lewis
Structure.
Resonance Structures
In many of our previous examples, several
'identical but different' structures could have
been drawn depending on which oxygen atom
we decided to allocate lone pairs and which
oxygen atoms would form the double bond.
These equivalent Resonance Structures are
usually combined to produce more realistic
structures like those shown on the right.
An analogy would be to mix a red pigment and a blue pigment together in a paint. The molecules
of red and blue would remain, but the paint would not alternate between red and blue - instead
we would observe a purple colour.
To better understand these Resonance Structures we need the Orbital Model and to learn more
about Hybridisation.
Benzene is a common organic solvent that was previously used in gasoline; it is no longer used for
this purpose, however, because it is now known to be a carcinogen.
The benzene molecule (C6H6) consists of a regular hexagon of carbon atoms, each of which is also
bonded to a hydrogen atom. Using our rules we can arrive at 2 equivalent resonance structures:
Both structures involve alternating single bonds (longer,weaker)

and double bonds (shorter, stronger).
In reality, all the bonds are the same length and of equal strength.
They are between single and double bonds - intermediate bonds.
Lewis Structures cannot really explain how the final structure is formed. We need to consider the
orbitals involved:
As previously mentioned, the atomic s and p

orbitals will mix and merge to form four sp3
hybrid molecular orbitals when atoms such as
carbon form molecules.
In a benzene molecule, each carbon is only
going to bond to 3 atoms so three sp2 hybrid
molecular orbitals form, leaving one of the
original
sp sp sp p orbitals intact. 2 2 2
The three sp2 orbitals will minimise repulsions by taking

up positions 120° away from each other. The p orbital will
lie perpendicular to these orbitals.
This lead to a hexagonal ring of carbon atoms with

sp2 orbitals overlapping to share electrons as normal
- these are called sigma (σ) bonds. More σ-bonds
form between C and H atoms.
The p orbitals can overlap sideways to form

three weaker π-bonds. However, instead of
overlapping to form 3 double bonds, they all
merge together to provide extra π-bonds
equally between all the C atoms.
The first bond that forms between atoms is always a sigma (σ) bond. The shared electrons are
directly between the two nuclei, maximising attractions and making the bond stronger. Second or
third bonds are weaker π-bonds, due to the fact that the shared electrons are off to the side.
Ozone (O3) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) also have structures that are best understood by considering
orbitals along side the Lewis structure:
Similarly for the carbonate ion, CO32-, and the nitrate ion:
The evidence for these resonance hybrid structures is usually some of the following:
① bonds are intermediate in length between single bond and double bond
② bonds are intermediate in strength between single bond and double bond
③ molecules do not display the polarity/charges predicted by individual structures
④ molecules, such as benzene, do not undergo the addition reactions expected of
double bonds.
1.

The diagram above shows two resonance structures for a molecule of C6H6.
The phenomenon shown in the diagram best supports which of the following claims about
the bonding in C6H6 ?
O

A In the C6H6 molecule, all the bonds between the carbon atoms have the same
length.
B Because of variable bonding between its carbon atoms, C6H6 is a good conductor of
electricity.

C The bonds between carbon atoms in C6H6 are unstable, and the compound
decomposes quickly.
D The C6H6 molecule contains three single bonds between carbon atoms and three
double bonds between carbon atoms.
2. Which of the following Lewis diagrams best represents the bonding in the N2O molecule,
considering formal charges?
A

B O
C D
3. For which of the following molecules are resonance structures necessary to describe the
bonding satisfactorily?
A H2S O
B SO 2
C CO2 D OF2 E PF3
4.
Which of the following statements, if true, would support the claim that the NO3− ion,
represented above, has three resonance structures?
A O
The NO3− ion is not a polar species.
B The oxygen-to-nitrogen-to-oxygen bond angles are 90°

C One of the bonds in NO3− is longer than the other two.
D One of the bonds in NO3− is shorter than the other two.
5. Which of the following molecules has an angular (bent) geometry that is commonly
represented as a resonance hybrid of two or more electron-dot structures?
A CO2 O
B O 3
C CH4 D BeF2 E OF2
6. Resonance is most commonly used to describe the bonding in molecules of which of the
following?
A CO2 O
B O 3
C H2O D CH4 E SF6
2.7 VSEPR and Bond Hybridisation
Molecular Geometry (shapes)
One of the most important things we gain from Lewis Structures and Orbital Models is the
ability to understand and predict Molecular Geometry (Shapes). From shapes we can predict some
attributes like polarity which have a big influence on properties.
For example, at first glance we might expect CO2 and SO2 to be very similar molecules, however,
CO2 is a linear molecule (180°),
contains two double bonds,
and is non-polar, despite the
bonds being polar, wheras
SO2 is a bent molecule (120°)
with intermediate bonds, and
is a polar molecule as the shape
allows for a molecule with
ends of opposite charge.
To understand or predict molecular geometry (shape) we usually use a combination of ideas that
form the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory :
① identification of the type of hybrid molecular orbitals forming
② allocation of electron pairs between bonding pairs and lone pairs
③ consideration of Coulombs Law to ensure minimal repulsion
For example, we might expect XeF4 to be a tetrahedral shaped molecule but earlier we worked
out the arrangement of electrons in XeF4 using the Rules for drawing Lewis Structures:
..
From this we see that there are
.. . .. ..
.. ..
— ..
6 electron pairs - 4 bonding and
.. ..
2 lone pairs.
— —
.
..
..
This would require 6 orbitals so

.. —
..
would need to be sp d hybrids. 3 2
6
xenon tetrachloride orbitals will arrange themselves
octahedrally to minimise repulsions,
XeF4
so XeF4 will be based on this shape.
number of V.E. = 36
However,
number of B.E. = 8 the lone pairs are more
strongly
number of lone pairs = repulsive so they will occupy

28 / 2 = 14 positions as far away from each other
as possible.
This leaves the 4 bonding pairs to occupy the remaining 4 positions that forms a square planar
shaped molecule.
Types of Hybrid Orbitals
Most of the atoms that get involved in covalent molecules are from the second period of the
Periodic Table - elements such as C , N and O. They will normally make use of the s and p
orbitals to form sp, sp2 or sp3 hybrid orbitals. These will then establish the initial arrangement of
electron pairs.
sp3 hybrid orbitals
4 bonding pairs - molecule has same

geometry as the orbitals - tetrahedral
Equal repulsions ensure bond angle of
109.5° - maximum distance.
3 bonding pairs - molecule has a
pyramidal shape but stronger
repulsion of the lone pair reduces bond
angle to 107°.
2 bonding pairs - molecule has a
bent shape but stronger repulsions of
the two lone pairs reduces bond
angle to 104.5°.
sp2 hybrid orbitals

3 orbitals will take up positions 120°
away from each other to minimise
repulsions. This forms a trigonal planar
orbital geometry.
3 bonding pairs will result in a
molecule with the same trigonal
planar molecular geometry.
For example, BF3
The unused empty p orbital can still have a part to play. For example, an electron rich fluoride ion
can use one of its lone pairs to form a fourth bond (dative or coordinate bond) with the boron.
trigonal planar tetrahedral
The resulting BF4— ion will be tetrahedral in shape as there are now 4 bonding pairs and the
orbitals will change from sp2 to sp3. Sometimes the formation of an extra dative or coordinate bond
does not require a change in hybridisation (orbital geometry) but will result in a change in
molecular geometry.
orbital geometry = tetrahedral orbital geometry = tetrahedral

molecular geometry = pyramidal molecular geometry = tetrahedral
At other times, a half-filled p orbital can be used to form a π-bond as the second bond in a double
bond:

Notice that the orbital geometry (trigonal planar) and the molecular geometry (trigonal planar)
are unaffected by the formation of the π-bond - only bonding pairs in σ-bonds and lone pairs
determine the orbital geometry.
3 bonding pairs orbital geometry molecular geometry
in σ-bonds is trigonal planar is trigonal planar
1 bonding pair the greater repulsion of the lone pairs on

in π-bond the O atom pushes the H atoms closer together
2 bonding pairs orbital geometry molecular geometry
in σ-bonds & is trigonal planar is bent
1 lone pair
1 bonding pair
in π-bond
sp hybrid orbitals
There are not many examples of atoms that only have 2 valency electrons (group 2 metal) but form
covalent bonds but BeCl2 is a good example of where both the orbital geometry and the molecular
geometry are linear (180°).
In acetylene (ethyne), each carbon only needs to form 2 σ-bonds so forms sp hybrid orbitals and,
again both the the orbital geometry and the molecular geometry are linear (180°);

Again, the formation of the second and third π-bonds in the triple bond has no effect on the
geometry - only bonding pairs in σ-bonds and lone pairs determine the orbital geometry.
The Lewis diagram for CO2 shows
us that the carbon will form 2 σ-bonds
so 2 sp hybrid orbitals needed, leaving
2 unused p-orbitals to form π-bonds.
Each oxygen will form 1 σ-bond and will have 2 lone pairs so 3 sp2
hybrid orbitals needed leaving 1 unused p-orbitals to form a π-bond.
The sp hybrid orbitals make the

geometry linear and the sideways
overlapping of p-orbitals to form
the double bonds has no effect.
Number
Number of Number of Molecular
of hybrid Example
σ-bonds lone pairs Geometry
orbitals
sp
sp2
sp3
Number
Number of Number of Molecular
of hybrid Example
σ-bonds lone pairs Geometry
orbitals
sp3d
sp3d2
Summary of Bond Properties
Bond Lengths - will decrease as we move from single bonds ⇨ double bonds ⇨ triple bonds

F2 1.43 Å O2 1.21 Å N2 1.10 Å
will increase as we increase the size (atomic radii) of atoms

F2 1.43 Å Cl2 1.99 Å Br2 2.28 Å
Bond Energies - will increase as we move from single bonds ⇨ double bonds ⇨ triple bonds

F2 159 kJ O2 498 kJ N2 945 kJ

347 kJ 614 kJ 839 kJ
Bond Angles - will increase as we move from sp3 hybrid ⇨ sp2 hybrid ⇨ sp hybrid orbitals

will decrease as the number of lone pairs increases

Bond Dipoles/Molecular Dipoles -
1. Which of the following complete Lewis diagrams represents a molecule containing a bond
angle that is closest to 120°
A B C
O
D
2.

Lewis diagrams of molecules of three different hydrocarbons are shown above. Which of
the following claims about the molecules is best supported by the diagrams?
A All the atoms in molecule 1 lie in one plane.
B All the molecules have the same empirical formula.
C The C-C-C bond angle in molecule 2 is close to 180°.
D O The strongest carbon-to-carbon bond occurs in molecule 3.
3. In the following diagrams, elements are represented by X and Z, which form molecular
compounds with one another. Which diagram represents a molecule that has a bent
molecular geometry?
A OB C D
4. The geometry of the SO3 molecule is best described as
O

A trigonal planar B trigonal pyramidal
C square pyramidal D bent E tetrahedral
5.

Lewis electron-dot diagrams for CO2 and SO2 are given above. The molecular geometry
and polarity of the two substances are
A the same because the molecular formulas are similar
B the same because C and S have similar electronegativity values
C different because the lone pair of electrons on the S atom make it the negative end of
a dipole
D

O different because S has a greater number of electron domains (regions of electron
density) surrounding it than C has
6. Which of the following Lewis electron-dot diagrams represents the molecule that contains
the smallest bond angle?
A O
B C D
7.

The hybridization of the carbon atoms in the molecule represented above can be described
as
A sp B sp2
O
C sp3 D dsp2 E d2sp
8.

What is the hybridization of the carbon atoms in a molecule of ethyne, represented above?

O
A sp B sp2 C sp3 D dsp2 E d2sp
9. Which of the following molecules contains exactly three sigma (σ) bonds and two pi (π)
bonds?
O
A C H 2 2
B CO2 C HCN D SO3 E N2
10. Of the following molecules, which has the largest dipole moment?
A CO B CO2 C O2
O
D HF E F2
11. Which of the following has molecules with a pyramidal shape
O
A NH 3
B BH3 C H2 D H2S E HBr
12. Which of the following molecules contains polar covalent bonds but is a nonpolar
molecule?
A CH3Cl B CH2Cl2 C NH3

O
D CCl4 E N2
13. Which of the following arranges the molecules N2, O2, and F2 in order of their bond
enthalpies, from least to greatest?

O
A F2 < O2 < N2 B O2 < N2 < F2
C N2 < O2 < F2 D
N2 < F2 < O2
14. Pi (π) bonding occurs in each of the following species EXCEPT
A CO2 B C2H4 C CN— D C6H6 O

E CH4
15. Which of the following molecules has the shortest bond length?

O
A N2 B O2 C Cl2 D Br2 E I2
16. According to the VSEPR model, the progressive decrease in the bond angles in the series
of molecules CH4, NH3, and H2O is best accounted for by the
A increasing strength of the bonds
B decreasing size of the central atom
C increasing electronegativity of the central atom
D O increasing number of unshared pairs of electrons
E decreasing repulsion between hydrogen atoms
17. Which of the following is a nonpolar molecule that contains polar bonds?
A F2 B CHF3 O
C
CO2 D HCl E NH3
18. Which of the molecules represented below contains carbon with sp2 hybridization?
A CH4 B CH2Cl2 C C2H6

O
D C2H2Cl2 E C2H4Cl2
19. Which of the following has a zero dipole moment?
A HCN B NH3 C SO2 D NO2 O

E PF 5
20. Which of the following species is NOT planar?
A CO32— B NO3— C
ClF3 D BF3 O
E PCl 3
21. The BF3 molecule is nonpolar, whereas the NF3 molecule is polar. Which of the following
statements accounts for the difference in polarity of the two molecules?
A In NF3, each F is joined to N with multiple bonds, whereas in BF3 , each F is joined
to B with single bonds.
B N — F bonds are polar, whereas B — F bonds are nonpolar.
C NF3 is an ionic compound, whereas BF3 is a molecular compound
D

O Unlike BF3, NF3 has a nonplanar geometry due to an unshared pair of electrons on
the N atom.
2.5 - 2.7 Quick Check FRQ
1. Answer the following questions using principles of chemical bonding and molecular
structure.
a) Consider the carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 , and the carbonate ion, CO32-.
i) Draw the complete Lewis electron-dot structure for each species.
1 point is earned for each Lewis electron-dot structure
Indication of lone pairs of electrons are required on
each structure
Resonance forms of CO32- are not required

ii) Account for the fact that the carbon-oxygen bond length in CO32- is greater
than the carbon-oxygen bond length in CO2.
1st point is earned for indicating double bonds are present in CO2 OR resonance
occurs in CO32-.
2nd point earned for BOTH of the above AND indicating the relative lengths of the
bond type
b) Consider the molecules CF4 and SF4.

i) Draw the complete Lewis electron-dot structure for each species.
1 point is earned for each Lewis electron-dot structure
Lone pairs of electrons are required on each structure

ii) In terms of molecular geometry, account for the fact that the CF4 molecule is
nonpolar, whereas the SF4 molecule is polar.
1st point is earned for each molecule for proper geometry and explanation
CF4 has a tetrahedral geometry, so the bond dipoles cancel, leading to a nonpolar
molecule.
With five pairs of electrons around the central S atom, SF4 exhibits a trigonal
bipyramidal electronic geometry, with the lone pair of electrons.
In this configuration, the bond dipoles do not cancel, and the molecule is polar.
2. Propanoic acid, C2H5COOH, is an organic acid that is a liquid at room temperature.
a) An incomplete Lewis diagram for the propanoic acid molecule is provided in the
box below. Complete the diagram, showing how the remaining atoms in the
molecule are arranged around the carbon atom marked with an asterisk (*).
Your structure should minimize formal charge and include any lone pairs of
electrons.
1 point is earned for a

correct structure.
There should be two O
atoms attached to the C
atom, one with a double
bond and one with
a single bond.
The O atom attached with
a single bond should have
an H atom attached to it.
Each O atom has two lone pairs of electrons. (Figure is required.)
b) Identify the hybridization of the carbon atom marked with the asterisk
1st point is earned for the correct hybridization. sp2

Unit 2 - Answer Key

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Unit 2 - Molecular and Ionic

2.1 Types of Chemical Bonds

BY: Credit must be given to me, the creator.

2.1 Types of Chemical Bonds

Polar Covalent Bonding - unequal sharing

- multiple attractions in networks result in very high MPts &

A There is a partial negative charge on the H atom.

B Electrons are shared equally between the H and F atoms.

C The bond is extremely weak

A SO3 B C2H5OH C MgF2 D H2S O

A It has the formula XZ2.

B It does not dissolve in water.

D It contains covalent bonds.

A The carbon-to-selenium bond is unstable.

C The compound has the empirical formula CSe .

7. Of the following compounds, which is the most ionic?

A SiCl4 B BrCl C PCl3 D Cl2O O

8. Of the following single bonds, which is the LEAST polar?

A N—H B H—F C O—F D I—F O E O—H

2.2 Intramolecular Force & Potential Energy

4. The potential energy of a system of two

A Na+(g) and Cl−(g) B Cs+(g) and Br−(g)

2.3 Structure of Ionic Solids

Revision of Some Properties

- directional nature make it difficult

Typically, the non-metal is a molecule and

The metal atoms will then need to lose electron(s):

Notice that most of the steps involved are

The exact detailed arrangements of ions does not need

Structure 1: as seen in sodium chloride NaCl,

Structure 2: as seen in caesium chloride CsCl,

As previously shown, ionic radii play

2. The particle-level diagram opposite represents the structure of solid KF.

A The solubility of MgF2 is less than that of NaF .

4. Of the following diagrams, which best represents the structure of solid KF ?

B before displacement after displacement

2.4 Structure of Metals and Alloys

Substitutional alloys are formed when the two metallic

Interstitial alloys are formed when the atoms added are

Steel is an interstitial alloy with much smaller carbon

The wide variety of alloys makes it difficult

2. A particle-level diagram of a metallic

A Cu has two common oxidation states, but Ag has only one.

5. Which of the following diagrams best depicts an alloy of Ni and B?

1 point is earned for the correct number of each type of circle.

2.5 Lewis Diagrams

perspective ball-and-stick space-filling electrostatic

However, there is one very significant

Notice, that the ions end up with filled valence

On occassions, a lone pair can then be used to form a bond.

The acetylene molecule (ethyne - C2H2) also contains a

Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions

xenon tetrachloride xenon hexafluoride xenon pentafluoride ion thionyl chloride

stable octet? Y / NO stable octet? Y / N O stable octet? Y / N O stable octet? Y / N O

1 bond 3 lone pairs

2 bonds 2 lone pairs

3 bonds 1 lone pair

4 bonds 0 lone pairs

3. Which of the following is isomeric with CH3CH2CHO ?

5. Which of the following molecules contains only single bonds?

6. Which of the following is an isomer of CH3OCH3 ?

2.6 Resonance and Formal Charge

4. The geometry of the SO3 molecule is best described as

19. Which of the following has a zero dipole moment?