Engineering Mechanics

Engineering Mechanics
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Prepared by
Dr.R.PARAMESHWARAN
Professor & Head
Department Of Mechatronics Engineering
Kongu Engineering College
mtsplacements.blogspot.in
APPLIED ENGINEERING MECHANICS

BASICS - STATICS
The Various Laws of Mechanics are

 Newton’s Law of Motion
 Newton’s Law of Gravity
 Parallelogram Law
 Principle of Transmissibility
Newton’s Law of Motion

FIRST LAW: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change the state by external force.
SECOND LAW: The rate of change of momentum of the body is directly

proportional to the force acting on it and it takes place in the direction of force.
F = ma .
THIRD LAW: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newton’s Law of Gravity

m1 m 2
F=G .
r2
Two particles of mass m1 and m2 are attracted towards each other along the
line connecting them with a force whose magnitude ‘F’ is proportional to the
product of masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between

them (r2).
Parallelogram Law
Two forces acting on a particle may be replaced by a single force called
their resultant which can be obtained by drawing diagonal of a parallelogram
which has the sides equal to the given forces.
F2


F1
R2 = F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos  .
F2 sin 
tan  = where
F1  F2 cos 
 - angle between two forces

 - angle between the Resultant force and one of the forces
Note:
In Parallelogram Law,
 = 0o if Resultant is maximum
 = 180o if Resultant is minimum
Principle of Transmissibility
. = .
F A B F
The condition of equilibrium of a rigid body remains, unchanged if a force
acting at a given point of the rigid body is replaced by a force of same magnitude
and direction, but acting at a different point provided that the two forces have the
same line of action.
Triangle Law of Forces
If two forces (F1 & F2) acting simultaneously on a particle can be

represented by the two sides of a triangle (in Magnitude & Direction) taken in
order, then the resultant of the two forces is the third side (closing side) in opposite
order.
F1  F2
R2 = F12 + F22 – 2F1F2 cos 
B  C
 
A
A2 = B2 + C2 – 2BC cos 
B2 = A2 + C2 – 2AC cos 
C2 = A2 + B2 – 2AB Cos 
VECTORS
Some Important Formulas
   
Area of Parallelogram = a x b ( a & b are two sides of parallelogram)
1    
= d 1 x d 2 ( d 1 , d 2 are the diagonal of the  )
2
1    
Area of triangle = a x b ( a & b are two sides of  )
2
Cross Product
      
i x i  jx j kxk 0
        
i x j   k; k x j   i; i xk  j
 
 axb
n  
axb
Scalar Triple Product

        
   
( a x b ). c  ( b x c ). a  ( c x a ). b  ( a b c 
 
Note
   
If ( a b c   0
 
Scalar (or) dot Product
a . b = ab cos 
i.i = j . j = k . k =1
i . j = j . k = k . i =0
  
Then (1) At least 1 of the vectors a , b , c is zero
(2) Any two vectors are parallel
  
(3) The vectors a , b , c are co-planar.
          
 a  b b  c c  a   2 a b c 
 
          
 a x b b x c c x a   a b c 
 
Vector Triple Product

        
( a x b )x c  (a . c ) b (b . c ) a
        
( a x( b x c )  ( a . c ) b  ( a . b) c
Vector Four Product

   
         
( a x b )x( c x d )  a b d  c  a b c  d
   
Note:
   
 If 4 vectors are coplanar then ( a x b ) x ( c x d )  0 .
       
 If a , b lie on 1 plane & c , d lie on the other then ( a x b ) x ( c x d )  0 .
Scalar Four Product
   
    a.c a .d
( a x b )x( c x d ) =    
b.c b.d
Resolution of Force into Components

I – Quadrant
Case (i) : Angle is between the force & x component
y A
Fy F Fy

o Fx B x
In  OAB
Fx
Cos  =  Fx = F cos 
F
Fy
Sin  =  Fy = F sin 
F
Case (ii) : Angle is between the force & y component

y
B Fx A
Note:
Negative sign occurs
Fy F Fy when the direction of the
 component is reversed.
o Fx x
In  OAB
Fy
Cos  =  Fy = F cos 
F
Fx
Sin  =  Fx = F sin 
F
II Quadrant
y Case 1 :  - between F & x-axis
F Fx = – F cos 
Fy = + F sin 
 Case 2 :  - between F & y-axis
x Fx = – F sin 
case (i) Fy = + F cos 
III Quadrant
x  Case 1 :  - between F & x-axis
Fx = – F cos 
F Fy = – F sin 
Case 2 :  - between F &y- axis
y Fx = – F sin 
case (ii) Fy = – F cos 
IV Quadrant
x Case 1 :  - between F & x-axis
 Fx = + F cos 
F Fy = – F sin 
Case 2 :  - between F & y-axis
y Fx = + F sin 
Fy = – F cos 
Equilibrium of Particles
Lami’s Theorem:
If 3 forces acting on a particle are in equilibrium, then each of the forces is
proportional to the sine of the angle included between the other two forces.
F2

F1 F F
F1   2  3
sin  sin  sin 

F3
Condition
1. Fx = 0 ; Fy = 0 (2D Particles)
2. Fx = 0 ; Fy = 0 ; Fy = 0 (3D)
Non Coplanar – Concurrent System
F
y
x
z x
Fx = F cos x
Fy = F cos y
Fz = F cos z
Fx = F sin y cos 
   
Fy = F cos y F  Fx i  Fy j  Fz k
Fz = F sin y sin 
y
y
F cos y F cos y
y
F sin y cos 
 x  x
F sin y F sin y sin F sin y
z z
If magnitude of F is given & if passes it through A (x1, y1, z1) & B (x2, y2, z2) then
  
 x 2  x 1  i  y 2  y1  j  z 2  z1  k
Unit Vector   .
x 2  x 1 2  y 2  y1 2  z 2  z1 2
x 2  x1 y 2  y1 z  z1
cos  x  ; cos  y  ; cos  z  2
L L L
where, L  x 2  x 1 2  y 2  y1 2  z 2  z1 2
By direction Cosine  cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1 .
   
F = F (cos x i + cos y j + cos z k )
Coplanar Non Concurrent Force System

Varignon’s Theorem:
Moment about a given point ‘o’ of the resultant of several forces is equal to
the sum of the Moments of various forces about the same point ‘o’.
y F2 Y
F1 R
r2
r1 F3 d
r3
0 x x
Mo = r 1 x F1  r 2 x F 2  r 3  F3  dx R
MOMENT COUPLE
Moment of force is a measure of the  
Two forces F&  F of the same
tendency of the force to rotate a body
magnitude with parallel lines of
about the point or axis.
action and opposite in sense are said
to form couple.

 F F

d 
o
d
Moment, Mo = F x d 

F   
Couple = F x d
Resolution of a force into Force – Couple Systems
A
= M A F
O
O
F
When a force F is shifted form point O to point A, a couple must be added whose
moment is equal to the moment of F about A.
Resultant of Coplanar Non Concurrent System:

Step 1:
Resolve all the forces into components along x and y direction assuming
x & y pass through origin.
Step 2:
Find the Moment at ‘o’ due to all the components found in step 1 (Mo).
Step 3:
Find FX & Fy
Hence R =  Fx 2   Fy 2 and tan  =

 Fy
 Fx
Step 4:
Find d =
 Mo . Mark the line of action ‘R’ at a distance ‘d’ from the
R
reference point O along the perpendicular line. The line of action ‘R’ is
determined from the nature of moment at O.
Step 5:
Using x component Rx and y component Ry , find
x
 Mo & y
 Mo
Ry Rx
Mark y & x as y & x intercepts respectively.
Note: For parallel force system, Resultant will be at the distance d =

 Mo from
R
the origin.
EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Required conditions:
Fx = 0 ; Fy = 0 ; MA = 0
Types of Support:
Types Free Body Arresting Free Body
Movements Diagram
Roller Support (or) Arresting Vertical
Rocker Support Movement
R
Pin Jointed (or) Horizontal &
Hinged Support vertical movement

H
is arrested
v
Fixed Support All the directions H V
are arrested
(Horizontal, M
vertical & rotation)
Types of Beams:
Simply Supported Beam
Cantilever Beam
W
Over hanging Beam
Continuous Beam
Fixed Beam
Types of Load:
1. Point (or) Concentrated Load
W
A B
2. Uniformly Distributed Load w / unit length

W / unit length
3. Uniformly Varying Load

Magnitude given by Area of triangle
Point of Application is through centroid
x N/m of triangle
=
90o F
d 
3
F = Area of  = ½ x d x x
d
The distance d is considered starting from the angle 90o.

3
Rigid Bodies in 3 Dimension:

Moment About Origin:
B (xB, yB, zB)
y F
r A(xA, yA, zA)
(0, 0, 0)
z o x
i j k
M0 = x A yA zA --------- (1)
Fx Fy Fz
Moment about ‘B’ point:

i j k
MB = ( x A  x B) ( y A  y B ) (z A  z B )
Fx Fy Fz
Moment about an Axis (OL):

(Other than region) L
F
A

M  (xA, yA, zA)
Moment about an axis = M o .
OL
Where   & M o - Moment about Point O
OL
Classification of Problems:
Conditions for Applying
2D 3D
Particle Fx = 0 Fx = 0
Fy = 0 Fy = 0
Fz = 0
Rigid Body Fx = 0 Fx = 0

Fy = 0 Fy = 0 Mz = 0
MA = 0 Fz = 0
Mx = 0
My = 0
Note: In a rigid body with 3 forces when the equilibrium condition is reached all
the forces will be either concurrent or parallel to one another.
FRICTION
Dry Friction Fluid Friction
Dry Friction
Motion
P W
N F
Frictional Force is always opposite to the direction of motion

Frictional Force
Limiting Friction (Fm)
Fm
Fk
Zone of Zone of Kinetic Friction

Static friction
Applied Force
F
N R tan  =  F = N tan 
N

Fmax = (tan )max N = sN .
Flim
Where s – coefficient of static friction.
Laws of Dry Friction

 The direction of frictional force on a surface is such as to oppose the
tendency of one surface to slide relative to other.
 The total frictional force is independent of the area of contact between the
two surfaces and depends on the nature of surfaces in contact.
 The magnitude of limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between two surfaces.
Fmax
Fmax = sN   s .
N
 The frictional force is never greater than the force required to prevent
motion.
F < sN .
Angle of Friction
Motion
P W
N
F R

Fmax = sN
F
tan  =
N
 - Angle of Friction
s - Angle of Static Friction
k - Angle of Kinetic Friction
 < s - No Motion
 = s - Motion is Impending
 = k - Starts Moving
Two Bodies in Contact
FBD for B
Motion
W1
T
B
A P N1 F1
FBD for A
F1 N1
W2
P
F2
N2 Motion
Ladder Friction
F1 A N1
d2 d1
W
B
F2 N2
d3 Motion
Applying Equilibrium Condition

Fx = 0  –F2 + N1 =0
Fy = 0  F1 + N2 – W =0
MA = 0  –F2 x d2 + N2 x d3 – W x d1 = 0
Wedge Friction
Block Block Moves upwards

W
Wedge P
Free Body Diagram for Block Free Body Diagram for Wedge
motion N2 F2
N1 W P
N3
F1 N2 F3
motion
F2
Applying Equilibrium Condition Applying Equilibrium Condition

Fx = 0  N1 + F2 sin  + N2 cos  = 0 Fx =0P–F3 + F2 sin  + N2 cos  = 0
Fy = 0 F1+W+F2cos = N2 sin  = 0 Fy = 0  N3 +F2 cos  – N2 sin  = 0
Screw Friction
L – Lead of the screw
 – Lead Angle
Lead = n (Pitch) where n – no of threads.
tan    .
Wr
Effort required to raise the load, P =
a
tan   
Wr
Effort required to tower the load,  =
a
Where W – Weight of the load
r – Radius of the thread
a – Distance from the lever Arm
 L 
(Lead Angle)  = tan–1   where L = n (pitch)
 2r 
(Friction Angle)  = tan–1 () where  coefficient of friction.
Self-Locking Condition:
1. Friction Angle () > Lead Angle ()
2. Efficiency () < 50%
MechanicalAdvantage
Where 
Velocity Ratio
Load D
Mechanical Advantage = ; Velocity Ratio =
Effort d
D – Distance moved by Effort
d – distance moved by Load
Belt Friction:
T1 Slack Side
T1
T2
T2 Tight side
where
 – Angle of contact in radians
T2 – Tension in Tight side
T1 – Tension in Slack side
T2
 e  .
T1
where  = Co-efficient of friction

Taking ln on both sides
T 
 = ln  2 
 T1 
To convert degree to Radians (R)

R =  (Degree) x .
180
Rolling Resistance:
Wa
R= .
r
where W – Weight
a – Co-efficient of Rolling Resistance

r – Radius
Power Transmission through Belts:

V = dN P = (T2 – T1) V
Where V – Velocity where P – Power Transmitted
d – Diameter of Belt V – Velocity
N – Revolutions per minute T2 – Tension in Tight side
T1 – Tension in Slack Side
CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY
CENTROID
W
Centroid:
The point where the entire area is assumed to be concentrated.
Centre of Gravity:
The point at which the entire weight acts irrespective of orientation of
body.
Centre of Mass:
The point at which the entire mass of the body is assumed to be
concentrated.
Centre of Mass = Centre of Gravity

(For Practical Purpose)
It differs only when gravitational field is not uniform (or) not parallel. For
Homogeneous plate of uniform thickness.
Centroid = Centre of Gravity
Centroid of Area:

 a1 a2 a3 a4
y2 y1    
  a5
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5

y
x
Moment about x axis = a1 y1 + a2 y2 = a3 y3 + …… an yn
Moment about whole area = y A (A = a1 + a2 + a3 …… an = ai )
By Varignon’s Theorem
yA   a i y i y
 a i yi x
aixi .
A A
Centroid of An Area: (By Integration Method)
y axis dA
x
x axis
Area = dA
Moment due to small Area about x axis = ydA
Moment due to total Area = ydA = y dA
y
 ydA ; x
 xdA dA
 dA  dA
Note :
The centroid lies in the axis of symmetry if it exist.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
The Resistance to Bending (or) Resistance to Rotation is termed as Moment
of Inertia.
Other wise termed as Second Moment of Area.
Ix axis = y2dA
Iy axis = x2dA
Radius of Gyration
I xx I yy
K xx  ; K yy 
A A
It is defined as the distance from the axis to a point where the concentrated
area of the same size could be placed to have the same second moment of Area
with respect to the given axis.
Parallel Axis Theorem:

Moment of Inertia of an area about an axis is equal to the sum of
a). Moment of Inertia about an axis passing through the centroid parallel to
the given axis.
b). Product of Area and square of the distance between two parallel axis.
B B
hB
x x xx – centroidal axis
A hA
A A
IAA = Ixx + AhA2

IBB = Ixx + AhB2
Perpendicular Axis Theorem : (Polar Moment of Inertia)
x
z y
x x
IZZ = Ixx + Iyy

Ixx + Iyy = x2dA + y2dA
Izz = (x2+y2) dA (z2 = x2 + y2)
 Izz = Ixx + Iyy .
Moment of Inertia of a plane lamina about an axis  to the lamina and

passing through its centroid to the sum of moment of Inertia of the lamina about
two mutually perpendicular axis passing through the centroid and in the plane of
the lamina.
Product of Inertia:
 Product of Inertia for a symmetrical object about its centroid axis is zero
For a Triangle (Right Angle Triangle)
 b2h 2
Ixy =
72
For others (Symmetrical Objects):
Ixy = Ixy + Ah2 (Ixy = 0)
Ixy = Ah2 .
Principle Moment of Inertia:
2
 I xx  I y y   I xx  I y y 
Imax =  



  I 2 xy

 2   2 
2
 I xx  I y y   I xx  I y y 
Imin =  



  I 2 xy

 2   2 
 2 I xy
tan 2 =
I xx  I y y
The axis about which moment of inertia is maximum & minimum are
known as Principle axis.
When these two axis pass through the centroid of an area it is known as
centroidal principle axis.
Figure Area, x , y Ixx , Iyy Centroidal Axis

y
A = bd bd 3
Ixx =
12
d x x = b
2
db 3
Iyy =
y =d 12
2
A = ½ bh bh 3
Ixx =
36
h x = b
3
hb 3
Iyy =
y =h 36
3
A = ½ bh bh 3
Ixx =
h 36
x = b
2
hb 3
Iyy =
y =h 36
b 3
R 4
Ixx =
A = R2 4
R
= R
x , y at the center 4
Iyy
4
= R
2
A
2 Ixx = 0.11R4
R
x x =R
= R
4
Iyy
8
2R y = 4R
3
y
= R
2
A
4
x Ixx = 0.055 R4
x = 4R
3 Iyy = 0.055 R4
y = 4R
3
R
DYNAMICS
Kinematics Kinetics
 Rectilinear Motion  Newtons Second Law

 Curvilinear Motion  Work Energy Principle
 Impulse Momentum Principle
 Collision of Elastic Bodies
KINEMATICS OF PARTICLE
x2 x1
B O A
The object moves from O to A and then from A to B.
Here,
Distance travelled : x1 + x1 + x2 (Total distance traveled) – Scalar Quantity
Displacement : xf – xi (xf – final position ; xi – initial position) – Vector Quantity
Velocity:
Displacement
Average Velocity =
Change in Time
Distance
Speed =
Time Taken
Speed is a Scalar Quantity
Velocity is a Vector Quantity
Instantaneous Velocity:
x dx
Ins Velocity = Lt 
x 0 t dt
Acceleration
Change in Velocity v
Average Acceleration = 
Change in Time t
v dv
Instantaneous Acceleration = Lt 
t 0 dt dt
dx d 2 x dv
v= ; a 2 
dt dt dt
dv dx dx
a= x  adx  dv.
dt dx dt
 a dx = v dv
Motion Types:
Velocity uniformly
Uniform motion Velocity accelerated motion
a=0 a = constant
Time Time
Velocity Varying motion Distance
a = Varying Slope = Velocity
Time Time
Freely Falling Body

Let u – Initial Velocity of the particle
v – Final Velocity of the particle
a – Acceleration of the particle (9.81 m/s2)
t – Time taken for the velocity to change from u to v
s – Distance travelled
The Equations are

v = u + at
s = ut + ½ at2 Upward Motion
v2 = u2 + 2as
v = u – at
s = ut – ½ at2 Downward Motion
v2 = u2 – 2as
Note:
(1). If the object starts from rest then u = 0
(2). If the body comes to rest then v = 0
(3). If the body is projected upwards, then v = 0 at its highest point (h)
(4). If the body is thrown downwards freely from rest then u = 0
Relative Motion:
Let xA/B – Relative distance (position) of ‘B’ with respect to ‘A’
vA/B – Relative velocity of ‘B’ with respect to ‘A’
aA/B – Relative acceleration of ‘B’ with respect to ‘A’
xA/B = xB – xA
vA/B = vB – vA
aA/B = a B – aA
Curvilinear Motion:
 Plane Curvilinear (2D)
 Space Curvilinear (3D) – Projectile
Plane Curvilinear Motion:
y vy r y t
n
vx
n t
x x
 
Displacement = rf  ri
 
r rf  ri
Average velocity = 
t t f  t i
 
r r dr
Instantaneous velocity = Lt f i 
t 0 t  t dt
f i
 
v v f  v i
Average Acceleration = 
t t f  t i
v dv
Instantaneous Acceleration = Lt 
t 0 t dt
Note:
 In the case of curved path, only the direction of velocity vector may
change with time with constant speed.
PROJECTILE
Let the
Velocity of projectile be u
Angle of projection be 
Time of flight be H
y
O
u
uy

ux x
ux = u cos  ; uy = u sin 
We know
x = ut + ½ at2
x = ux + cos  t [ ax = O]
y = uy sin  t – ½ gt2 [ ay = – g]
Equation of Projectile
1 x2
y = x tan  – 2
g sec2  .
2 u
u2
Range = sin 2
g
u2
Maximum Height = sin 2 
2g
Note:
At point O,
vy = 0
 u (sin ) t = gt .
KINETICS
(i). Newtons Second Law:
We know
 
Fma
 
can be rewritten as Fma = 0
 
 Fi   ma (Inertia Force)
 
 F +  Fi = 0
D’Alemberts Principle:
The force system consisting of external forces & inertial forces can be
considered to keep the particle in equilibrium. Since the resultant force externally
acting on the particle is now zero, the particle is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.
This principle is known as D’Alemberts principle.
 
F ma 0 .
Analysis of Lift Motion

Case 1: Elevator at Rest (a = 0)
T=W
Case 2: Elevator moves with constant velocity (a = 0)
T=W
T
Case 3: Elevator moves upward Fi = ma
Let T – Tension of the Rope Motion
 Applying Equilibrium Condition

Fy = 0  T = Fi + W (or) T = ma + mg W = mg
Case 4: Elevator moves downwards T

Applying Equilibrium Condition
Fy = 0  T + Fi = W (or) T + ma = mg . W motion
Fi = ma
Note: If a = g, then object appears weightless
(ii). Work Energy Principle

Work Done = Change in Kinetic Energy
x2
U1-2 =  F.dx
x1
Unit : Nm = Joule .
Work Done by Spring Force
U =
K 2
2

x 2  x 12 
Force
Where K – Spring Constant =
Elongation
Work done = Force x distance
Work done = (Actual force – Frictional Force) x distance
Change in Kinetic Energy = ½ m (v2 – u2)
Impulse Momentum Principle:

Impulse = Change in Momentum
t2 v2
 F.dt =  m.dv
t1 v1
F (t2 – t1) = m (v2 – v1)
Law of conservation of Momentum:

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
where m1, m2 – mass of bodies 1 & 2.
u1, u2 – velocity of bodies 1 & 2 before collision
v1, v2 – velocities of bodies 1 & 2 after collision .
Plane of Contact
Impact of Elastic Bodies:
Classification U1 1 2 U2
Direct Impact Line of
1. Impact impact
Oblique Impact
Central Impact
2. Impact
Eccentric Impact
Central Impact (Mass centers are located on the line of impact)
Direct Oblique
VA VB
UA UB mA mB
mA mB
[If the motion of colliding bodies [If the motion of one or both of the
is directed along the line of impact] colliding bodies is not directed along the
line of impact]
Direct Central Impact

Applying law of conservation of Momentum.
MA UA + MB UB = M A VA + M B VB
V2  V1
e =
U1  U 2
Where e – Coefficient of Restitution

For a perfectly elastic e=1
For a perfectly plastic e=0
Oblique Central Impact

Along the line of Impact
MA UAn + MB UBn = MA VAn + MB VBn
VBn  VAn
e =
U An  U Bn
Where n – Normal Line
Along tangential line UAt = VAt & UBt = VBt.

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Engineering Mechanics

APPLIED ENGINEERING MECHANICS

The Various Laws of Mechanics are

Newton’s Law of Motion

SECOND LAW: The rate of change of momentum of the body is directly

Newton’s Law of Gravity

product of masses and inversely proportional to the square of distance between

 - angle between two forces

If two forces (F1 & F2) acting simultaneously on a particle can be

R2 = F12 + F22 – 2F1F2 cos 

Scalar Triple Product

Vector Triple Product

Vector Four Product

Scalar Four Product

Resolution of Force into Components

Case (ii) : Angle is between the force & y component

Non Coplanar – Concurrent System

Coplanar Non Concurrent Force System

Resolution of a force into Force – Couple Systems

Resultant of Coplanar Non Concurrent System:

Hence R =  Fx 2   Fy 2 and tan  =

Mark y & x as y & x intercepts respectively.

Note: For parallel force system, Resultant will be at the distance d =

EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES IN TWO DIMENSIONS

Hinged Support vertical movement

Over hanging Beam

2. Uniformly Distributed Load w / unit length

3. Uniformly Varying Load

The distance d is considered starting from the angle 90o.

Rigid Bodies in 3 Dimension:

r A(xA, yA, zA)

Moment about ‘B’ point:

Moment about an Axis (OL):

Moment about an axis = M o .

Rigid Body Fx = 0 Fx = 0

Dry Friction Fluid Friction

Frictional Force is always opposite to the direction of motion

Zone of Zone of Kinetic Friction

Where s – coefficient of static friction.

Laws of Dry Friction

Two Bodies in Contact

Applying Equilibrium Condition

Block Block Moves upwards

Applying Equilibrium Condition Applying Equilibrium Condition

Lead = n (Pitch) where n – no of threads.

where  = Co-efficient of friction

a – Co-efficient of Rolling Resistance

Power Transmission through Belts:

CENTROID AND CENTRE OF GRAVITY

Centre of Mass = Centre of Gravity

Centroid = Centre of Gravity

Centroid of An Area: (By Integration Method)

Moment due to total Area = ydA = y dA

Parallel Axis Theorem:

IAA = Ixx + AhA2

Perpendicular Axis Theorem : (Polar Moment of Inertia)

IZZ = Ixx + Iyy

Moment of Inertia of a plane lamina about an axis  to the lamina and