NDT TRAINING

MAGNETIC FLUX LEAKAGE TESTING

LEVEL II
LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION
ELECTROMAGNETIC
 EARLY OBSERVATION OF
MAGNETIC ATTRACTION
1. Electromagnetic testing is one of the oldest testing
methods.
2. Thales of Miletus (600 B.C.E.) first recorded that
rubbing amber induced a state in which the
amber would attract other light objects.
 DEVELOPMENT OF INDUCED CURRENTS

James Clerk Maxwell summarized the first

50 years of electromagnetism in the book,
A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.
 OERSTED’S DISCOVERY
1. Hans Christian Oersted observed that a wire connecting the ends of a
voltaic battery affected a compass in its vicinity.
2. He also discovered that a compass placed near a wire transmitting an
electric current tends to set itself perpendicular to the wire, and always
points toward the wire as the compass is moved around the wire.
3. The space in which these forces act may therefore be considered a
magnetic field.
4. His discovery meant that the lines of magnetic force are at right angles
to the wire, and are therefore circles perpendicular to the wire.
 FARADAY’S LAW OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

1. Faraday discovered the effect of electro-magnetic

induction while experimenting with coils of wire
and a battery.
2. He discovered that by connecting a battery to a coil
A, an instant electrical current is generated in a
second coil B placed near coil A when the battery is
switched on and off.
3. He also discovered that the second current travels
in the opposite direction of the first current.
 MAXWELL

Maxwell published the comprehensive group

of relations to the electromagnetic field known as
Maxwell equations, which represent the entire present
knowledge of the principles of electromagnetic testing.
 HASTINGS

1. In 1946, the first practical system for the

automatic electromagnetic measurement of flux
leakage fields was designed by Hastings.
2. Hastings demonstrated that he could detect both
surface and subsurface discontinuities near the
bore surfaces of steel tubes.
3. He noted an empirical correlation between the
amplitude of leakage signals and the depths of
surface cracks.
 FORSTER
1. In1950, Forster developed the first instruments
with impedance-plane signal displays, which were
used to discriminate between different parameters.

2. The introduction of this equipment, and of practical

techniques for analysis of quantitative test signals
on the impedance-plane, contributed to the
development of electromagnetic induction and
eddy current testing.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
FLUX LEAKAGE TESTING
1. Magnetic flux leakage testing is an electromagnetic
technique that provides a quick assessment of the
integrity of ferromagnetic material.
2. This testing involves magnetization of the test
object by a permanent magnet or by passing a
direct current directly through a coil, creating an
electromagnet.
3. The presence of a discontinuity on or near the
surface of the sample disturbs the magnetic flux
lines and results in a local leakage field around the
discontinuity.
 PRINCIPLES OF
FLUX LEAKAGE TESTING, CONT.

4. The magnetic flux leakage can be detected

using a variety of techniques:
a. Magnetic particles testing: dry or wet.
b. Non-contact sensors such as a Hall effect
probe or a simple induction coil.
c. A Hall effect probe using an element oriented
parallel to the sample surface is sensitive to
the normal component of the magnetic flux
leakage field and generates a signal, as
shown in the following image.
 PRINCIPLES OF
FLUX LEAKAGE TESTING, CONT.
 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATIONS
1. It is imperative that personnel responsible for magnetic
flux leakage are trained and qualified with a technical
understanding of the equipment/materials, test object,
and test procedures.
2. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing
(ASNT) has published guidelines for training and
qualification for nondestructive testing personnel.
 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATIONS, CONT.
a. Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Describes the
knowledge and capabilities of nondestructive
testing personnel in terms of certification levels.
b. ANSI/ASNT CP-189: Standard for the qualification
and certification of nondestructive testing personnel.
i. Employer certification requirements and
NDT Level III certification in the method.
ii. Nondestructive testing instructor
qualifications.
 LEVELS OF QUALIFICATION

There are three basic levels of qualification in

nondestructive testing:
1. Level I.
2. Level II.
3. Level III.
 CHALLENGES

The major challenge facing nondestructive testing

personnel is to learn all that can possibly be
learned during the qualification processes and to
develop the mind set that there is something else to
learn each time the nondestructive testing method is
used.
 PERSONNEL CERTIFICATION
It is important to understand the difference between
qualification and certification.
1. Qualification of nondestructive testing
personnel should involve the following:
a. Training in the fundamental principles
and applications of the test method.
b. Experience in the related method.
c. Ability to pass written and practical
(hands-on) tests.
d. Ability to pass a vision test for visual
acuity and color contrast.
 PERSONNEL CERTIFICATION CONT.
2. Certification of nondestructive testing
personnel is the written testimony that the
individual has been properly qualified.
a. Name of the individual being certified.
b. Identification of the test method.
c. Level of qualification.
d. Date and name of individual issuing
the certification.
LESSON 2

FLUX LEAKAGE THEORY

 INTRODUCTION
1. Magnetic flux leakage testing is an
electromagnetic technique that can provide
a quick assessment of the integrity of
ferromagnetic material.
2. This technique involves magnetization of the
test object by a permanent magnet or by
passing an excitation current directly through
an electromagnet.
 INTRODUCTION, CONT.
3. The presence of a discontinuity or thickness
change on or near the surface of the material
disturbs the magnetic flux lines and results in
a local leakage field around the discontinuity.
4. The magnetic flux leakage can be detected
using non-contact sensors such as a Hall effect
probe or a simple induction coil.
5. A flux leakage field at an air gap in a
longitudinally magnetized test object is shown
in the following images. This disruption is
produced by the alignment of magnetic
domains in the stretched metal crack site. For
this reason, cracks in the formation state are
highly detectable and produce sharp, well-
defined indications.
INTRODUCTION, CONT.
 B AND H CURVE
1. A permanent magnet can be closely considered an
agglomeration of domains.
2. These domains are elementary magnets
obtained as a result of the dipole moments of
uncompensated electron spins contained within
the domain that are held parallel.
3. The following image illustrates the principle
physics of permanent magnets and the magnetic
flux density (B) versus magnetic field intensity (H).
B AND H CURVE, CONT.
 LINES OF FORCE
1. If a bar magnet is covered with a sheet of paper and
iron filings are scattered over the paper, the filings
align themselves along definite lines that pass from
the poles of the magnet, as shown in the following
figure.
2. The alignment of the iron particles indicates that these
lines form a field around the magnet, and any
magnetizable material that enters this field is attracted
to the magnet.
3. These lines are called lines of force
LINES OF FORCE CONT.
 LAW OF MAGNETISM

1. Like poles of magnets repel and unlike

poles of magnets attract.
2. Since the lines of force around a magnet
flow from the north to the south pole,
they are called flux lines.
 FLUX DENSITY
1. Flux density is defined as the number of
lines
of force that pass through a given area at
right angles to the lines of the force.
2. The unit of flux density is the gauss. One
gauss is one line of force passing through
an area of one square centimeter.
3. The following image illustrates the
distribution of flux around a magnet.
FLUX DENSITY, CONT.
 RIGHT HAND RULE
1. When an electrical current flows through a
wire, a magnetic field exists around the
wire.
2. The direction of the magnetic field around
the wire depends on the direction of current
flow through the wire.
3. This relationship may be determined by the
right hand rule as illustrated in the following
image.
RIGHT HAND RULE, CONT.
 RIGHT HAND RULE, CONT.
4. If straight wire is wound into a coil, the
lines of force encircling the wire from the
magnetic field inside and outside the coil
as illustrated in the following image.
 RIGHT HAND RULE, CONT.
5. This field thus created is similar to the field of a
bar magnet.
6. The strength of the magnetic field is dependent
upon two factors:
a. The number of turns in the coil.
b. The magnitude of the current.
H=N.I
7. Increasing either one increases the strength of
the magnetic field.
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. Ferromagnetic materials: Materials, like iron,
that are capable of retaining some part of the
magnetic field induced in them.
2. Magnetic domains: Some materials
that can be magnetized possess
atoms that are classified as
submicroscopic regions called
magnetic domains. These domains have
positive and negative polarity at
opposite ends due to the internal
magnetic alignment. The following
image illustrates the domain
alignment in nonmagnetized and
magnetized material.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, CONT.
 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, CONT.
3. Magnetic hysteresis: All ferromagnetic materials
have certain magnetic properties that are specific
to that material. Most of these properties are
described by magnetic hysteresis loop, as
illustrated in the following image.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, CONT.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, CONT.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, CONT.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, CONT.

4. Magnetic permeability: The ease with which

materials can be magnetized. Permeability is
the ratio between the flux density and the
magnetic field strength.
µ=B/H
where µ is permeability, B is flux density,
and H is magnetizing force.
LESSON 3

FLUX LEAKAGE SENSING ELEMENTS

 INDUCTIVE COIL SENSORS
1. Ferrites are usually used in pickup inductive coil
sensors because they do not only provide
support for the wire turns, but they also
concentrate the flux density through the coil
windings by a value equal to the effective
permeability of the ferrite.
2. For small pieces of ferrite, as illustrated in the
following image, where the dimensional ratio is
small, the effective permeability of the ferrite
may vary from the low teens to the thousands.
INDUCTIVE COIL SENSORS, CONT.
 INDUCTIVE COIL SENSORS, CONT.
3. Ferrites have very low electrical
conductivities, minimizing detrimental eddy
current effects on them.
4. In inductive coil applications, it is important to
note the following:
a. The flux density must be changing through
the coil in order to produce a signal.
b. Pickup coils should be used to generate
voltages and not currents.
 HALL EFFECT SENSORS

1. Hall elements are crystals of semiconductor

material.
2. When a current is passed through them while
placed in a magnetic field, a voltage
develops across the two faces of the crystal.
3. The voltage is proportional to the strength of
the magnetic field.
 HALL EFFECT SENSORS, CONT.

4. Typical sizes are as small as 0.08 cm

(0.03 in.) long by 0.04 cm (0.015 in.)
wide by 0.05 cm (0.02 in.) thick.
5. The following images show
configurations of typical Hall sensors
and their specifications.
HALL EFFECT SENSORS, CONT.
HALL EFFECT SENSORS, CONT.
 FLUX GATE MAGNETOMETER

1. The flux gate magnetometer, also referred to

as a ferro-probe or Forster probe, measures
magnetic fields by utilizing the non-linear
magnetic characteristic of ferromagnetic core
materials as its sensing element.
2. A drive coil and sense coil are wound onto
an easily saturated core.
3. The core characteristics and drive current are
such that the magnetization changes
induced by the leakage field affect the filter
harmonic output of the sense coil.
 MAGNETODIODE

A solid-state device whose resistance

changes with magnetic field intensity.
 OTHER METHODS OF MAGNETIC LEAKAGE FIELD
DETECTION: MAGNETIC TAPE SYSTEM

1. For the testing of flat plates and billets, it is

possible to scan the surface with wide strips of
magnetic recording tape.
2. Discontinuity signals are taken from the tape
by an array of tape recorder heads.
 MAGNETIC PARTICLES

1. Magnetic particles are finely ground high

permeability magnetic material, sometimes
dyed for visible contrast with the test surface.
2. Ideal test conditions occur when a fine spray
of particles is intercepted by a magnetic flux
leakage field and some of them are attracted
to the field.
 MAGNETIC RESONANCE SENSORS
1. Nuclear magnetic resonance magnetometers are
based on the fact that the characteristic atomic
frequencies also depend on the strength of
magnetic field.
2. In operation, when an atomic nucleus is placed in
a constant magnetic field and is subjected to a
high frequency alternating magnetic field,
resonance absorption of energy from the
alternating current field take place.
LESSON 4

COUPLING
 LIFT-OFF AND FILL FACTOR

Lift-off and fill factor are terms used to

describe any space that occurs between
the test object and the inspection coil.
 LIFT-OFF
1. When a surface coil is energized
and held in the air above a
conductor, the impedance of the coil
has a certain value.
2. As the coil is moved closer to the
conductor, the initial value will
change when the field of the coil
begins to intercept the conductor.
 LIFT-OFF, CONT.
3. Because the field of the coil is strongest close
to the coil, the impedance value will continue
to change until the coil is directly on the
conductor.
4. The coupling between the test coil and the
test object varies with spacing between the
test coil and the test object. This spacing is
called lift-off.
5. Lift-off pertains to tests that use surface
probes.
 FILL FACTOR
1. Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a
test object will be electromagnetically coupled to
a test coil that surrounds or is inserted into the
test object.
2. Fill factor pertains to tests that use bobbin or
encircling coils.
3. Fill factor can be described as the ratio of test
object diameter squared to coil diameter squared
for an encircling coil, or vice versa for a bobbin
coil where the inside diameter is used.
 FILL FACTOR, CONT.
4. Fill factor = d2 / D2
where d = coil winding outside diameter and
D = test object internal diameter
or D2 / d2 (encircling coil
where D = coil winding inner diameter and
d = test object outside diameter
 FILL FACTOR, CONT.

5. The fill factor will always be a number

less than 1. The following image
illustrates the concepts of both lift-off and
fill factor.
FILL FACTOR, CONT.
LESSON 5

DEFECT GEOMETRY,
LOCATION, AND ORIENTATION
 DEFECT GEOMETRY,
LOCATION, AND ORIENTATION

1. The presence of a discontinuity causes a

reduction in the cross-sectional area of the
test object, thereby resulting in a local
increase in the magnetic density.
2. A reduction in the permeability, together
with an increase in the magnetic flux
density, causes the flux to leak into the
surrounding medium.
 DEFECT GEOMETRY,
LOCATION & ORIENTATION, CONT.

3. Magnetic leakage fields can be subdivided into

active or residual leakage fields.
4. To understand the origin of the leakage fields
and choice of initial magnetization for the
active leakage field technique, consider an
unmagnetized steel billet with a surface
discontinuity, as shown in the following figure.
 DEFECT GEOMETRY,
LOCATION & ORIENTATION, CONT.
 SUBSURFACE DISCONTINUITIES
If a discontinuity is farther below the surface, the
difficulty of detecting the magnetic leakage field is
much greater. This is due to the fact that the
surrounding material tends to smooth out the field
distortion caused by the subsurface discontinuity,
thus resulting in a small field disturbance on the
surface of the above billet example. The next figure
shows a billet with a subsurface discontinuity,
showing the resultant leakage field.
SUBSURFACE DISCONTINUITIES
DEGREE OF INITIAL MAGNETIZATION
1. For a successful flux leakage test, there
should exist an upper and lower limit of
magnetization to which test object should
be subjected.
2. Magnetization of the test object lies on the
linear part of magnetization curve in such
a way that the material permeability is
maximized.
DEGREE OF INITIAL MAGNETIZATION, CONT.

3. Magnetization should not approach saturation

but should have a value of flux density that
locates the initial operating point of the
material on the steepest part of the initial
magnetization curve. The following may occur:
a. If the degree of magnetization level is too
low, discontinuities may be missed.
b. If the degree of magnetization level is too high,
a lack of discontinuity discrimination may
result in false indications.
LESSON 6

SELECTION OF MAGNETIZATION METHOD

 INTRODUCTION

Successful testing requires the test object to be

magnetized by using the following
magnetization methods:
1. Permanent magnet.
2. Electromagnets.
3. Magnetizing coils.
 PERMANENT MAGNETS
1. Excitation systems that use permanent magnets,
such as neodymium iron boron, samarium cobalt,
or aluminum nickel, offer the least magnetization
flexibility.
2. The major disadvantage of systems excited with
permanent magnets is that the process of
excitation cannot be switched off.
3. Permanent magnets are very rarely used for
magnetization, except in the case of in-line
inspection tools called smart pigs.
 ELECTROMAGNETS

1. Electromagnets are used extensively to

magnetize test objects. The following
figure shows an electromagnetic yoke
where the test object is part of a magnetic
circuit energized by current passing
through an excitation coil.
ELECTROMAGNETS, CONT.
 ELECTROMAGNETS, CONT.
2. To obtain maximum sensitivity in this
magnetization method, the magnetic
flux should be perpendicular to the
discontinuity.
 RIGHT HAND RULE

The right hand rule states that if someone

grips a rod, holds it, and imagines an electric
current flowing with the thumb, the induced
circular field in the rod would flow in the
direction that the fingers point to.
 TESTING IN RESIDUAL FIELD

Test objects in this testing method are

passed through the coil field and then tested
in the resulting residual field. This test
method is often used in magnetic particle
testing.
 MAGNETIZING BY DIRECT CURRENT

1. If an electric current is used to magnetize the

test object, the direction of current should be
oriented in a manner where the presence of a
discontinuity impedes the flow of flux lines as
much as possible.
2. Other methods of magnetizing using direct
current include passing the current directly
through a tubular test object to magnetize the
test object circularly, as shown here.
MAGNETIZING BY DIRECT CURRENT
 MAGNITUDES OF MAGNETIC FLUX
LEAKAGE FIELDS
1. The magnitude of the magnetic flux leakage field
under active direct current excitation depends on
the applied field.
2. In the case of residual magnetization, the
magnetic flux leakage field may be only a few
hundred micro-tesla (Gauss).
3. With residual field excitation, an interesting field
reversal may occur depending on the value of the
initial active field excitation and the dimension of
the discontinuity.
LESSON 7

FLUX LEAKAGE APPLICATIONS

 HEAT EXCHANGER AND
BOILER TUBES TESTING

1. This application is limited to tubes

constructed from ferromagnetic
material.
2. The magnetic flux leakage probes
consists of a magnet with two types of
magnetic pickups: coil and a Hall
element.
 HEAT EXCHANGER AND
BOILER TUBES TESTING, CONT.

3. The coil picks up the flux rate of change,

whereas the Hall effect detector picks up
absolute flux.
4. The coil detects small discontinuities that
cause perturbations in the flux, while the
Hall effect detects gradual wall loss by
measuring the absolute flux.
 HEAT EXCHANGER AND
BOILER TUBES TESTING, CONT.
5. It should be noted that the output of the magnetic
flux leakage coil is related to the rate of change of
flux caused by the discontinuity but not directly to
flaw depth, while the output of the Hall effect
detector depends on the orientation of the sensor in
the probe relative to the discontinuity, and whether
the location of the discontinuity is on the inside or
outside the tube surface.
 WIRE ROPE INSPECTION
1. Inspection in this application is performed to
determine cross-sectional loss caused by
corrosion and wear, in addition the detection
of broken wire.
2. The cross-sectional area of the rope can be
measured by sensing changes in the magnetic
flux loop that occur when the rope gets
thinner. The air gap becomes larger, so the
value of the field intensity falls. This change
can be easily sensed by placing Hall effect
probes anywhere within the magnetic circuit.
 WIRE ROPE INSPECTION, CONT.

3. Modern dual-function electromagnetic

rope testers, shown in the next figure,
allow simultaneous tests for loss of
metallic cross-sectional area and
localized discontinuities.
WIRE ROPE INSPECTION, CONT.
ROUND BARS AND TUBES TESTING

1. Round bars and tubes are magnetized by

an alternating current magnet and rotated
under the magnetic poles.
2. Because the flux leakage from surface
discontinuities is very weak and confined
to a small area, the probes must be very
sensitive
and small.
ROUND BARS AND TUBES TESTING, CONT.

3. The system uses a differential pair of

magnetodiodes to sense flux leakage from
the discontinuity.
4. The differential output of these twin probes
is amplified to separate the leakage flux
from the background flux.
 PETROLEUM AND GAS PIPELINES TESTING

1. Flux leakage testing can be applied to

detecting cracks and corrosion pits in the
walls of underground pipelines.
2. Flux leakage testing devices are transported
inside the pipe for long distances.
3. Utilizing inside probes, magnetizing
conditions close to saturation must be
achieved in order to reach outside diameter
discontinuities.
 PETROLEUM AND GAS PIPELINES TESTING, CONT.
4. For the pipeline inspection tool, a recorder
package is added and the signals from
discontinuities are recorded. As the recordings
being retrieved and played back, areas of
damage are located. Pipe welds provide
convenient magnetic markers.
5. The next image illustrates a smart pig test
vehicles used in testing of pipelines. The pigs are
similar to the magnetic flux leakage probes used
in tube testing, but pigs are constructed to be
propelled down pipelines and collect the required
test data.
PETROLEUM AND GAS PIPELINES TESTING, CONT.
ABOVE STORAGE TANK TESTING (AST)

1. Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) is used to

test above storage tank floors. The
purpose of this testing is to provide a
reliable condition of the overall floor
condition within an economical time
frame.
 ABOVE STORAGE TANK TESTING(AST), CONT.

2. A magnetic bridge is used to introduce as near

a saturation of flux as possible in the test
material between the magnetic poles. A
significant reduction in the thickness of the
plate will result in some of the magnetic flux
being forced into the air around the area of
reduction. Flux leakage sensors can detect
these flux leakages, as shown in the following
figure.
ABOVE STORAGE TANK TESTING(AST), CONT.
ABOVE STORAGE TANK TESTING(AST), CONT.

3. The flux leakage equipment

produced for this application is
designed to handle the
environmental and practical
problems present and other
conditions. This image
illustrates a typical tank floor
scanner.
ABOVE STORAGE TANK TESTING(AST), CONT.

4. Magnetic flux leakage in this application

cannot differentiate between the response
from top side and bottom side indications.
Discontinuities can be detected but in most
cases cannot be quantitatively evaluated.
Other test methods such as ultrasonic can
be used for more evaluation.