MODULE 2.

CONCEPTS, THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICAL/

EARTH SCIENCE

1.1 Overview/Introduction

Concept is a general knowledge (vague and unquantified) that define/describe something.

Theory is a specific knowledge of interrelationships between or among two or more

quantified/measurable parameters (physical or chemical).

Principle is a universal law that predicts the change/s that results from the interrelationships
between or among parameters. Example: opposite charges (+ and -) attracts, same charges
repel.

1.2 Learning Outcome/Objectives

The list of competencies that students should acquire during the learning process will be the
following:

1. Explain the concepts, theories and principles of matter, energy and systems;

2. Solve problems related to the theories of matter and energy; and

3. Apply matter and energy interactions in earth system, biogeochemical cycles and
weather and climate.

1.3 Learning Contents/Topics

A. Matter

Concept – matter is anything that occupies space (space indicates the volume occupied by
the body of matter).

Theory – matter is made up of atoms and molecules (molecular theory of matter).

Elements - 118 characterized (refer to Periodic Table of Elements)

Each element (gas, liquid, or solid) is treated as 1 atom or molecule and has
distinct properties (atomic number-indicates the number of proton, molecular
mass, sp. gr. etc.)
Examples:
Gas: H (hydrogen) – has only 1 proton, 1 gram/mol
Liquid: Hg (mercury) – has 80 protons 200 g/mol
Solid: C (carbon) – has 6 protons, 12 g/mol

Compound/substance – when 2 or more elements combine, they form a

compound/substance. A compound/substance can be a single (1 molecule) or more than 1
molecule in quantity.

Determining the quantities of molecules and atoms in the chemical formula of a

compound/substance:
CH4 – 1 molecule of methane
6CO2 – 6 molecules of carbon dioxide
6H2O – 6 molecules of water - can change phase from liquid to solid (at 0oC) and liquid to
vapor (100oC)
C6H12O6 – 1 molecule of glucose

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Because each compound has protons (+ charge) and electrons (- charge), they react with
each other.

Example:
Light
↓
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Reactants Products

The above chemical reaction is called “Photosynthesis” (which takes place at the leaf of a
plant).

Computing the total mass of reactants:

6CO2 – 6[(12)x1] + 6[(16)2] = 264 grams

6H2O – 6[(1)2] + 6[(16)1] = 108 grams

--------------
Total mass = 372 grams

Computing the total mass of products:

C6H12O6 – [12(6)+1(12)+16(6)] = 180 grams

6O2 – [6(16)2] = 192 grams

--------------
Total mass = 372 grams

Principle – matter cannot be created nor destroyed but only transformed from one
compound to another (conservation of mass).

From the above computations, the total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of
products, thus, we can say that matter is not created nor destroyed, but only transformed
from one compound to another. This is a concrete manifestation of the principle of
conservation of mass.

Another illustration is during combustion (process of burning) or respiration (reverse of

photosynthesis), the total mass of the reactants (fuel + oxygen) will be transformed into the
same mass of ash, carbon dioxide (invisible) and water vapor (also invisible). What you only
see is the remaining ash.

Activity (to be handed/turned in in G classroom):

1. Google search and download: the Molecular theory of matter.

2. Identify (___ molecule/s of ______) and compute the mass of the following compounds:

a) 12N2O;
b) 8CH4;
c) 7P2O5;
e) 5NaCl;
d) 3C8H18
f) C15H31N3O13P2

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B. Energy

Concept – energy is the ability/capacity to do work.

Theory – power theory

Work = Force x displacement (N-m) – Joule
Power = ------------------------------------------------------------
Time (s)

= Force x speed (N-m/s) or J/s or watts

Comparing the powers of carabao, horse and tractor:

Descriptors Force (N) Speed (kph)
Carabao – strong but slow 1,000 2
Horse – fast but weaker than carabao 800 6
Tractor – fast and strong (big wheels 2,000 10
for high traction)

Power of Carabao = 1,000N x 2 km/hr (1,000m/km/3,600s/hr) = 555.56 watts or

0.56 kW

Power of Horse = 800 x 6(1,000/3,600) = 1,333.33 watts or 1.33 kW

Power of Tractor = 2,000 x 10(1,000/3,600) = 5,555.56 watts or 5.56 kW

Although, horse is weaker than carabao, but because of its higher speed, its power is higher
than carabao. This could be the same reason why Manny Pacquiao wins over his
opponents.

Forms of Energy:

1. Mechanical – needs matter for it to propagate

Examples:
 Moving objects – pushing/pulling other objects
 Magnet – pull of gravity
 Sound – longitudinal wave of air
 Electric current – moving electrons

2.Electromagnetic Radiation (EMR) – does not need matter, radiant energy that travels
through space (from the sun/stars)

Electromagnetic spectrum (ordered from short wavelength to long wavelength radiation):

 Gamma ray
 X ray
 UV
 VL (Violet, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red)
 IR
 MW
 RW

The radiative force increases as the wavelenght decreases. Gamma ray has the highest
power while the radiowave has the lowest power (cannot be felt).

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Principle – Law of conservation of energy – energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but
only converted from one form to another.

Energy Inputs (watts) = Energy Outputs (watts)

Examples:
1. Photoelectric effect in solar panels – electrons are ejected from metal when exposed
to sunlight.
2. Light Bulb – AC powered.
3. Billiard balls collision – mother ball hits other balls
4. Magat high dam with pennstock rotating turbine and dynamo.
5. Biomass gasifier – uses organic wastes for cooking

Activity (to be handed/turned in in G classroom):

1. What are the energy inputs and outputs of the above examples?

2. Google search and download the electromagnetic spectrum.

C. System

Concept - composed of two or more parts contained in a boundary where the parts are
interacting with each other to perform a purpose.

Theory:

System diagram:

Legend:

Parts

Boundary

energy (e) or matter (m) flow/cycle

Types of Systems:

1. Open – both e and m freely pass through the boundary e,m

2. Close – only e freely pass through the boundary but not m

e

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System hierarchy - smaller systems can be grouped to form larger system (e.g. group of
cells become tissue; group of individuals become population).

Universe
Milky way galaxy
Solar system
Earth + the other planets
4 spheres of the earth
Ecosystems
Communities
Population
Individual/organism
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Chromosomes
DNA
Atom (smallest system
composed of + and – charges)

Principle:

Hierarchical levels: as you move up to the higher level of hierarchy, new purpose emerge
which is not found in the lower levels (e.g. a cell can only absorb nutrients while tissue/organ
distribute nutrients to other parts of the body; individual organism grows and survive while
population reproduce).

Activity (to be handed/turned in in G classroom):

1. What type of system is the earth? Why?

2. Google search and download the following:

a) Earth – sun geometry.

b) Earth statistics
c) Four spheres of the earth
d) Earth’s solar constant
e) Earth’s energy budget

3. Draw the system diagram of the earth.

4. What new purpose emerge as you move up from the earth to the solar system? How is
the purpose of the earth different from that of the solar system?