MELC 1-2 ARGUMENT, POSITION,
ANALYSIS, EVIDENCE, AND IDEA
What is the meaning of the word Argument?
• This is usually a main idea, often called
a “claim” or “thesis statement,” backed
up with evidence that supports the idea.
Ways on how top present an argument
Inductive Reasoning
- It is done by starting from specific to
general,
- Drawing from the examples and
representations in the conclusion or the
generalization would serve as the
paper’s argument or reason
- a logical process in which multiple
premises, all believed true or found true
most of the time, are combined to obtain
a specific conclusion.
Deductive Reasoning
- It is the opposite of inductive reasoning
whereby general statements or premises
are given first followed by a specific
case or application that states the paper’s
argument or reason
Steps in Identifying an Argument/s
▪ Read the paragraph
▪ Ask “What is the paragraph about?”
▪ Summarize the content in your own words; and
▪ Find the sentences within the paragraph that
best matches that summary. This is likely the
stated claim of paragraph
What does Position mean?
• It presents the writer's stand or
viewpoint on a particular issue.
What is the meaning of Analysis?
• the process of studying or examining
something in an organized way to learn
more about it, or a particular study of
something.
In your own words, what is an idea?
• knowledge or understanding about
something
• the purpose of, or reason for, doing
something
MELC 1-2 MANIFESTO
What is manifesto?
MANIFESTO
- It was derived from the Latin word
manifestum which means “clear or
conspicuous”
- It is typically a published document that
describes the policies, goals, and
opinions of a person or group.
Different Types of Manifestos
▪ Artistic Manifesto
▪ Philosophical Manifesto
▪ Corporate Manifesto
▪ Political Manifesto
▪ Educational Manifesto
▪ Personal Manifesto
▪ Election Manifesto
▪ Religious Manifesto
Major categories of manifestos
▪ Goal: A goal can be a manifesto when we
share it with other people. It’s public, it’s a
declaration and it’s about what one intends to
have happened.
▪ List and Rules: A set of rules for behaving
within a specific context or a list of items to be
achieved or tasks to be fulfilled.
▪ World: This type of manifesto aims to create a
new world. It’s not about simple rules, instead, it
presents a vision for the future. A solemn
declaration, by the constituted authorities of a
nation, which contains the reasons for its public
acts towards another. On the declaration of war,
a manifesto is usually issued in which the nation
declaring the war, states the reasons for so
doing.
MELC 1-2 LOGICAL FALLACY
What is a logical fallacy?
• A fallacy is an error of reasoning. These
are flawed statements that often sound
true.
• Logical fallacies are often used to
strengthen an argument, but if the reader
detects them the argument can backfire
and damage the writer’s credibility.
The Origin and Meaning of the word Fallacy
• The word “fallacy” derives from the
latin word fallere meaning, “to deceive,
to trip, to lead into error or to trick.” The
 word also derives from the greek phelos,
meaning “deceitful.”
Why do we need to study logical fallacies?
▪ It is important to develop logical fallacy
detection skills in your own writing, as well
as others’.
Think of this as “intellectual kung-fu: the art
of intellectual self defense.” (Logical
Fallacies Handlist)
Types of Logical Fallacies
1.) Ad Hominem
- is a fallacy of relevance where
someone rejects or criticizes another
person’s view based on personal
characteristics, background,
physical appearance, or other
features irrelevant to the argument at
issue.
- It’s an insult used as if it were an
argument or evidence in support of a
conclusion.
Ex: When making an argument about
qualifications:
“Joseph can’t be class president, he’s poor!”
How could Mary know anything about cars?
She’s a woman!
2.) The Strawman Fallacy
- A straw man fallacy occurs when
someone takes another person’s
argument or point, distorts it or
exaggerates it in extreme way, and
then attacks the extreme distortion,
as if that is really the claim the first
person is making.
Example:
Speaker 1: Death penalty will not scare
criminals because they don’t expect to be
caught.
Speaker 2: Ha! So, you think criminal should
have equal rights as us.
Person 1:
I think pollution from humans contributes to
climate change.
Person 2:
So, you think humans are directly responsible
for extreme weather, like hurricanes, and
have caused the droughts in the southwestern
U.S.? If that’s the case, maybe we just need to
go to the southwest and perform a “rain
dance.
3.) False Dilemma/False Dichotomy
- Sometimes called the “either-or”
fallacy, a false dilemma is a logical
fallacy that presents only two
options or sides when there are
many options or sides. Essentially, a
false dilemma presents a “black and
white” kind of thinking when there
are many shades of gray.
Example: “It’s either you are from the Yellow
Party or you’re with us.” For one to defend
his/her stand effectively, they must avoid
logical fallacies.
Person 1: I stand against going to war!
Person 2: Since you are against the war, you
must be against our troop.
Person 2: Actually, I do not want our troops
sent into a dangerous war.
4.) Hasty Generalization Fallacy
- The hasty generalization fallacy is
sometimes called the over-
generalization fallacy. It is basically
making a claim based on evidence
that it just too small.
- Essentially, you can’t make a claim
and say that something is true if you
have only an example or two as
evidence.
Ex: The last two mass murderers were from
Michigan. Obviously, people from Michigan
are dangerous.
I've met three redheads and they were all
mean, so all redheads are mean.
The car that just cut me off is from South
Dakota, so all South Dakotans are jerks.
5.) Bandwagon Fallacy
- The bandwagon fallacy is also
sometimes called the appeal to
common belief or appeal to the
masses because it’s all about getting
people to do or think something
because “everyone else is doing it”
or “everything else thinks this.”
- Think about what your parents
asked you when you insisted that
“everyone” was doing something
that you were not getting to do:
“If everyone of your friends jumped off a
cliff, would you?”
- It’s important to fight the urge to fall
into a bandwagon fallacy.
Example:
Everyone is going to get the new smart phone
when it comes out this weekend. Why aren’t
you?

MELC 3 POSITION PAPER
MELCS
• Defends a stand on an issue by
presenting reasonable arguments
supported by properly cited factual
evidences.
POSITION PAPER
• A position paper presents an arguable
opinion about an issue.
• The goal of a position paper is to
convince the audience that your opinion
is valid and worth listening to. Ideas that
you are considering need to be carefully
examined in choosing a topic,
developing your argument, and
organizing your paper.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO:
❑ ensure that you are addressing all sides of the
issue and presenting it in a manner that is easy
for your audience to understand
❑ take one side of the argument and persuade
your audience that you have well-founded
knowledge of the topic being presented
❑ support your argument with evidence to
ensure the validity of your claims, as well as to
address the counterclaims to show that you are
well informed about both sides
ISSUE CRITERIA
• To take a side on a subject, you should
first establish the plausibility of a topic
that interests you. Ask yourself the
following questions to ensure that you
will be able to present a strong
argument:
❑ Is it a real issue, with genuine controversy
and uncertainty?
❑Can you distinctly identify two positions?
❑Are you personally interested in advocating
one of these positions?
❑Is the issue narrow enough to be manageable?
ANALYZING AN ISSUE AND
DEVELOPING AN ARGUMENT
• Once your topic is selected, you should
do some research on the subject matter.
Supporting evidence includes the
following:
❑ Factual Knowledge - Information that is
verifiable and agreed upon by almost everyone.
❑ Statistical Inferences - Interpretation and
examples of an accumulation of facts.
❑ Informed Opinion - Opinion developed
through research and/or expertise of the claim.
❑ Personal Testimony - Personal experience
related by a knowledgeable party.
• In considering the audience, ask
yourself the following questions:
❑Who is your audience?
❑What do they believe?
❑Where do they stand on the issue?
❑How are their interests involved?
❑What evidence is likely to be
effective with them?
• In determining your viewpoint, ask
yourself the following:
❑ Is your topic interesting?
❑ Can you manage the material within the
specifications set by the instructor?
❑ Does your topic assert something specific
and propose a plan of action?
❑ Do you have enough material to support
your opinion?
ORGANIZATION
• Your introduction should lead up to a
thesis that organizes the rest of your
paper. There are three advantages to
leading with the thesis:
❑The audience knows where you stand.
❑The thesis is located in the two strongest
places, first and last.
❑ It is the most common form of academic
argument used.
SHORT SUMMARY OF A POSITION
PAPER
I. Introduction
A. Introduction to the Topic
B. Background of the Topic
C. Thesis Statement
II. Body
A. The Counterclaim
1. Summary of the Counterclaim
2. Supporting Information for the Counterclaim
3. Refuting of the Counterclaim
4. Giving Evidences for the Argument
B. Arguments
1. Idea
a. Analysis
b. Evidence
III. Conclusion
A. Restating of Arguments
B. Providing Plan of Action
KINDS OF POSITION PAPER
● CONSTRUCTIVE WRITING
Less directly concerned with pre-existing
positions or arguments
● COMPARATIVE WRITING
Requires you to defend your claims of
commonality and difference
● EVALUATIVE WRITING
If a position seems to contradict what we know,
or if we can find case which contradict the
position, that’s a mark against the position
● EXPOSITIVE WRITING
Consists of summarizing or setting out the ideas
of a given philosopher in your own words, in
order to help the reader to understand material
that is otherwise obscure or hard to follow.
MELC 4 OBJECTIVES AND
STRUCTURES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF
REPORTS
KINDS OF REPORTS
⮚a specific form of writing briefly identifying
and examining issues, events, or findings that
have happened.
⮚involve presenting your investigation and
analysis of information or an issue,
recommending actions, and making proposals.
Formal or Informal Reports
Formal reports
❖carefully structured which are focused on
objectivity and organization, contained much
detail, and are written in a style that tends to
eliminate such elements as personal pronouns.
Informal reports
❖usually short messages with natural, casual
use of language. The internal memorandum can
generally be described as an informal report.
Informational or Analytical Reports
Informational reports
❖annual reports, monthly financial reports, and
reports on personnel absenteeism carry objective
information from one area of an organization to
another.
❖Generally simpler and direct
Analytical reports
❖scientific research, feasibility reports, and
real-estate appraisals present attempts to solve
problems.
❖Longer and more formal, require in-depth
research and investigation, include conclusions
and recommendations
Proposal Report
❖The proposal is a variation of problem-solving
reports.
❖A proposal is a document prepared to describe
how one organization can meet the needs of
another.
❖Most governmental agencies advertise their
needs by issuing “requests for proposal” or
RFPs.
❖The RFP specifies a need and potential
suppliers prepare proposal reports telling how
they can meet that need.
Vertical or Lateral Reports
Vertical Report
❖This classification refers to the direction a
report travels.
❖Reports that more upward or downward the
hierarchy are referred to as vertical reports such
reports contribute to management control.
Lateral reports
❖assist in coordination in the organization.
❖A report traveling between units of the same
organization level (production and finance
departments) is an example of lateral.
Internal or External Reports
Internal reports
❖travel within the organization
External reports
❖such as annual reports of companies, are
prepared for distribution outside the
organization.
Periodic Reports
Periodic reports
❖issued on regularly scheduled dates.
❖They are generally upward directed and serve
management control.
❖Pre-printed forms and computer-generated
data contribute to uniformity of periodic reports.
Functional Reports
❖This classification includes accounting
reports, marketing reports, financial reports, and
a variety of other reports that take their
designation from the ultimate use of the report.
Survey Report
❖It is written after getting data from a survey
and is done to collect people’s responses or
answers about a particular issue or topic.
Laboratory or Scientific Technical Report
❖It is commonly called lab report and is written
in a formal and organized manner which is
written to present results or findings from
experiments.
Field Report
❖It is sometimes called trip report and is written
to describe and analyze a systematic
observation.
❖Reports are also classified on the basis of their
format.
❖Remember that sometimes their definitions
overlap with the classification pattern described
above.
Pre-printed Form
❖It is also known as the “fill in the blank
report” which is relatively short (five or fewer
pages) and deal with routine information, mainly
numerical and is used when requested by the
person authorizing the report.
Letter
❖It is a common report consisting of five or
fewer pages that are directed to outsiders. This
include all the normal parts of the letter, but it
may also have a heading, footnote, table/s, and
figures. Personal pronouns are used in this type
of report.
Memo
❖A memo is common for short (fewer than ten
pages) informal reports distributed within an
organization.
❖The memo format of “Date,” “To,” “From,”
and “Subject” is used. Like longer reports, they
often have internal headings and sometimes have
visual aids.
❖Memos exceeding ten pages are sometimes
referred to as memo reports to distinguish them
from shorter ones.
Manuscript
❖A manuscript is common for reports that run
from a few pages to several hundred pages and
require a formal approach.
❖As their length increases, reports in
manuscript format require more elements before
and after the text of the report.
❖a book, document, or piece of music written
by hand rather than typed or printed
❖an author's text that has not yet been
published.
How to Structure a Report?
A simple report contains at least the following:
•Introduction, including aims and objectives
• Methodology - "'a contextual framework”
• Findings/results
• Discussion
• Conclusions and recommendations
• References
1. Introduction = State what your
research/project/enquiry is about. What are you
writing about, why and for whom? What are
your objectives? What are you trying to show or
prove (your hypothesis)?
2. Methodology = State how you did your
research/enquiry and the methods you used.
How did you collect your data? For example, if
you conducted a survey, say how many people
were included and how you selected them.
Explain whether you used interviews or
questionnaires and how you analyzed the data.
3. Findings/results = Give the results of your
research. Do not, at this stage, try to interpret the
results – simply report them. This section may
include graphs, charts, diagrams etc. (clearly
labelled). Be very careful about copyright if you
are using published charts, tables, illustrations
etc.
4. Discussion = Interpret your findings. What do
they show? Were they what you expected?
Could your research have been done in a better
way?
5. Conclusions and recommendations = These
should follow on logically from the Findings and
Discussion sections. Summarize the key points
of your findings and show whether they prove or
disprove your hypothesis. If you have been
asked to, you can make recommendations
arising from your research.
6. References = List all your sources in
alphabetical order using the appropriate
University of style
Guidelines for Writing the Survey Report
1. Value Communicated
Objective, accurate and honest presentation of
facts and results
2. Basic Content
a. May consist of eyewitness accounts of first –
hand information.
b. May contain facts, data, figures or statistics on
or from people, events, phenomena, structures,
experiments, questionnaires, interviews and
library research.
c. May include materials and procedures or
methods.
3. Modes of Ordering
a. Chronological or time order.
b. Geographical or space / spatial order.
c. Logical – Inductive and Deductive
d. Problem – Solution
e. Cause and Effect
f. Formal
g. Abstract – Introduction – Background
Statement of the problem
h. Materials – Method or Procedure – Results –
Discussion –Summary
i. Conclusion and Recommendation
4. Basic Qualities of a Good Report
a. Objective, not subjective point of view.
b. Accurate, not sloppy presentation of facts,
numbers, statistics, and data
c. Honest, not false, or incomplete details and
results.
d. Brief and direct
How to Write a Survey Report?
1. Break the report into separate sections with
heading. Survey reports usually use headings for
each section.
2. Write a 1–2-page executive summary
paraphrasing the report.
3. State the objectives of the survey in the
background section.
4. Provide background information by
explaining research and studies
 MELC 5-6 SURVEY AND QUESTIONAIRE
SURVEY
• It is the combination of questions,
processes and methodologies that
analyze data about others.
• It is the combination of questions,
processes and methodologies that
analyze data about others.
Questionnaire
• It is the set of questions given to
participants of your research project. It
may be part of a wider survey.
• However, the completion of a
questionnaire alone will not provide the
answers you are looking for.
Sometimes it is called survey form.
• It refers to paper &pencil data gathering
method by letting the subject or
respondents complete the questionnaire
before the researcher or his
representative, or it can be mailed.
TYPES OF SURVEY QUESTION
1. OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
• These types of questions do not have
predetermined options or answers.
• Open-ended questions often need probing
or follow-up questions to clarify certain
items in the subject’s response.
• These questions typically ask the “how”
and “why” of something.
Example: Why did you choose to buy cell
phone brand X? Kindly explain.
2. DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS
• Dichotomous questions have two possible
answers, often either yes/no, true/false, or
agree/ disagree and are used when the
researcher wants to clearly distinguish the
respondent’s opinion, preference,
experience, knowledge, or behavior.
• Example: We only segregate those
materials that may be sold such as plastic
or glass bottles, tin cans, and papers.
___Agree ____Disagree
3. MULTIPLE–RESPONSE
QUESTIONS
• There are certain questions that necessitate
the respondents to provide more than one
answer.
• Example: How were you able to know
about the graduate program of Language,
Literature, and Linguistics offered in
Philippine Normal University? Check all
that applies.
____Print Advertisement _____PNU
Social Networking
____PNU Website _____By word of
mouth (friends, families, etc.)
4. MATRIX QUESTIONS
• There are instances where several
questions you intend to ask have the same
set of possible answers.
• Thus, it is possible to construct a matrix of
items and answers for the sake of
streamlining the survey.
•Example: Qualities of a Good Leader
Numerical scale (matrix) chooses from a
number of categories that determine their
preferences.
While the other is called common scale or
the Likert scale it tries to assess the
subject’s agreement or disagreement. 5 is
the highest showing positivity while 1 is
the lowest showing its negative answer.
5. CONTINGENCY QUESTIONS
•Contingency questions are intended for
certain respondents only, depending on the
provided answers. A familiar example
would be a follow-up question provided
after a respondent agrees to a certain item.
Example: Do you drink water?
Adding a yes or no question then giving a
next question. If yes how many glasses of
water do you drink in one day?
Guidelines in Writing Survey
Questionnaires
1. These should use words that have clear
meaning.
• The questions should not be ambiguous
and difficult to comprehend so that the
questionnaire will not be left unanswered. It
is better that the respondents be able to
answer all the questions.
2. These should cover all possible options.
• The respondents should just be given at
least four options and should cover all topics
so that they will not be tired of choosing a
lot of options which do not give the choices
they look for so as for them not to abandon
any question unanswered.
3. These should not be two or more
questions in one sentence.
 • The question should focus on one topic
or item at a time so that the respondents
will not be confused as to which to
answer and what options to choose
from.
4. These should provide an out-option.
• The survey should give the respondents
the option to choose “Does not apply “or
“None” for questions they do not feel
like answering.
5. These should consider appropriate time
reference.
• Respondents must easily recall past
experiences to avoid confusion as to the
extent of the time they spent in doing the
activities.
6. These should have a clear question
structure.
• These survey questionnaires must have
three parts: the question stem, additional
instructions and response options so that
the respondents will have better option
or answer so as to avoid unreliable
gathered data.
7. These should not have any bias or
prejudice.
• Survey questions must be objective and
lead to honest answers. The respondents
should not be misled to a misleading option
that they may fail to give their honest
response.
8. These should not include too personal
or too embarrassing questions.
• Questions should be gender and culture
sensitive for the respondents not to feel
awkward or embarrassed in giving their
responses.
9. These should avoid double negative
questions.
• Double negatives must be avoided when
respondents are asked of their pact on a
certain issue so that the respondents
‘response will be clear, straight to the point
and precise.
10. These should lead to clear instructions
or directions.
• Clear instructions lead to positive,
appropriate, and clear answers. If
respondents are clearly asked and told what
to do, they will also nurture a positive
attitude towards answering the
questionnaire.
Tips in Making Survey Questions
1. Keep the questionnaire as short as
possible.
Example: What do you during weekends?
2. Ask short, simple, and clearly worded
questions.
Example: What do you usually listen to?
3. Start with demographic questions to help
respondents get started comfortably.
Example: What is your name?
4. Use dichotomous (yes/no) and multiple-
choice questions.
Example: Should we respect our parents?
5. Use open-ended questions cautiously.
Example: Why did you allow the Covid
19 vaccine to be administered even if
laboratory tests are still insufficient?
6. Avoid using leading questions. A leading
question is one that obviously hints the
person answering it towards a particular
answer.
Example: Do you agree that eating
chocolates raises your sugar level?
7. Pre-test a questionnaire on a small
number of people.
8. Think about the way you intend to use the
collected data when preparing the
questionnaire.
9. Use the second person personal pronoun
when asking a question.
Example: What do you prefer to use during
hot weather --- electric fan or air
conditioning unit?
MELC 5-6 METHOD
What is method?
• are the strategies, processes or techniques
utilized in the collection of data or evidence
for analysis in order to uncover new
information or create better understanding of
a topic.
Survey Method
• A Survey Method is the technique of
gathering data (facts, statistics, numbers,
records, documents, files, or records) by
asking questions to people who are thought
to have desired information.
•As compared to other methods (direct
observation, experimentation) survey yield a
broader range of information.
•Moreover, surveys are effective in
producing pieces of information on socio-
economic characteristics, attitudes, opinions,
motives as well as in gathering pieces of
information for planning product features,
advertising media, sales promotion, channels
of distribution and other marketing
variables.
Methods of Administering a Survey
1. Personal Approach
This involves the person himself/ herself
who conducts the survey.
a. Face-to-face Structured Interview
The interview is set personally, and the
people involved face each other in order to
gather the necessary information. Questions
on the survey are asked directly to the
respondent by the researcher.
b. Telephone Survey
The survey is done using telephone or
cellular phones. The calls are made to ask
individuals on particular questions. This
method can be used for asking consequential
questions.
2. Self- administered Approach
In this type, the survey is administered by
the researcher himself/herself.
a. Paper- and - pencil Survey
This is a traditional method wherein the
respondents who are usually not computer
literate must be present in the administration
of the survey.
b. Online Survey
This is a useful technique that will cater to a
big sample size coming from different
locations.
c. Mail Survey
This popular tool requires an easy
administering of the survey where survey
questionnaires are mailed to individuals who
are given enough time to read and ponder on
the information asked.
d. Electronic interview
This is a process of recognizing and noting
people, objects, occurrences rather than
asking for information. For example-When
you go to store, you notice which product
people like to use. The Universal Product
Code (UPC) is also a method of observing
what people are buying.
How do we conduct a survey?
• Before conducting a survey, it is proper
that you, the researcher, must write a letter
of consent to the respondents.
• You should emphasize in the letter that the
information given by the
respondents/participants will be held with
utmost confidentiality.
• This is what we call ethics. Ethics in
research means that it is your responsibility
being the researcher to keep the answers of
your respondents in secrecy so that no one
will be able to use their answers against
them.
CONDUCTING A SURVEY
•Right after you have written the
respondents the letter of consent, and you
have also prepared the questionnaires, you
are now ready to conduct the survey.
•Do not forget to set an appointment with
your respondents so that you will know
beforehand when the most convenient time
for them will be for the interview.
Steps in Conducting a Survey:
1. Decide on a four or five option survey
question. Then make a tally chart having
its heading and appropriate title.
• The question should follow the guidelines
of making an effective survey question.
• Formulate questions that address to the aim
and need of the research.
• The question should be clear, concise and
efficient.
• The heading and the title should reflect the
focus of the survey.
2. Conduct a survey then tally all the
answers.
• In conducting a survey, ethics must be
observed at all times. Be polite and show
respect to the respondents.
• You should maintain a friendly atmosphere
so that respondents may not feel so
intimidated.
• Make sure all answers are noted and devise
a strategy for a more systematic way of
tallying.
3. Count the answers marking the item
having the least to the greatest tallies.
•Then make a graphic representation of the
results. Be careful in tallying so you should
observe accuracy and honesty.
•Results can be presented using any
graphics. Most commonly used are charts
and organizers.
•Choose the most appropriate graphics that
will best represent the result of the survey
such as bar graphs, line graphs, or pie
graphs.
Observation Method
• The observation method involves human or
mechanical observation of what people
actually do or what events take place during
a buying or consumption situation.
“Information is collected by observing
process at work.” This can be achieved
either among the use of hidden cameras,
service station, or an investigator using a
concealed tape-recorder.
METHODS OF ADMINISTERING AN
OBSERVATION
• The objective of observation is to help the
researcher decide whether to retain the
product or not. In case of new concepts,
observations may also help the
businessperson to improve on the products
that are available.
1. Disguised observation
- The respondents are unaware that they
are being observed. Disguise may be
accomplished by using one-way mirrors,
hidden cameras, or inconspicuous
mechanical devices. Observers may be
disguised as shoppers or salesclerks.
2. Undisguised observation
- The respondents are aware that they are
under observation.
3. Natural observation
- It involves observing behavior as it takes
places in the environment. For example,
one could observe the behavior of
respondents eating fast food in Burger
King.
4. In contrived observation
- The respondents' behavior is observed in
an artificial environment like a test
kitchen.
5. For structured observation
- The researcher specifies in detail what is
to be observed and how the
measurements are to be recorded, e.g.,
an auditor performing inventory analysis
in a store.
6. In unstructured observation
- The observer monitors all aspects of the
phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand, just like observing
children play with new toys.
7. Observation Methods: Audit
- The researcher collects data by
examining physical records or
performing inventory analysis. The data,
which are based upon counts and usually
of physical objects, are then collected
personally by the researcher.
8. Observation Methods: Content
Analysis
- This refers to the objective, systematic,
and quantitative description of the
manifest content of a communication.
The unit of analysis may be words,
characters (individuals or objects),
themes (propositions), space and time
measures (length or duration of the
message), or topics (subject of the
message).
9. Observation Methods: Trace Analysis
- Data collection is based on physical
traces, or evidence, of past behavior
such as the number of different
fingerprints on a page was used to gauge
the readership of various advertisements
in a magazine or the internet visitors
who leave traces which can be analyzed
to examine browsing and usage behavior
by using cookies.
Steps in Conducting an Observation:
1. You may use one-way mirror, hidden
camera, or inconspicuous mechanical
devices.
2. You may also observe the respondents
naturally.
3. You may ask for their permission to allow
you to observe them as they go about their
tasks.
MELC 7-9
A. The Survey Process
Survey Process
➢Survey research means collecting
information about a group of people by
asking them questions and analyzing the
results.
➢In doing a survey, the researcher must
understand the right mode of inquiry for
establishing an inference whether in a large
group of people or from a small number of
people in a group
The very aim of conducting a survey is to
present and explain the actual experiences of
a certain population.
Conducting survey are done in three (3)
steps:
1) by email;
2) telephone;
3) personal interview.
The method of data collection can be from
observation to content analysis and thiscan
be used in the survey.
The challenges and limitations of survey
are seen according to the following
criteria:
1) appropriateness of the method;
2) accuracy of what to observe;
3) generalizability of the findings;
4) administrative constrains;
5) ethical and political difficulties.
To conduct an effective survey, follow
these six steps:
1. Determine who will participate in thE
survey
2. Decide the type of survey (mail, online, or
in-person)
3. Design the survey questions and layout
4. Distribute the survey
5. Analyze the responses
6. Write up the results
B. The Experimental Research Process
Experimental Research
➢Experimental research is a study that
strictly adheres to a scientific research
design.
➢It includes a hypothesis, a variable that
can be manipulated by the researcher, and
variables that can be measured, calculated
and compared.
➢Most importantly, experimental research
is completed in a controlled environment.
➢The researcher collects data and results
will either support or reject the hypothesis.
➢This method of research is referred to a
hypothesis testing or a deductive research
method.
Types of Observations
Forensic Studies — Studying splatter (a
physics/math study), decomposition (an
entomology study), damage to objects (a
physics/engineering study), can be done in a
controlled environment and be measured.
“The Effect of on ” Studies—All
experimental studies look to determine how
one thing affects another.
Product Effectiveness — If a specific
aspect of several products can be determined
to be in different quality or quantity, this
makes for a great experimental project.
(For example the different levels of Ethyl
Alcohol within antibacterial hand sanitizers.)
Microbiology — bacteria (and some
protists) grow quickly, change in population
is easily measured and therefore make for a
good experimental study.
Scientific Method - is a series of organized
steps to which an experiment is done. The
Scientific Method helps you plan, predict,
research, conclude and maybe even publish
your findings. The Scientific Method will
make your experiment more organized, easy
to interpret and learn from.
The steps to the Scientific Method are:
1) Pose a Testable Question.
2) Conduct Background Research.
3) State your Hypothesis.
4) Design Experiment.
5) Perform your Experiment.
6) Collect Data.
7) Draw Conclusions.
8) Publish Findings (optional)
C. The Observation Process
3. Observation Process
It can also serve as a technique for verifying
or nullifying information provided in face to
face encounters.
Limitations with observation include:
➢Change in people's behavior when they
know they are being observed
➢The researcher may miss something while
they are watching and taking notes
➢The researcher may make judgments,
make value statements or misunderstand
what has been observed
Strengths of observation
a. Can offer a flavor for what is happening
b. Can give an insight into the bigger picture
c. Can demonstrate sub-groups
d. Can be used to assist in the design of the
rest of the research
e. Sometimes, the researcher becomes or
needs to become a participant observer,
where he/she is taking part in the situation in
order to be accepted and further understand
the workings of the social phenomenon
Techniques for collecting data through
observation:
Written descriptions - The researcher
makes written descriptions of the people,
situations or environment,
Limitations include:
- Researcher might miss out on an
observation as they are taking notes
- The researcher may be focused on a
particular event or situation o There is
room for subjective interpretation of
what is happening
Video recording - Allows the researcher to
also record notes,
Limitations may include:
- People acting unnaturally towards
the camera or others avoiding the
camera
- The camera may not always see
everything
Photographs and artifacts - Useful
when there is a need to collect
observable information or phenomena
such as buildings, neighborhoods, dress
and appearance
- Artifacts include objects of
significance— memorabilia,
instruments, tools, and others.
Documentation - All kinds of
documentation may be used to provide
information—a local paper, information
on a notice board, administrative
policies and procedures.
How to Conduct Observations for
Research
• Identify Objective - Determine what
you want to observe and why. When
conducting observations, you are trying
to learn habits, patterns, behaviors,
reactions, and general information about
people in a particular environment to
better understand what they do and,
hopefully eventually,
• Establish Recording Method - To
make observations most effective, it’s
important that you minimize or
eliminate any disruptive or unfamiliar
devices into the environment you wish
to observe.
• Note-taking is the most common
method, though in some public spaces
you can take photographs, audio
recordings, and other methods.
• Develop Questions and Techniques -
What you hope to learn will help you
know what specifically to look for. Be
prepared when entering an observation
space by having a sound understanding
of the type of information you are trying
to learn.
• Observe and Take Notes - Visit the
place you are hoping to get information
from. Be as unobtrusive as possible,
taking notes, photographs, audio, and
film, only where it is allowed, you have
permission, and it makes sense for the
research without disrupting the
environment. If you are doing formal
observations, will you need to code
certain behaviors, actions, words,
visuals, and other observed data.
• Analyze Behaviors and Inferences -
Separate the difference between what
you observed (which are factual
behaviors) and why what you observed
happened. Typically, to make some
sense of your observed data, you will
need to interview people in the
environment you are observing, either
during the observation itself, or
afterwards. Make connections between
interactions, responses, behaviors, and
other phenomena.
MELC 7-9 NON-PROSE TEXT
What are non-prose texts?
➢ It consist of disconnected words and
numbers instead of the sentences and
paragraphs.
➢ Non-prose text such as tables, figures or
charts are used in presenting a survey result
that will be useful for the readers.
Uses of non-prose materials are:
1. Presents data in an organized and
systematic way.
2. Allow the reader to absorb the
information fast and efficiently.
3. Explain abstract concepts, processes,
relationships in a concrete manner.
4. Provide only the useful and relevant data.
Examples are examples of non-prose text?
1. Bar Graph
2. Histogram
3. Pictograph
4. Line Graph
5. Pie Graph
6. Tables
Bar Graph
➢ Is a chart that graphically presents the
comparison between categories of data.
➢It displays grouped data by way of
parallel rectangular bars of equal width but
varying the length.
➢Each rectangular block indicates specific
category and length of the bars depends on
the values they hold.
➢The bars in a bar graph are presented in
such a way that they do not touch each
other, to indicate elements as separate
entities.
➢Picture fractions represent the portions
presented by the picture.
Line Graph
➢Used to display comparison between 2
variables, line graphs involve an x-axis
horizontally and a y-axis vertically on a grid.
➢Dot-connected and grid-plotted lines are
what comprise a line graph.
➢These lines monitor and compare various
data sets.
➢Usually, the x-axis represents time
measurements while the y-axis is a
representative of measure or percentage of
quantity.

➢For this reason, a line graph is used often

for tracking variables of one or more
subjects in time.

Histogram

➢A type of bar chart that is used to present

statistic information by way of bars to show
Pie graph
frequency distribution of continuous data.
➢Sometimes called a circle graph, pie
➢It indicates the number of observation
charts represent the parts of a whole.
which lie in-between the range of values,
known as class or bin. ➢Each ‘section’ or ‘slice’ of the pie is a
data percentage.

➢From biggest to smallest, segments are

arranged in a clockwise formation.

➢This way, the pie chart features easy-to-

compare subjects presented in a neat and
easy-to-understand way.

Pictograph

➢These are the first graph types that kids

learn about.

➢Smaller picture represents a certain

amount of an item and the pictures in the
graphs are stacked up one after another.
Tables

➢Present a great deal of numerical

information in a very clear and concise way,
with very minimal space to occupy.

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