STATISTICS IN RESEARCH 3. Stratified Sampling.
If a population has distinct groups, it is possible to divide the
Statistics refers to numerical facts. Examples of statistics in this sense are:the number that
represents the income of a family, the number of students enrolled in a class and the like
Statistics is a group of methods that are used to collect, organize, present, analyze, and
interpret data to make desicions. –( refers to the field of study)
Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics – consists of methods for organizing, displaying, and describing data
by using tables, graphs, and summary measures.
Inferential Statistics – consists of methods that use sample results to help make prediction.
This is also called inductive reasoning or inductive statistics.
Population Versus Sample
Population – consists of all elements (individuals, items, or objects) whose characteristics
are being studied. The population being studied is called the target population.
Sample – a portion of the population selected for study
A sample that represents the characteristics of the population as closely as possible is called a
representative sample.
A sample drawn in such a way that each element of the population have equal chances of
being selected is called random sample.
Four Basic Methods of Sampling
1. Random Sampling. This is done by using chance methods or random numbers. For
example, number each subject in the population. Place each number in a bowl, and select as
many card numbers as needed. The subjects whose numbers are selected composes the
sample.
2. Systematic Sampling. This is done by numbering each subject of the population and
then selecting every kth number. For example, there are 5000 families in a city. Fifty
families are needed as sample for an experiment. Since 5000/50 = 100, then k = 100. This
means that every 100th subject would be selected. However, the first subject would be
selected at random from subjects 1 to 100. Suppose the subject 88 was selected, then the
sample would consist of subjects whose numbers were 88, 188, 288, and so on until 50
families were obtained.
population into these groups and to draw SRS’s from each of the groups. The groups are
called strata. Strata are designed so that members in each strata are more homogeneous, that
is, more similar to each other. The results are then grouped together to form the sample. This
technique is particularly useful in populations that can be stratified into groups by gender,
race, geography.
4. Cluster Sampling. This method uses intact groups called clusters. Suppose a medical
researcher wants to study the patients in Metro Manila. It would be very costly and
time-consuming to obtain a random sample since they would be spread over different parts
of Metro Manila. Rather, a few hospitals could be selected at random and the patients in
these hospitals would be studies in a cluster.
Basic terms
Element or Members of a sample or population is a specific subject or object about which
the information is collected.
Variable is a characteristic under study that assumes different values for different elements.
Observation or measurement is the value of a variable for an element.
Parameter is any characteristic of a population and is measurable.
Data are numbers or measurements that are collected as a result from observation,
interview, questionnaire, experiment and so forth.
Types of Variables
A. Quantitative Variable – a variable that can be measured numerically.
1. Discrete Variable – a variable whose values are countable.
2. Continuous Variable – a variable that can assume any numerical value over a certain
interval or intervals
B. Qualitative or Categorical Variable – a variable that cannot assume a numerical value
but can be classified into two or more nonnumeric categories.
Frequency Distribution
The frequency distribution is an arrangement of the data which shows the frequency of
different values or groups of values of a variable. It can be done direct from the raw data.
Class Frequency – refers to the number of observation belonging to a class interval of the
number of items within a category.
Class interval – is a grouping or category defined by a lower limit and upper limit such as
12-14; 15-17, 18-20 and so forth
In the class interval 21-23 for example, 21 is the lower limit and 23 is the upper limit.
Class Marks – are the midpoints of the classes and they are found by adding the lower and
the upper limit and dividing by 2.
Range – the difference between the highest and lowest values in the set of data.
Suggested Steps in the Construction of Frequency Distribution
1. Find the range.
2. Determine the tentative number of groups (called classes) to use. The maximum number
of classes is 15-20 no matter how many observation there are. The ideal number of class
interval is somewhere between 5 and 15.
3. Determine the approximate size of the class interval by dividing range by the desired
number of class intervals.
4. Write the class intervals starting with the lowest lower limit as determined by researcher’s
choice.
5. Determine the class frequency for each class interval by referring to the tally column.
6. Compute for the class mark.
Summation Notation-is used to denote the sum of values. (Ʃ) - symbol
Cummulative Frequency - is obtained by cumulating absolute frequencies.
Relative frequency Distribution is a tabular arrangement of data showing the proportion in
percent of each frequency to the total frequency.
Graphical devices to represent a frequency distribution
Histogram – consists of a set of rectangles having bases on a horizontal axis which centers
on the class marks. The base widths corresponds to the class size and the heights of the
rectangles correspond to the class frequencies.
Frequency Polygon-is a line graph of class frequencies plotted against the class marks. It is
made by connecting the midpoints of the rectangular tops in the histogram or joining the
plotted points for the class marks and their corresponding frequencies.
Pie Graph- It is a circle that is divided into sections of wedges according to the percentage
or frequencies in each category of the distribution.
Since there are 360° in a circle, the frequency for each class must be converted into a
proportional part of the circle. This conversion is done using the formula,
degree = f/n (360°) where f is the frequency and n = sum of the frequencies.
Convert each frequency to percentage by multiplying it to 100%
Four Basic Methods of Sampling
Random Sampling-this is done by using chance methods or random numbers.
Systematic Sampling-This is done by numbering each subject of the population and then
selecting every nth number.
Example: There are 5000 families in a city. Fifty families are needed as sample for
an experiment. Since 5000 ÷ 50 = 100, then n = 100. This means that every 100th subject
would be selected. However, the first subject would be selected at random from subjects 1 to
100.
Stratified Sampling-If a population has distinct groups, it is possible to divide the
population into these groups and to draw SRS’s from each of the groups. The groups are
called strata.
Measures of Central Tendency
The number which gives a summary of the characteristics of a given set of data is called the
measure of central tendency or measure of central location.
-such measures of central tendency can be computed in two ways, one in
ungrouped data form and grouped data.
Ungrouped Data or Raw Data – are those data which are not yet organized or arranged into
frequency distribution.
1. Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean or arithmetic average is defined as the sum of the values of a variable
divided by the number of observations.
The symbol for the sample mean is x bar (x), and for the population mean is the Greek letter
mu (μ)
X or μ = Ʃx/N or n, where x bar is the sample mean,
μ is the population mean,
N or n is the total number of items in the population or in the sample,
x is the observed value
Ʃ is the summation notation
Mean for Grouped Data
i = class interval or class width
To compute for the arithmetic mean of grouped data, we need to determine the midpoint of
each class interval. The mean assumed that the class mark of each class is the average value Note: the modal class is the class interval with the highest frequency
of all items falling in that class.
1. Long method x = Ʃfx/n where:
x = sample mean HYPOTHESIS TESTING
x = the class midpoint or class mark
f = the corresponding frequencies Hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for evaluating claims about a population.
n = the total number of items
The z-test and the t-test are the statistical tests for hypothesis testing.
Median
Null hypothesis (Ho) – states that there is no difference between a parameter and a specific
The median of ungrouped data arranged in array (increasing or decreasing order of value
magnitude) is the middle value when the number of items is odd or the arithmetic average of
the two middle values when the number of items is even. The median is usually denoted by Alternative hypothesis (Ha) – states a specific difference between a parameter and a
Mdn. specific value

Median for Grouped Data Possible sets of statistical hypothesis

Mdn = Lmd + [(n/2 – cf)/f] i 1. two-tailed test

where, Mdn = median Ho : parameter = specific value
Lmd = lower class boundary of median class Ha : parameter ≠ specific value
n = total number of observations 2. left-tailed test
f = frequency of the median class Ho: parameter = specific value
cf = cumulative frequency preceding/before the Ha: parameter < specific value
median class 3. right-tailed test
i = class size Ho: parameter = specific value
Ha: parameter > specific value
Mode
When to reject and to accept Ho
The mode of a grouped data is defined as the midpoint of the class interval with the highest
frequency (modal class). The mode obtained in this manner is called a crude mode, because reject Ho accept Ho
it is just a rough approximation of the actual mode. So, to determine the true mode, we use Ho is true Type I error correct decision
the formula Ho is false correct decision Type II error

Mo = LMo + [d1/(d1 + d2)] i Steps in hypothesis testing

Where, Mo = mode 1. State the null and alternative hypothesis.

LMo = lower class boundary of modal class
d1 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency
of the next class lower in value
d2 = difference between frequency of the modal class and the frequency of
the class next higher in value
2. Select the level of significance. (0.10, 0.05, 0.01) Note: the level of significance is the
maximum probability of committing a type I error.
3. Determine the critical value and the rejection region/s.
4. State the decision rule.
5. Compute the test statistic.
6. Make a decision, whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis.
The z-test Test of Hypothesis (Two Population)

It is a statistical test for the mean of a population. It can be used when the sample size is The null hypothesis under test is,
greater than or equal to 30, or when the population is normally distributed and standard Ho: μ1 = μ2
deviation is known. The formula is, The test statistic appropriate for the purpose is
z= x–y
√ σ12 /m + σ22 /n
where:
m = sample for group 1
Where x –sample mean n = sample for group 2
μ – hypothesized mean x = mean of group 1
σ – population deviation y = mean of group 2
n – sample size σ2 = variance of group 1 and 2

The t-test Paired t-Test

The t-test is a statistical test for the mean of a population and is used when the population
is normally or approximately normally distributed, standard deviation is known, and n<30.
The formula for the t test is
The method of paired t-test reduces the problem of comparing the means of two populations
to that of a one-sample t-test.
A common method of obtaining matched pairs is to match an experimental unit with itself,
leading to what is widely reffered to as a “before-after” study.

t = d/(sd/√n)
The degrees of freedom are d.f. = n – 1 Where:
d = ∑d/n, d=difference of the pair
The formula for the t test is similar to the z test. But since the population standard deviation
is unknown, the sample standard deviation is used. The critical values for a t test are found in sd = ∑d2 – (∑d)2/n
a t table. n–1

Sample Size

It is necessary to determine the size of the sample to make an accurate estimate. It depends
on the maximum error of estimate, the population standard deviation, and the degree of
confidence.
 Measures of Variation

RANGE

The range is the simplest measure of variation to calculate. It is just the difference between
the largest and the smallest value in a given set of data. A much larger range suggests greater
variation or dispersion.

The range has a disadvantage of being influenced by extreme values called outliers. Another
is that it is based on two values only. All the other values in the set are being ignored.

STANDARD DEVIATION AND VARIANCE

The standard deviation is the most commonly used measure of variation. The standard
deviation indicates how closely the values of a given data set are clustered around the mean.

A lower value of the standard deviation means that the values of that given data set are
spread over a smaller range around them. On the other hand, a large value of the standard
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION FOR GROUPED DATA
deviation means that values of that data set are spread over a larger range around the mean.