The Research Design

Design

• a set of instructions for the researcher; to gather and analyze data in certain ways that will control
who and what are to be studied (Brink).

• Thus, the choice of design is made when the question is finalized.

Guiding Principles in Research Design

Research Design

• refers to a scheme or plan of action for meeting the objectives

• a blueprint for conducting a study that maximizes control over factors that could interfere with the
validity of the findings.

• the researcher’s plan

– how the study will be conducted,

– the type of data that will be collected, and

– the means to be used to obtain these data, (which are determined after variables are identified
and quantified.)

Research Design

• Purpose

– to provide a plan for answering the research question.

• Each design has its own applicability depending on the problems and objectives of the study.

• Important consideration

– to minimize possible errors and maximize the reliability and validity of data.

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Reliability

• refers to the consistency, stability, or dependability of the data.

• A research method should yield the same results, even if conducted twice or more

Note: The reliability of a research instrument is usually affected by the wording of the questions, the
physical setting, and the respondent’s mood.

Validity

• refers to data that is not only reliable but also true and accurate.

• It refers to which extent an instrument can measure what it is supposed to measure.

Internal Validity
It is the degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not
influenced by other factors or variables.
Threats to Validity

1. History

• Refers to the events that may occur during the time frame of the study which is not actually part of
the study.

• They produce effects that influence the results of the study, either increasing or decreasing the
expected results.

2. Selection

– Occurs when respondents of the study are chosen not only individually but as a group.

3. Testing

• refers to the pre-test given that results in an improved performance in the post-test.

• To avoid this threat, a pre-test may not be needed for administration.

• However, if a pre-test is given, another measure is recommended to use as an alternate form of

instrument.

4. Instrumentation

• It refers to unreliability in measuring instruments that may result in an invalid measurement of

performance.

• The change in the instrument used between the pre-test and post-test may result in an effect not
caused by a treatment introduced

5. Maturation

• This factor refers to the physiologic and psychological changes that may happen to the
respondents of the study over a period of time.

• If the time frame of a training program is quite long and rigid, the participants may experience
some psychological discomfort due to boredom, tiredness, hunger, and the like.

6. Mortality

• It refers to the loss of participants during the post-test stage or even during the implementation of
the time frame of the study

• when the same group of individuals is studied over a long period of time.

• By the time a follow-up study is conducted on the same group, some members may have dropped
out or may refuse to cooperate further in the study.

Characteristics of a Research Design

 1. The setting in which the research occurs

a. Laboratory Studies

– Designed to be more highly controlled in relation to both the environment in which the
study is conducted and the control of extraneous and intervening variables.
b. Field Studies

– occur outside the laboratory setting.

– This occurs in natural settings and uses a variety of methods such as:

• field experiments,

• participant’s observations in a village or hospital wards,

• interviews in the home or office,

• questionnaires,

• anything at all that does not occur in a controlled laboratory setting.

2. Timing of data collection

a. Prospective or Longitudinal studies – events that are underway or expected to occur in the
future.

b. Retrospective, ex post facto, or historical studies – have occurred in the past.

c. Cross-sectional studies – Those in which data collection is strictly in the present time.

3. The subjects to be included in the research

• The sample size or number of subjects in the study

• The method used to collect the data

• The researcher’s plan for communicating the findings

Types of Basic Research Design

• Descriptive Design

• Experimental Design

• Qualitative Method

I. Descriptive Design

• Most common method used in research.

• Used when the purpose of the study is to inquire about the prevailing conditions of events,
objects, or people.

• The method describes “what is” in relation to the variables under consideration.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

1. It ascertains prevailing conditions of facts in a group or case study.

2. It gives either a quantitative or qualitative, or both, description of the general characteristics

of the group or case under study.

3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized

4. The study of conditions at different periods may be made and the change that took place
between the periods may be evaluated for any value it gives.
 5. Comparison of the characteristics of the two groups may be made to determine their
similarities and differences.
6. The variables involved in the study are not usually controlled.
7. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for purposes of comparison and
verification.

Types of Descriptive Design

1. Exploratory Descriptive Design

2. Descriptive Survey Design

3. Correlational Design

4. Comparative Design

5. Case study

6. Feasibility Study

1. Exploratory Descriptive Design

• This provides an in-depth exploration of a single process, variable, or concept.

• The word “exploratory” indicates that not much is known

• means that a survey of the literature failed to reveal any significant research in the area.

2. Descriptive Survey Design

• used when you intend to gather relatively limited data from a relatively large number of subjects.

• This is used to measure existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists.

3. Correlational Design

• studies the relationship between two or more variables.

• has a conceptual base and is looking for cause-and-effect relationships in the results

• but cannot specify the direction of the relationship at the beginning of the study.

4. Comparative Design

• examines and describes differences in variables in two or more groups that occur naturally in the
setting.

• specifies cause and effect at the beginning of a study and is based on a theoretical framework.

5. Case study

• extensive exploration of a single unit of study, such as:

– Persons

– family groups

– communities or institutions

– a very small number of subjects who are examined intensively

6. Feasibility Study

– study tries to determine the viability of an undertaking or a business venture like establishing an
institution or constructing an infrastructure.

II. Experimental Design

• 1 central characteristic:

– manipulating the independent variable and measuring the effect on the dependent variable.

• The classical experimental designs consist of the experimental group and the control group.

• Experimental Group

– an independent variable that can be manipulated

– while in the control group, the dependent variable is measured when no alteration
has been made to the independent variable.

• Control Group

– The dependent variable is measured in the experimental group in the same way, and at the same
time, as in the control group.

Manipulation

• Means the researcher works on the independent variables so that some of the subjects are
affected.

• Some variables in the experiment may not be manipulated.

Control

• The researcher uses one or more measures to control the experiment, including the use of an
unmanipulated control group that is compared with an experimental group.

• Control is attained by:

– Allowing for no variables

– Specifying the variations to be allowed

– Distributing the variations equally

Types of Experimental Design

1. Pre-Experimental

2. True-Experimental

3. Quasi-Experimental
1. Pre-Experimental

• One-Shot Case Study - involves one group that is exposed to a treatment (x) and then post-
tested (o).

• None of the threats to validity that are relevant is controlled.

• One Group Pre-Test Post-Test Design

– involves one group that is pre-tested (o), exposed to a treatment (x), and post-tested (o).

– Although it controls several sources of validity not controlled by a one-shot case study, a
number of additional factors relevant to this are not controlled.

2. True-Experimental

A. Pre-Test Post-Test Control Group Design

• involves at least two groups,

• both of which are formed by random assignment.

• both groups are administered a pre-test of the dependent variable,

• one group receives a new or unusual treatment and

• both groups are post-tested.

B. Post-Test Only Control Group Design

– same as the pre-test post-test control group design except that there is no pre-test.

– Subjects are randomly assigned to groups,

– exposed to the independent variable and

– post-tested.

C. Solomon Four-Group Design

– It involves the random assignment of subjects to one of the four groups.

– Two groups are post-tested and the other two are not.

– one of the pre-tested groups and one of the unpre-tested groups receive the experimental
treatment.

2. Quasi-Experimental
A non-random method is used to assign subjects to groups (does not involve random assignments).

A. Non-Equivalent Control Group Design

 - like the pre-test and post-test control group design.

- does not involve random assignment.

- The lack of random assignment adds a source of invalidity not associated with the pre-test
and post-test control group design

B. Time Series Analysis

- it is an elaboration of the one-group pre-test pos-test design in which one group is:

- repeatedly pre-tested,

- exposed to a treatment, and

- Repeatedly post-tested.

C. Counter-Balance Design

- All groups receive all treatments but in a different order.

- The only restriction is that the number of groups equals the number of control.