1.

1 The Periodic Table Atomic Structures

Electron configuration
Trends across a period & down a group in PT Each electron in an atom / monatomic ion, has a
Natures of elements and natures of oxides certain amount of potential energy from the
attraction between its negative charge electrons and
Line emission spectrum positive charge of the nucleus.
Primary bonding
Electrons are arranged in a particular pattern;
Physical properties of ionic compounds, electron configuration. Eg: sodium.
metals & covalent network molecules
Circles are NOT orbits, and the
Shapes of molecules
electrons are NOT moving
Molecular polarity around the nucleus along the
Secondary interactions circles.
Physical properties of small molecules
2.8.1

Circles represent energy levels / shell (using Each orbital / subshell is represented by using small
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) . The electrons closest to letters s, p, d, f.
the nucleus have the lowest energy level. Each orbital / subshell have their own name, shape,
3 size and maximum number of electrons.
2
Orbital Shape of Orbital Size Total e-
1
s Sharp 1 2
2.8.1
p Principal 3 6

Electrons inhibit regions of space known as orbitals d Diffuse 5 10

/ subshell (probability of finding the electron at a
particular location). f Fundamental Not enough space…. 7 14
 p orbital
s orbital Energy level/ Orbital / Total number of
Main Shell Subshell electrons
1 1s 2
2 2s 8
2p
3 3s 18
3p
The 2s orbital is similar to the 3d
1s orbital, but larger in size.
4 4s 32
The phrase "larger in size"
really means that the 4p
maximum probability for 4d
finding the electron lies
farther out from the nucleus. 4f
d orbital

Using subshell notation to

write electron configuration for atoms
2.8.1 4s
The electron configuration of an atom or monatomic
2s 2p 3s 3p 3d
1s ion describes the number of electrons at each
energy level and subshell.
Rules to write electron configuration:
1 2 3 Fill electrons according to energy sequence order
for the subshell.
 Number denoting the energy level

Letter denoting the type of orbital

Superscript denoting the number

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s of electrons in those orbital
Lower energy Higher energy

Exercises:
Write using subshell notation the electron configurations
Special Case:
at ground state for the atoms below: Chromium and copper do not conform to the
1. Helium atom 1s2 principles for assigning electrons to subshells as
2. Boron atom describe previously.
1s2 2s2 2p1
3. Sodium atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
4. Aluminium atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1 24Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d4 4s2 Not Stable
5. Argon atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 Stable
6. Iron atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
7. Cobalt atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
8. Zinc atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
9. Krypton atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 29Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 4s2
10.Strontium atom 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 5s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
 Using subshell notation to Transition elements will lose valence electrons to
form various positive ions
write electron configuration for eg. Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
monatomic ions Fe2+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6
Metals – lose valence electron(s) to form a positively Fe3+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
charged ion; remove e- from the last orbital
eg. Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Exercises:
Na+ 1s2 2s2 2p6 Write using subshell notation the electron configuration of
1. aluminium ion 1s2 2s2 2p6

Non-metal – gain electron(s) to form a negatively 2. zinc ion 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
charged ion; add e- into the last orbital 3. copper ion in copper (I) oxide
eg. Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 4. oxygen ion 1s2 2s2 2p6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
Cl─ 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 5. chloride ion 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

A metal ion, M3+ has electron configuration

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5.
Light and matter in Chemistry
1. Give the atomic number of the element M. 26 Light embraces both its wave and particle aspects.
2. Write the electron configuration of M. The colours of dyes and other compounds results
3. Name the element M.
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 from valence electron jumping between these energy
Iron levels / shells.
The electrons in atom have two kinds of states:
Give the names and formulae of three ions with the Ground state (at room temperature)
electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6. – electrons in their lowest energy level
Chloride ions, Cl- Excited state
Sulfide ions, S2- – when quantized amount of energy (either in the
Potassium ions, K+ form of light / electric charges / heat) is given,
Calcium ions, Ca2+ this will excite valence electrons to a higher
energy level.
Electrons in Ground and Excited State

Excitation

Topic 2
Practical:
Atomic
Flame
Absorption
Test
Spectroscopy
Energy Light
absorption emission

Spectrum Line emission and line absorption spectrum

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between

the matter and light.
A spectrum is a resolution or a separation of
radiation into its component wavelength (nm).
Continuous Spectrum - White light for example
can be dispersed by a prism to give a continuous
spectrum in the optical region of the spectrum
from red to violet, with no breaks in between the
colors.
R O Y G. B I V

Line emission and line absorption spectrum

Absorption Line Spectrum Emission Line Spectrum

Clouds of gas absorb certain wavelengths (colors) Anything that absorbs will also emits.
of light (electrons get excited). A cloud of cool gas that absorbs certain colors from
A continuous spectrum that hits a cloud of cool gas a blackbody will emit exactly those colors as the gas
will be partially absorbed. atoms de-excite (electrons go back to ground state).

The transmitted spectrum is called an absorption
line spectrum (because certain lines are absorbed),
and is continuous except for the colors that were
absorbed by the gas.
If we look at the cloud without the blackbody in our
line of sight, we will see an emission line spectrum.
The lines of emission have the same color as the
absorption lines in the absorption line spectrum.
If you added an emission line spectrum and an
absorption line spectrum, you would get a
continuous spectrum.

Qualitative Practical Gas Flame Na+ Cu2+

Flame Test
Aim: To use flame test to identify some
unknown metal ions
Procedure:
Clean wire by dipping into concentrated H2SO4,
then burn at the base of the Bunsen burner .
Dip a clean wire into salt solution (eg. Ba2+, Theory: Each metal has Li Red
Ca2+, Na+, K+, Li+), then burn at the base of the unique energy level K Violet
Bunsen burner . gap with electrons, Ca Orange
Record observation: the colour of flame for each therefore produced
Na Yellow
metal ion and identity the metal ions present in different color flame
Ba Yellow-green
the unknown samples supplied.
 Aim: To view some of the flame colours (line
emission spectra) using spectroscope.
Procedure: direct the spectroscope towards the
colour flame and observe how many lines, the line
colors, and the wavelength in nm using the
spectroscope.
Atomic fingerprints
Each element has a unique energy levels gap with
electrons, therefore the electrons in the element will
absorb specific amount of energy to get excited.
When electrons return to ground state, the specific
energy absorbed earlier will be emitted as different
colour light.
The bright line emission spectra or dark line
absorption spectra is a chemical fingerprint for each
element.

The Periodic Table Periodic table can be divided into s,p,d & f block.

A table where elements are arranged in the order of

p block
increasing atomic number.
The position of an element in the PT is reflected by its d block
electron configuration.
• GROUP: vertical columns - all elements will have
same outer orbital electron configuration therefore
has similar chemical properties (I – VIII).
• PERIODS: horizontal rows - elements with valence
s block
e- that fill up to the same energy level / shell (1 –
6).
f block
• BLOCK: Named after last orbital in the highest
energy level occupied by valence e- (s, p, d, f).
 Exercises:
The position of an element in the PT is reflected by
An element has the following electron configuration,
its electron configuration.
1s2 2s2 2p4
By evaluating the EC, elements can be related to its
group, shell or blocks (s, p, d, f) in the PT • Relate the following electron configurations to its
Silicon as an example: position in the PT.
Period 2 – the outermost shell with electron is
shell number 2 [2s2 2p4]
Group VI – there are 6 valence electrons in the
Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2 outermost shell [2s2 2p4]

Period 3 Group IV p block • Determine the “block’’ of the PT to which the

element belongs.
p block valence electron is filled up to p
orbital [2s2 2p4]

Transition elements
Have partially filled electrons in d orbital.
Trends in The Periodic Table
d orbital come in a group of 5, total electrons 10, The unifying framework for the study of the
therefore able to have multiple oxidation states. chemical elements and their compounds.
Cu Cu+ Cu2+ Elements within each group of the PT have similar
Fe Fe2+ Fe3+ chemical properties, can be explained in terms of
their similar outer-shell electron configuration.
Question: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2 [down a group]

Transition element with partially filled d orbitals Elements in the same period have electrons filled
Period 4 up to the same shell but its physical properties
changes from left to right. [across a period]
d block [3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2]
 Trends in The Periodic Table Electronegativity
Across a period • Electronegativity Affinity for electrons or love electrons e
• Charge of monatomic ions
• Likely oxidation state(s) of the
elements in its compounds Increases
(including octet expansion) Decreases
• Nature of elements
• Metallic and non-metallic properties
• Nature of oxides

Down a group • Reactivity

• Electronegativity

Charge on monatomic ion Likely Oxidation State(s)

+7
+6 +5
1+ 2+ 3+ 4± 3- 2- 1- +4 +5 +4 +3
+1 +3 +2 +3 +2 +1
+2 -3 -4 -3 -2 -1
 Nature of Element Metallic character / properties - tendency to lose
electrons during chemical reaction
Nature of element (property / character)
1. Metal – left hand side of periodic table, low
electronegativity, prefer to lose electrons in
chemical reactions; Na, Mg, Cu, Fe
Decreases
2. Metalloid – middle of periodic table, intermediate Increases
electronegativity, can either lose or share
electrons in chemical reactions; Zn, Al
3. Non-metal – right hand side of periodic table,
high electronegativity, either gain or share
electrons in chemical reactions; S, P, N, O, C, Si

Oxide Nature of Oxide

An oxide is an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state Oxides are classified as either acidic,
of -2 or a chemical compound formally containing an amphoteric or basic on the basis of their
oxygen in this state. reactivity with acids or bases.
Most of the Earth’s crust consists of oxides. Oxides
result when elements are oxidized by oxygen in air.
Prove the nature of an oxide by writing equations:
1. Metal oxide : Na2O, MgO, CuO [copper(II)
oxide], Fe2O3 [iron(III) oxide] 1. Add water to oxide [ionisation or dissociation
reaction], then test pH of solution.
2. Metalloid oxide : ZnO, Al2O3
2. React with either acid (H+) or base (OH-)
3. Non-metal oxide : CO2, NO2, SO2, SO3, SiO2, [neutralisation reaction]
P4O10 [phosphorus pentoxide / phosphorus(V)
oxide]
 1. Adding water to oxide Non-metal oxide acidic Form solution with pH<7

Metal oxide Form solution with pH>7 CO2 + H2O H2CO3 later H+ + HCO3─
basic Na2O + H2O 2NaOH OR 2Na+ + 2OH─ 2 NO2 + H2O HNO
later 3 + HNO
H+ +2 NO3─ + HNO2

MgO + H2O No reaction SO2 + H2O H2SO3 later H+ + HSO3─

CuO + H2O No reaction SO3 + H2O 2H+ + SO42─
Fe2O3 + H2O No reaction SiO2 + H2O No reaction
P4O10 + 6 H2O 4H3PO4 later H+ + H2PO4─
Metalloid oxide ??
Al2O3 + H2O No reaction Basic oxide dissociate in water to form metal ion and
hydroxide ion; a basic solution [pH > 7].
ZnO + H2O No reaction
Amphoteric oxide is not soluble in water.
Acidic oxide ionises in water to form oxyanion and
hydronium ion; a acidic solution [pH < 7].

2. Reacting with either acid [H+] or base [OH─] Non-metal oxide acidic
Metal oxide basic CO2 + 2 OH─ CO32─ + H2O
Na2O + 2 H+ 2Na+ + H2O 2 NO2 + 2 OH─ NO2─ + NO3─ + H2O
MgO + 2 H+ Mg2+ + H2O SO2 + 2 NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O
CuO + 2 HCl CuCl2 + H2O SO3 + Mg(OH)2 MgSO4 + H2O
Fe2O3 + 6 HNO3 2Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2O SiO2 + 2 KOH K2SiO3 + H2O
P4O10 + 12 OH─ 4PO43─ + 6H2O
Metalloid oxide amphoteric
basic Al2O3 + 6 H+ 2Al3+ + 3H2O Basic oxide only react with acid; form metal ion salt & water.

acidic Al2O3 + 2 OH─ 2AlO2─ + H2O Amphoteric oxide can react with acid; form metal ion salt &
water; amphoteric can also react with base; form oxyanion
basic ZnO + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O salt & water.
acidic ZnO + 2 KOH K2ZnO2 + H2O Acidic oxide can react with base; form oxyanion salt & water.
 Solubility of Salt
All ionic compounds / salts are soluble in water to a
certain extent:
All group I salts
All nitrate salts (NO3-) soluble in water
All ammonium salts (NH4+)
All chloride salts are soluble in water except
silver, mercury and lead chloride.
All sulfate salts are soluble in water except
barium, calcium and lead sulfate.
All sufide, carbonate, oxide, hydride… salts are
NOT SO soluble in water except grp I of these
salts.
Metals (from Grp I–II) [Na→Mg]
- reactivity decreases
Down Group I - reactivity increases
Down Group 1, electronegativity decreases;
easier for electrons to be given or taken away,
therefore reactivity increases.
Non-metals (from Grp V–VII) [N→F]
- reactivity increases
Down Group VII - reactivity decreases
Down Group VII, electronegativity decreases;
more difficult to accept electrons, therefore
reactivity decreases.
Reactivity
Reactivity refers to how likely or vigorously an
atom is to react with other substances.
Usually determined by how easily electrons can be
lose or gain in an atom during reactions.
The easier the metal can lose electrons, the lower
the electronegativity of a metal; the more reactive
is the metal.
The easier the non-metal can gain electron, the
higher the electronegativity of a non-metal; the
more reactive is the non-metal.
Exercises
1. The element strontium, Sr, occurs in the same group
of the periodic table as calcium and barium
i. State the number of electrons in the outer shell
of the strontium atom. (1m)
ii. State the block of the Periodic Table in which
strontium occurs. (1m)
iii. State the charge on a strontium ion. (1m)
iv. State whether strontium would have a high, an
intermediate or a low electronegativity. (1m)
v. State whether strontium is classified as a metal
or a non-metal. Explain. (2m)
vi. Write the formula of strontium oxide. (1m)
2. When XO2 dissolves in water, the solution is acidic.
Name two elements that could be X. (2m)
 3. Explain, with the aid of equations, why phosphorus
pentoxide, P4O10, when dissolved in water, forms a
solution with pH<7. (3m)
4. Write equations for the reactions which occur when
i. Solid lithium oxide, Li2O, ‘dissolves’ in water.
ii. Solid selenium (IV) oxide, SeO2 ‘dissolves’ in
water. (4m)
5. The following equations represent two reactions
which zinc oxide undergoes:
ZnO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) → ZnO22-(aq) + H2O(l)
i. State the character of zinc oxide. Give reason.
(2m)
ii. The nature of the element zinc. (1m)
7. Aluminium is mined as bauxite ore. Bauxite contains
impurities like iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 and silicon
dioxide, SiO2 other than aluminium oxide, Al2O3.
i. Write, using subshell notation, the electron
configuration of the Fe present in iron (III) oxide.
(2m)
ii. Identify and explain the block of elements that iron
belongs to in the periodic table. (2m)
iii. To obtain aluminium metal form its ore, hot sodium
hydroxide is added to the powdered ore.State one
oxide that can react with hot sodium hydroxide and
proved with a balanced equation. (3m)
iv. When hydrochloric acid is added to bauxite ore,
iron (III) oxide will react with hydrochloric acid.
a. State the nature of iron (III) oxide. (1m)
b. Write a balanced equation for this reaction. (2m)
6. Solid elements, coded as X, Y and Z, belong to the
same period of the Periodic Table, and form oxides
with the following properties:
XO3 reacts with water to form a strongly acidic
solution,
Y2O3 reacts with strong acids and strong alkalis,
Z2O reacts with water to form a strongly alkaline
solution.
i. State which oxide would be describe as
amphoteric. (1m)
ii. State, giving a reason, which of X, Y or Z is most
electronegative. (2m)
iii.State, giving a reason, whether X, Y or Z would
react most strongly with water. (2m)
Suggested Answers
1. i) 2 ii) s-block iii) 2+ iv) low electronegativity
v) metal, left hand side of the periodic table, low
electronegativity, therefore prefer to donate
electrons during chemical reaction.
iv) SrO
2. Sulfur / carbon / nitrogen (any two)
3. P4O10 react with water to form phosphoric acid, which
is a weak acid. This acid further ionises partially in
water to release H+ which give the solution a pH<7.
P4O10 + 6H2O 4H3PO4
H3PO4 + aq H+ + H2PO4-
4. i) Li2O + H2O 2 LiOH 7. i) electron configuration for Fe3+
ii) SeO2 + H2O H2SeO3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5
ii) d-block, as valence electrons partially filled up to d-
5. i) ZnO is amphoteric in nature, as ZnO can react with orbital.
strong acid as well as strong base. iii) SiO2 – acidic oxide, can react with NaOH
ii) Metalloid SiO2 + 2 NaOH Na2SiO3 + H2O
or
6. i) Y2O3 Al2O3 – amphoteric oxide, can also react with
NaOH
ii) X most electronegative; XO3 is an acidic oxide
therefore a non-metal oxide, non metal has high Al2O3 + 2 NaOH 2 NaAlO2 + H2O
electronegative. iv) (a) basic oxide
iii) Z react strongly with water; Z2O is a basic oxide, (b) Fe2O3 + 6HCl 2 FeCl3 + 3 H2O
therefore a metal oxide, all metals react strongly
with water.

Properties of Period 3 Elements

Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Nature of Metallic Metalloid Non-metallic

elements

Oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7 -

formula SO3

Nature of Decreasing Amphoteric Increasing acidic

oxides basic
1.1 The Periodic Table Primary Bonding and
Electron configuration Secondary Interactions
Trends across a period & down a group in PT
Primary bonding (due to the electrostatic attraction
Natures of elements and natures of oxides
of opposite charges):
Line emission spectrum
1. Ionic bonds – Ionic compounds
Primary bonding
2. Metallic bonds – Metallic compounds
Physical properties of ionic compounds,
3. Covalent bonds – Molecular compounds /
metals & covalent network solid network solid
Shapes of molecules Intermolecular / secondary interactions:
Molecular polarity (between covalent molecules)
Secondary interactions 1. Dispersion forces
Physical properties of small molecules 2. Dipole-dipole interactions
3. Hydrogen bonds

Each +ve ions are attracted

Bonding between metal and non metal to many –ve ions by strong
ionic bonds and vice versa,
forming a closely packed
Metal
low electronegativity
Non Metal
high electronegativity
+-+-+- ionic lattice structure.
lose valence e- gain valence e-
-+-+-+ The ratio of +ve:-ve
form a cation form an anion +-+-+- determined the formula unit
-+-+-+ of the ionic compound.
+-+-+- Eg: NaCl
+ -
Ionic compound
Electrostatic
Salt
attraction between
(contain many ionic bonds)
cation and anion
 Each cation attracted to
Bonding between metal and metal other cations by strong
metallic bonds into a
Metal Metal
low electronegativity
e
Delocalised ++++++ closely packed
e
e
e
Electron ++++++ metallic lattice
lose valence e,
become a cation e
+ e (out of the ++++++ structure.

e
e
e
orbitals)
++++++ A metallic compound is
e e e
e
e
++++++ generally just known as
+ +
e e

e e e
e
metal, eg: copper, Cu.
e e
Metallic compound/
+ + +
e e
e e

e e
e Metal
e e e e
e

Electrostatic attraction
between cations and the
delocalised electron

Bonding between non metal and non metal When non

metals shared
valence
Non Metal Non Metal
electrons, a
High electronegativity
molecular
Hence share e compound is
formed.
Electrostatic attraction
Molecular
between the shared
compounds like
paired of electron with carbon dioxide,
both the nucleus CO2 are discrete
Orbital overlap /
molecules (g);
merge, shared
while protein are
electrons will orbit macromolecules.
within the overlap
orbitals
 Network covalent Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds:
solids has
continues covalent Property Explanation
bonds between
atoms, into a State at rtp Solid; closed packed ionic lattice structure
continuous Melting Moderately high MP and BP, in the region
covalent lattice point and of hundreds, because large amount of
structure. boiling thermal energy is required to separate the
Example: diamond, point ions which are bound by strong
graphite and SiO2. electrostatic forces.
Electrical Do not conduct electricity at solid state,
conductivity because no mobile ions to carry charge;
but able to conduct electricity when in
aqueous solution (aq) or melted form (l)
as there’s free moving ions.

Hardness Hard; the surfaces of ionic salt are not

Physical Properties of Metallic Compounds:
easily scratch, as ions are bound
strongly to the lattice and aren't easily
displaced.
Brittleness Brittle; ionic salt will shatter, because
distortion cause ions of like charges to
come close together then sharply repel
Solubility in Most ionic compounds are soluble in
water water, as water can dissociate ions within
an ionic lattice structure.
Property Explanation
State at Solid; metallic lattice structure
r.t.p. High density, particles present in metals
are tightly packed in the lattice.
Melting Very high MP and BP; region of
point and thousands, because large amount of
boiling thermal energy is required to separate
point the metallic bonds extending throughout
the metallic lattice structure.
Hardness Ductile and malleable; upon the impact of
a force, the cations and delocalized
electrons will slide over one another.
 Electrical Can conduct electricity at any state;
Physical Properties of Molecular Compounds:
conductivity always contain delocalized electrons
Property Explanation
(free moving).
State at Gas / liquid / solid?
Heat Can conduct heat; delocalised
r.t.p.
conductivity electrons transmit the energy through
vibrations from one electron to its Melting Low / high?
neighbour electron. point and
Appearance The presence of free electrons boiling point
(delocalised electrons) causes most
metals to reflect light, lustrous (non- Solubility Yes / No?
metals are transparent).
Solubility in Metallic compounds are not soluble in Conductivity No
water water.

Physical Properties of Covalent Network solid: Hardness Diamond is the hardness substance on
Earth; due to the strong and continuous
Property Explanation
covalent bonds, therefore diamond are
State at Solid; continuous covalent network lattice use for drillings.
r.t.p. structure. Heat and Cannot conduct heat or electricity.
Melting Very high melting point; because there electrical
point and are strong and continuous covalent conductor
boiling bonds that hold the atoms together into a
point network covalent solids, therefore require
very high amount of energy to break
these bonds.
Solubility Not soluble in water; water molecules
cannot break the strong continuous
covalent bonds.
 Exercise: Complete the following table:
The Polarity of Covalent Bond
Substance mp bp Electrical Type of compound / Bonding
(°C) (°C) Conductivity structure
In a covalent bond the sharing of electrons depends
Solid Liquid
on the electronegativity between the non-metals, this
A 1200 2000 No Yes Ionic lattice Ionic
will give rise to bond polarity (dipole).
B -30 120 No No Molecular Covalent
C 100 900 Yes Yes Metallic lattice Metallic No dipole Equal distribution of the shared
D 1500 2500 No No Continuous Covalent pair of electrons between two non-
covalent lattice
metals (equal e )
E High High No Yes Ionic lattice Ionic
non-polar bond
F High 3000 No No Continuous Covalent
covalent lattice Bond dipole
G High High Yes Yes Metallic lattice Metallic Unequal distribution of the shared
H Low Low No No Molecular Covalent δ- δ+ pair of electrons between two
I High High No No Continuous covalent Covalent different non-metals (different e )
lattice
↑ e↓ e polar bond or very polar bond
J High High No Yes Ionic lattice Ionic

Both A and B Atom B has slightly Atom B has a much

atoms has the higher e than A; higher e than A;
same e ; A and B B has slightly B has much greater
has same attraction greater attraction attraction for e-
for e- pair. for e- pair. pair.
Pairs of e- are Pairs of e- are Pairs of e- are
shared equally shared unequally shared very
unequally

Non polar bond Polar bond form Very polar bond

form between two between two between two
identical non- different non- different non-
metals, same metals with small metals with large
or similar e difference in e difference in e
 Non-polar bond Polar bond Very polar bond Strongest
eg. H–H eg. S–H eg. N–H Non-polar
O=O P – Cl O–H covalent
bond
Same e N–O F–H
C–N Polar
exception: Si – O covalent
C–H bond
Difference in e is A significant Very big difference
so small, assume Metallic
difference in e in e bond
the same
Bonds more Bonds easily
Ionic bond
difficult to break, broken,
Low reactivity High reactivity
Weakest
primary bond

Exercise: Shapes of Small / Discrete

In Australia, haematite containing iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 is
mined in the middleback ranges in South Australia. Fe2O3 can
Molecules
be reduced to iron using carbon monoxide, obtained from
Determined by using the theory called Valence
coke, in the blast furnace. Other impurities present in
haematite are silicon dioxide, SiO2 and aluminium oxide, Shell Electron Pair Repulsion a.k.a. VSEPR
Al2O3. The equation involved is as follows:
Fe2O3(s) + 3 CO(g) 2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g) Steps:
1. Determine central atom’s valence electrons.
(a)
• State
Fe atomsthe type
are of bonding
metallic formedinto
bonded between atomslattice
a metallic in
(i) Fe Metallic bond 2. Using Lewis structure / electron dot diagram, fill
structure. (solid)
(ii)CO
• High heat2 Covalent
energy bond
is require to break these strong valence electrons of each atoms around central
primary bonds during(3melting.
(iii)Fe 2 O 3 Ionic bond marks) (high melting point) atom, always in pairs.
3. Valence shell electron pair of the central atom will
(b) Explain why Fe is expected to be a high melting point solid. repel as far away as possible, to achieve stability.
(3 marks)
Hydrochloric Carbon dioxide, Boron Chloride, Sulfur trioxide,
acid, HCl CO2 BCl3 SO3
●●
H Cl O ═C ═ O O

●●
3 regions
●●
Cl 120°
120°
1 region 2 regions B S
Cl Cl O O
Iodine, I2
●● ●●
I I Trigonal
●●

●●

●● ●●
Linear Planar

Sulfur dioxide, Methane, CH4

SO2
H
●● 109°

S C
O H
O V-shaped H
H
or Tetrahedral
3 regions
bent shaped
4 regions
 Ammonia, NH3 Water, H2O

●●
N
H O
107° H H
H 105° H
4 regions
4 regions Trigonal V-Shaped or
Pyramidal Bent

The VSEPR Model The VSEPR Model

Predicting Molecular Geometries Predicting Molecular Geometries
Explain and state the shape of CH4 and NH3 molecule . Determine the shape of the following small
molecules and ions using VSEPR Theory.
CH4 Central atom C in CH4, has 4 regions of
electrons in its valence shell and all bonding pairs of 1. HBr 4. PH3 7. H 3O + 10. NO3-
electrons. The 4 regions of bonding electrons will repel 2. O2 5. BCl3 8. CO32- 11. NH4+
as far as possible, therefore forming tetrahedral shape 3. H2S 6. CCl4 9. SO42- 12. CF2Cl2
to gain maximum stability.

NH3 Central atom N in NH3 has 4 regions of electrons
in its valence shell, three bonding pairs of electrons and
one non bonding pair of electron. The 4 regions of
electrons will repel as far as possible to give tetrahedral
shape, but due to present of one non-bonding pair of
electron, therefore NH3 has a trigonal pyramidal shape,
to gain maximum stability.
Most atom will obey octet rule when forming covalent
molecules, but there are also some exception:
Octet expansion can happen for S, Cl and P
Eg: SO3, PCl5 and SF6.
Octet deficient can happen for B
Eg: in BCl3

Molecular Polarity
The polarity of a molecule depends on the
distribution of electrons in the molecules.
Polarity of molecules - determine through Non O C O Very
shape of the molecules polar Polar
shape: symmetrical or asymmetrical
bond polarity
CO2, molecule H2O molecule
Polarity of molecules ≠ bond polarity
Each C–O dipole is The H–O dipoles do not
How to be symmetrical (no dipole)? canceled, overall no cancel, got dipole
dipole moment (zero) moment, because the
1. All bonds are equally polar (dipole moment = 0)
because molecule is molecule is bent
2. All bond angles must be the same linear (symmetrical). (asymmetrical).
Hydrochloric Carbon dioxide, Boron Chloride, Sulfur trioxide,
acid, HCl CO2 BCl3 SO3
δ+ δ─ δ+ δ─ δ─
H Cl δ─ δ─
O ═C ═ O Cl O
120°
Overall dipole Overall dipole 120° δ+
δ+ S δ─
moment ≠ zero moment = zero B δ─ δ─
Polar molecule Non polar molecule δ─ Cl Cl O O
Overall dipole Overall dipole
Iodine, I2 moment = zero moment = zero
Non polar molecule Non polar molecule
I I Overall dipole
moment = zero
Non polar molecule

Sulfur dioxide, Methane, CH4 Ammonia, NH3 Water, H2O

SO2 δ─ δ─
H ●●
δ+ O
●● δ+ N δ+
S
109°
H δ+ H δ+
δ─ δ─ C 107° H 105° H
O O H δ+ H
H H
Overall dipole Overall dipole Overall dipole
Overall dipole
moment ≠ zero moment ≠ zero moment ≠ zero
moment = zero
Very polar molecule Very polar molecule
Polar molecule Non polar molecule
 State and explain the molecular polarity of
Explain the polarity of molecules
1. BF3 4. HBr
2. NH3 5. H2S
H CH4 has a symmetrical tetrahedral 3. Cl2 6. CF2Cl2
shape, overall dipole moment is zero.
C H Therefore CH4 is a non-polar molecule.
H Symmetry shape (dipole moment = 0):
H → non-polar molecule
(electrons are distributed evenly in the molecule)
H2O has an asymmetrical v-shaped, Asymmetry shape (dipole moment non-zero):
got overall dipole moment. → if got polar bond, polar molecule
O All two O-H bonds in H2O are very polar (electrons are unevenly distributed)
H H bonds. → if got very polar bond, very polar molecule
Therefore H2O is a very polar molecule. (electrons are very unevenly distributed)

Non-polar Polar Very polar

Secondary Interactions Between Small molecules molecules molecules
In any molecules
Molecules / Intermolecular Interactions (non-polar), O O

In molecular substances there are weak forces of electrons are

evenly distributed Permanent dipole Very polar
attraction between the molecules; these are known
around molecule. all the time, molecules also has
as interactions.
attraction is always permanent dipole
Due to difference in molecular polarity, small the same at all all the time,
covalent molecules are held by different secondary time. attraction is the
Temporary dipole
interaction or intermolecular interactions which is a strongest.
causes induced Dipole-dipole
weak forces form between molecules. Hydrogen Bond
dipole; attraction is Interaction
Dispersion forces (DF) temporary and
Dipole-dipole interaction (DDI) weak but happens
all the time.
Hydrogen Bond (H-Bond)
Dispersion Forces
Dispersion forces Dipole-dipole Interaction
• All molecules are held by dispersion forces.
Only polar molecules have the ability to form
• But these are the only types of forces that non-polar
dipole-dipole interactions between molecules.
molecules can form.
• Due to the movement of the electrons, able to Polar covalent molecules act as little magnets, they
generate temporary +ve and -ve region (temporary have positive ends and negative ends (permanent
dipole, δ+ & δ-) in the molecule. dipole, δ+ and δ-), which attract each other.
• Dispersion forces between molecules increases
when the molecular mass increases (contain more
electrons). δ+

δ-

Hydrogen bonding Between ammonia molecules:

Occur between very polar molecules. δ-
Its an attraction between the δ+ of one hydrogen XX Covalent Bond
atom, which is bonded to an extremely N Within the
electronegative element (either N, O, or F) in one H molecule
molecule to a δ- of either N, O or F atom in δ+ H H (intramolecular
another molecule. Hydrogen
bonding or primary
Bond bonding)
δ+ Between δ- XX
molecules
(intermolecules) N
H
δ- H H
 CO2 H2O
Physical properties of State •State at room
non-polar mol.temperature pressure• of
Molecular polarity molecular
very polar mol.
at r.t.p. compounds can either be solid, liquid or gas.
covalent molecules (25 ºC, • CO2 molecules 2º Interaction • H2O molecules

1 atm) are
They held
differ in the arrangement
Solid: held very of are
their held
molecules.
Depends on the secondary interactions form loosely together in
A solid has its closely together;
own shape and volume (the
together by clusters by
packedheld
between the molecules (DF, DDI or H-Bond)
molecules are Liquid:
weaker tightly together).
stronger
The strength of interactions depends on the size together in
and polarity of the molecules involved. dispersion
A liquid conforms to the shape but hydrogen
clusters not the
forces
volume of the container bonds
(the molecules are free
Gas: held very
Physical Properties:
State at r.t.p to move but still closetogether
loosely together).
Melting point or boiling point • A gas
HE willisoccupy all
at r.t.p. HEthe volume of
at r.t.p. theat r.t.p. is
• HE
Solubility in water container
sufficient to (the molecules are
sufficient or notfree to sufficient to
notmove).
Comparative type of questions (eg: compare the break these sufficient to break break these
BP of CO2 with H2O). weaker 2° int. these 2° int. stronger 2° int.

• gas at rtp Conclusion • liquid at rtp

Cl2 I2 CH4 NH3

State • Smaller Molecular mass •Larger
at r.t.p. molecular molecular Boiling • non-polar
Melting Molecular
point or boiling • very polar
point of molecules
(25 ºC, mass 2º Interaction mass point molecules polarity molecules
depends on how much energy required to
1 atm) • Cl2 molecules Solid: held very • I2 molecules or
•break the secondary
CH4 molecules interactions• NH
2º Interaction that3 molecules
holds
are held closely together; are held melting the
are molecules
held together.
between are held
loosely Liquid: held closely Point
together by bp differ
molecules together by
together by together in together by The mp and in the type of secondary
weaker stronger
lesser clusters more interactions present in discrete molecules .
dispersion hydrogen
dispersion Gas: held very dispersion HB between VP molecules
forces bonds
forces loosely together forces
• DDIless
Need between
HE PMoremolecules
or less • Required more
• HE at r.t.p. is • HE at r.t.p. is
HE at r.t.p. toDF
break these NPHEmolecules
require to HE to break
sufficient to sufficient or not not sufficient to between
break these 2° 2° int. during break these 2° these 2° int.
sufficient to break break these 2° boiling interactions during boiling
interactions these 2° int. interactions
• gas at rtp • solid at rtp Conclusion
Conclusion • BP is lower • BP is higher
 CH4 NH3 CH4 C8H18
State Smaller mass • Larger
Boiling • non-polar Molecular • very polar
•
The mp and bp Molecular
of macromolecules is
at r.t.p. molecular molecular
point molecules polarity molecules significantly affected by its large molecular
(25 ºC, mass mass
or 1 atm) mass, therefore a lot of energy is require to
• CH4 molecules 2º Interaction • NH3 molecules • CH4 molecules 2º Interaction • C H18
melting break the many dispersion forces8between
are held between are held Boiling are held between molecules are
Point point
molecules.
loosely molecules held closely
together by molecules together by
weaker stronger together
DF &byHB between macromolecules together
withby
dispersion hydrogen lesser
very polar functional groups more
forces bonds dispersion dispersion
DF & DDI between macromolecules
forces forceswith
• Need less HE More or less • Required more More or
polar functional groups less HE
• Less HE is • More HE is
to break these HE require to HE to break require to break
require
DF to
between NP macromolecules require to
2° int. during break these 2° these 2° int. these 2°
break these 2° break these 2°
boiling interactions during boiling interactions
interactions interactions
Conclusion • Lower BP Conclusion • Higher BP
• BP is lower • BP is higher

CH4 C8H18
Structure of
State • Smaller Molecular mass • Larger
at r.t.p. molecular molecular Water, H2O
(25 ºC, mass mass
1 atm) • CH4 molecules 2º Interaction • C8H18
Boiling are held between molecules are
point loosely molecules held closely
together by together by
lesser more
dispersion dispersion
forces forces
More or less HE
• Less HE is • More HE is
require to break
require to require to
these 2°
break these 2° break these 2°
interactions
interactions interactions
• Lower BP Conclusion • Higher BP
 Properties of Water
High melting point and boiling point – a lot of HE is
required to break the strong and many hydrogen
bonds
Ice is less dense than liquid water – ice floats and
insulating water below
High specific heat – the many and strong H-bonds
must be broken to increase kinetic energy of water
molecules
High heat of vaporization - H-bonds must be broken
to allow water molecules to dissociate from one
another and enter gas phase.
Good solvent – can dissolve most compounds
Ionic bonds are broken, ions become free but
surrounded by water molecules; dissociation
Attraction of ions to water molecules: ion-dipole
interaction
Water, a universal solvent
Ionic compounds
• Dissociate in water, ionic bonds between ions
broken therefore ions free to move.
• Interaction between ions and very polar water
molecules: Ion dipole interaction
Metallic compounds
• Not soluble in water
Covalent Molecules
• Interaction between very polar covalent molecules
and very polar water molecules: hydrogen bond
Solubility of Covalent Molecules in organic solvent:
“like dissolves like”
Molecules with similar intermolecular forces with the
solvent (liquid molecule eg: ethanol, oil, hexane.....) are
likely to be soluble in each other.
• Non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvent.
Eg. CCl4 in C6H6 (Dispersion forces)
• Polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents.
Eg. CH3Cl in CCl3F (Dipole dipole interaction)
• Very polar molecules are soluble in very polar solvents.
Eg. C2H5OH in H2O (Hydrogen bond)
→ only very polar molecules are soluble in water
 CH4 Inorganic NH3 Miscible and Immiscible liquids.
compounds
Solubility • non-polar Exception • very polar
in water molecules (Topic 4): molecules
(v.p. Immiscible Miscible
Some polar
molecule) • CH4 • NH3
organic
molecules molecules
molecules are
cannot form can form H-
polar enough to
hydrogen bonds with
form hydrogen
bonds with very polar
bonds with very
very polar water
polar water
water
molecules
molecules
therefore
• Not soluble in soluble in water • Very soluble
water in water

Ammonia in water:
O Interesting internet websites
H
δ+ H Hydrogen
Chemical bonding:
Bond
δ- XX http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/chemistry/animations/chang_7e_esp/
N Between bom1s2_11.swf
Miscible H molecules http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp02/02020.html
liquid H H (intermolecules) http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/bonding/bondingflashes/bond_ty
pes.swf
http://www.skoool.ie/content/skoool_learning/junior/lessons/science/
Methane in water: structures_bonding/flash/h-frame-ie.htm
H
δ- Non polar
δ-
O C Molecule
H H
δ+
H H H Immiscible
δ+ liquid