COHERENCE

Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent and able to be understood.
There are four basic mechanical considerations in providing transitions between ideas: using
transitional expressions (devices), repeating key words and phrases, using pronoun reference,
and using parallel form (parallelism).

Transition Devices
Transitional devices are words or phrases that help carry a thought from one sentence to
another, from one idea to another, or from one paragraph to another. They link sentences and
paragraphs together smoothly so that there are no abrupt jumps or breaks between ideas.

Here are two types of transition devices; namely, conjunctive adverbs and conjunctions.

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS (adverbial conjunctions)

Mostly adverbs are words that we use to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. However,
some adverbs—such as the adverb however—can also be used like conjunctions. We call
these adverbs conjunctive adverbs. A conjunctive adverb acts differently than other adverbs
by connecting independent clauses that can stand alone as sentences. In this way it is still
acting as a modifier by using one clause to modify another. Conjunctive adverbs are also
known as transitional phrases because they act like a bridge (i.e. provide the transition) from
one idea to the next idea. As a result, they are good for keeping your readers on track with
your thinking and creating easy-to-follow texts.

Here is a list of common conjunctive adverbs:

 also
 consequently
 furthermore
 however
 incidentally
 indeed
 likewise
 meanwhile
 nevertheless
 nonetheless
 therefore

They can also be phrases (i.e., not just single words):

 as a result
 as a consequence
 for example
 on the contrary
Punctuating the clauses with conjunctive adverbs

When we join two independent clauses with a conjunctive adverb, they are traditionally
separated with a semicolon. It is also acceptable to use a period and keep them as two
discrete sentences. Either way, the conjunctive adverb typically begins the second clause,
followed by a comma. However, we cannot separate the two clauses using a comma. For
example:

  “Mutale had not enjoyed the play; therefore, she didn’t recommend it.” (correct)
  “Mutale had not enjoyed the play. Therefore, she didn’t recommend it.” (correct)
  “Mutale had not enjoyed the play, therefore, she didn’t recommend it.” (incorrect)

If we choose to separate the two clauses with a period, we must remember to capitalize the
conjunctive adverb, since it is the first word in a new sentence.

Choosing a conjunctive adverb

There are many conjunctive adverbs. To choose the right one, we must consider
the relationship between the first and second clause. Let’s look at the example again:

 “Mutale had not enjoyed the play; therefore, she did not recommend it to her friend.”

The second clause is a result of the first clause. Mutale had not enjoyed the play, and that
is the reason that she did not recommend it to her friend. So, when we connect the two
clauses, we choose a conjunctive adverb (therefore) that makes this cause-and-effect
relationship clear. Think about how the relationship between these two clauses is different
from the previous example:

 “Mutale had not enjoyed the play. She recommended it to her friend.”

We still have two independent clauses, but now the relationship between them is different.
Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play, but recommended it to her friend anyway. We can no longer use
the conjunctive adverb therefore, because we are no longer dealing with cause and effect.
Instead, we need to choose a conjunctive adverb like nevertheless, which is used to
express unexpected results:

 “Mutale had not enjoyed the play; nevertheless, she recommended it to her friend.”

These are some the most common conjunctive adverbs and their functions:

Result
When the second clause is a result of something that happened in the first clause, we have a
few options. One is therefore, which we looked at already.
We can also use accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, and thus interchangeably
with therefore; the meaning of the sentence remains the same. For example:

 “Mutale had not enjoyed the play; hence, she didn’t recommend it.”
 “Mutale had not enjoyed the play; as a result, she didn’t recommend it.”

Comparison
When we state that two things are alike, we can use the conjunctive
adverbs comparatively and similarly. For example:

 “Mutale grew up in Kitwe City; similarly, her boyfriend grew up in inner-compound

Chimwemwe.”
 “Sam always wanted to be a famous movie star; comparatively, his brother wanted to
be a famous rock star.”

When we state that two things are not just similar, but equal, we can draw a comparison
using conjunctive adverbs like equally and likewise.

 “John grew up in Kitwe; likewise, her boyfriend was raised in the city.”

 “Chanda always wanted to be a footballer; equally, his brother dreamed of starring in
football.”

Contrast
There are two types of contrast that we can illustrate using conjunctive adverbs. The first,
known as complete contrast, is when the two opposing things are total opposites. For this
type of contrast, we can use any of the contrasting conjunctive adverbs in the table. For
example:

 “Tom has a black backpack; in contrast, his brother has a white one.”
 “I absolutely love singing; on the other hand, my sister hates it.”

The other type of contrast is weak contrast. This is when the two clauses are opposing but
are not complete opposites. For this type of contrast, we are limited to using only the weaker
of the contrasting conjunctive adverbs, and not the strong ones like on the other hand and in
contrast. For example:

  “Siamwenya is terrible at math; however, she still likes it.” (correct)

  “Siamwenya is terrible at math; on the other hand, she still likes it.” (incorrect)

  “I would have liked to stay in bed all day; instead, I got up and went to the park.”
(correct)
  “I would have liked to stay in bed all day; in contrast, I got up and went to the park.”
(incorrect)

Adding information
Sometimes we want to add information of equal value to the information in the first clause. In
this case, we can use also or in addition. For example:

 “When you make the dinner, remember that he doesn’t like chicken; in addition, he
can’t eat shellfish.”
 “Her favourite animals are dogs; also, she likes cats.”

When we want to add information that further explains something, we use besides. For

example:

 “I heard this movie is terrible; besides, I hate horror films.”

 “Kangwa passed her test because she’s good at English; besides, she studies hard.”
Adding stronger information
When the information that we want to add has more value (is stronger) than the information
in the first clause, we can use the conjunctive adverbs further, furthermore, or moreover. For
example:

 “He was fired because he was often late; furthermore, the quality of his work was
poor.”
 “Being a doctor is an exhausting job; moreover, you don’t earn good money until
you’ve been practicing for many years.”

Unexpected result
When the second clause is an unexpected result of the first clause, we can use the conjunctive
adverbs nevertheless, nonetheless, surprisingly or still. For example:

 “I am terrible at math; nonetheless, I passed my exam!”

 “That car cost far too much money; nevertheless, Tom bought it.”
 “She has never been to France; surprisingly, she speaks French fluently.”

Emphasis
When we want to place special emphasis on the second clause, we can use the conjunctive
adverbs indeed or in fact. For example:

 “I didn’t study as much as I should have; indeed, I hardly opened a book!”

 “He doesn’t like swimming very much; in fact, he hates all sports!”

Condition
The conjunctive adverb otherwise is used to place conditions on whether something will
occur or not. It most closely means “if not.” For example:

 “You have to come with me; otherwise, I’m not going.”

 “Maybe she didn’t study very hard; otherwise, she would have passed the test.”

Placing conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs must appear in the second of the two clauses that are connected. For the
sake of consistency, we have shown all of them at the beginning of the second clause in the
examples, but they can be moved around within it.
Depending on where we place the conjunctive adverb in the sentence, there are certain rules
regarding commas that we must be aware of.

At the beginning of the second clause

Conjunctive adverbs are often placed at the beginning of the second clause. Note that when
they are placed in this position, they are usually followed by a comma. The comma is
sometimes optional with the conjunctive adverb thus, but this is a stylistic preference. For
example:

 “Mwaba had not enjoyed the play; thus, she didn’t recommend it.”

In the middle of the second clause

We can also place the conjunctive adverb in the middle of the second clause. It should
come after the subject or introductory phrase. When the introductory phrase is short (i.e., one
to two syllables), it may not be necessary to place a comma after the conjunctive adverb. For
example:

 “Mwansa had not enjoyed the play; she, therefore, didn’t recommend it.”

If the introductory phrase is any longer, it is generally necessary to enclose the conjunctive
adverb between two commas. For example:

 “Mwansa had not enjoyed the play; she decided, therefore, not to recommend it.”
 “Mwansa had not enjoyed the play; she did not, as a result, recommend it.”

At the end of the second clause

Finally, a conjunctive adverb can also appear at the end of the second clause. When placing
the conjunctive adverb in this position, it is usually preceded by a comma; however, this
depends on the flow of the sentence and it can be omitted if it seems unnatural. For example:

 “Mweshi hadn’t enjoyed the play; she did not recommend it, consequently.”
 “Mweshi had never been good at basketball; he had always loved it, nonetheless.”
 “Mweshi wanted to stay in bed; I went to the park instead.

CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are words that connect sentences or parts of sentences into one sentence. The
three kinds of conjunctions include the following:

A. Coordinating Conjunctions
B. Correlative Conjunctions
C. Subordinating Conjunctions

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating conjunctions are the most popular category of conjunctions. Simply put, they
bring equally important ideas together. They can join words, phrases, and clauses of equal
importance and grammatical rank. Keep reading to see several coordinating conjunction
examples that will make their function clear.
The Coordinating Conjunctions
The English language has seven coordinating conjunctions. They're easy to remember if you
can just remember the acronym FANBOYS: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. Coordinating
conjunctions are important when creating compound sentences or when contrasting different
ideas. Here are some examples of each coordinating conjunction in action.
For: Explains a Reason
The first coordinating conjunction in FANBOYS is “For.” It explains a reason or purpose
(just like "because"), typically with two independent clauses. For example:
  I go to the park every Sunday, for I long to see his face.
 Chalwe eats healthy, for she wants to stay in shape.
“For” can be confusing because it can also be a preposition (such as in “I bought this gift for
you”). But when it’s used to explain why something is happening, it’s a coordinating
conjunction.
And: Joins Two Ideas
The second coordinating conjunction in FANBOYS, “And,” adds one thing to another. It can
be used to join two nouns, two verbs, two adjectives, two phrases, or two independent
clauses. Examples of “and” in a sentence include:
 I like to read, and I write in my journal every night.
 You should invite George and John to the party.
“And” is one of the most common coordinating conjunctions in English. Notice how it
connects two of the same part of speech or two clauses with equal importance.
Nor: Presents a Second Negative Idea
“Nor” is the third coordinating conjunction in FANBOYS. It’s used to present a second
negative idea to join a negative idea in the first clause. “Nor” is less common than other
coordinating conjunctions, but still joins two (negative) ideas together.
 My sister doesn’t like to study, nor does she take notes in class.
 Our family hasn’t been to Lusaka, nor have we been to Livingstone.
 Mushala didn’t do his chores, nor did he finish his homework.

When using “nor,” you reverse the verb order in the second clause (such as in “nor does she
take notes” instead of “nor she does take notes.”). “Nor” is often used after “neither” (such as
“I neither hate nor love to watch TV”) as a correlative conjunction, which is a pair of
conjunctions that join ideas.

But: Introduces an Opposing Idea

The fourth FANBOYS coordinating conjunction is “But.” It shows the contrast between two
words, phrases, or ideas of equal importance. Examples of “but” in a sentence are:
 Television is a wonderful escape, but it interferes with my writing.
 We would love to attend the birthday party, but we have plans that day.
 I was going to earn an A in Math, but I failed the final test.
 My grandfather earned an award, but he never got to accept it.
When “but” is used for the same meaning as “except” (as in “Everyone but me was invited”),
it’s a preposition, not a conjunction. “But” is only conjunction when the clauses on either side
express opposite ideas.
Or: Shows an Alternative
“Or,” the fifth coordinating conjunction in FANBOYS, presents an alternative or a choice.
Like “and,” it can be used between two of the same part of speech as well as two phrases or
clauses. For example:
 Would you rather read a book or watch a good TV show?
 I can’t decide if I should study economics or political science.
Like “nor,” you can use “or” as correlative conjunction. It joins with “either” (as in “Either
you get in the car now or we’ll be late”) as a conjunction pair to connect opposing ideas.
Unlike “neither/nor,” “either/or” connects positive ideas.
Yet: Adds a Contrasting Idea
“Yet” is the sixth coordinating conjunction in FANBOYS. It introduces a contrasting idea
that follows the preceding idea logically. Some example sentences include:
 The students like their teacher, yet they wish he graded more fairly.
“But” and “yet” seem interchangeable, and they almost are. “But” brings a tone of finality
into a sentence (“I’d love to ice skate, but I don’t know-how”) while “yet” implies that an
action may be able to change in the future (“I’d love to ice skate, yet I don’t know how.”).
Grammatically, you can use one for the other, but the shift in tone makes it worth your time
to choose the right word.

So: Indicates a Result or Effect

The final FANBOYS coordinating conjunction is “So” It indicates an effect, result, or
consequence from an action in the earlier clause. For example:
 I like to read, so I didn’t mind the long reading assignment.
 The grocery store was closed, so we went to the farmer’s market instead.
“So” can also be used as an adverb, as in “I am so tired.” But it’s not linking two words or
ideas together in this case; it’s modifying the word “tired.” Make sure you know how the
word is functioning in a sentence before determining its part of speech.
Using Commas with Coordinating Conjunctions
You will notice that some of the coordinating conjunction examples are preceded by a
comma while others are not. If coordinating conjunction is joining together two independent
clauses, it needs to have a comma with it. Independent clauses can stand alone as complete
sentences.
For example: “Television is a wonderful escape, but it interferes with my writing.” Because
these are two independent clauses, they must be joined together by a comma and a
coordinating conjunction. Leaving out the comma may lead to run-on sentences.
SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Subordinating Conjunctions are used in complex sentences. In other words, they join one
independent or main clause with dependent or subordinate clause(s). Examples of
subordinating conjunctions are as follows:
after, before, since, as soon as, while, until, as, so long as, if, whether, on condition, so that,
lest, so that, that, because, since, as, provided or provided that, supposing, unless, as, if
whether, on condition, so…that, then, no less than, as…as, as much as, as, so far as,
according to, as if, though, although, however, notwithstanding, as, even if, whatever,
whichever.
Example:

 After school, we went to tuition.

 They arrived where nobody had set foot before. 
Use of some subordinating conjunctions
Because/ For/ Since
These three subordinating conjunctions are used to show the cause or reason. Among them,
because is most commonly used and has very great force.
Example:

 I must apply today because it is the last date.

 He could not come to school yesterday since he was ill.

Note: Remember ‘since’ is also used to show the point of time.

Example:

 I have never seen him since he left school.

 We have never met since we left college.
If/ Unless
Both of these are used in conditional sentences. The if/ unless part is called the subordinate
conditional clause and the other part is called the main clause. 
Unless means ‘if not’. So it turns the main clause into negative.
Example:

 You can succeed, if you work hard.

 Unless you work hard, you cannot succeed.
 If you stop smoking, your health will improve.
 Unless you stop eating, you will not lose weight. 
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Correlative conjunctions, or paired conjunctions, are sets of conjunctions that are always
used together. Like coordinating conjunctions, they join words, phrases, or independent
clauses of similar or equal importance and structure. Unlike coordinating conjunctions, they
can only join two elements together, no more.

Use and examples of correlative conjunctions

Either…or and neither….nor

 I want to purchase either a fountain pen or a cricket bat.

 Either he may write with a fountain pen, or he can choose a ballpen in the exam.
 Neither he nor his friends are available for work.
 Neither she promised to help, nor were her friends responded positively.
Not only…but also & not…but correlative conjunction

 Not only is he a technical batsman, but he also plays aggressive cricket.

 Not only she but her sister also is a good singer. (singular subjects)
 Tom is not a fool but a talented student. (for contradiction)
 Not just he cleared the exam but secured the first rank in the college. c) Whether…or
 I am still in a confusion whether to go for a picnic or stay safe at home.
 I am not sure whether my decision to introduce Bio-fertilizer is good or bad for our
organisation.
So…. that

 I am so tired that I cannot walk further.

 Underdeveloped countries are so poor that they cannot invest in green technology.
No sooner…than correlative conjunction

 No sooner did the train arrive, than I informed you.

 No sooner had they entered into the forest than they heard a roar.
Both…and

 He both cooked his breakfast and washed all the dishes.

 Both global warming and climate change are a threat to biodiversity.
 Oceans are both vast and deep.
Though….yet

 Though fossil fuels are proved dangerous for the environment, yet it is being used
heavily.
 Though the free trade system makes everyone better off, yet the US is following
protective policies against others.
Just as…so

 Just as cricket is popular in my country, so does European football.

 Just as tropical crops are grown in tropical regions, so do temperate regions grow
wheat and barley.
Whether… or…
The correlative conjunction “whether…or” presents two alternatives in a situation.
Examples:
 I don’t know whether she took a cab, or she walked to her home.
 You have to study all lessons whether they are easy or difficult.

If the second element, what comes after or, is negative, here are the possible ways to frame
the sentence:
 Whether you like it or not, I will invite her to the party.
 Whether or not you like it, I will invite her to the party.
 Whether you like it, or you don’t, I will invite her to the party.

Such… that…
The correlative conjunction ‘such…that’ is used to join two parts where the first part is
a noun phrase that works as a cause, and the second part is a statement that is the result of
the cause (noun phrase). So ‘such’ introduces a cause, and ‘that’ introduces the result of the
cause.
Examples:
 He speaks with such good manners that everyone likes to talk to him.
 Jon was such a bad fighter that the company fired him immediately.
 He was such a dominant fighter that everyone was scared of fighting him.
No sooner…than…
We use the correlative conjunction ‘no sooner…than’ to introduce two actions where the
second action, introduced by than, comes right after the first action.
Examples:
 No sooner had we heard the good news than we started dancing.
 No sooner had I heard him cry on the phone than I took a cab to his place.
 Note that we can use the auxiliary verb ‘did’ in place of had.
 No sooner did we hear the good news than we started dancing.
 No sooner did I hear him cry on the phone than I took a cab to his place.
Notice that when we start the sentence with a negative word, we put the auxiliary verb before
the subject. This is called inversion in English.
NOTE: we can also use the subordinating conjunction ‘as soon as’ to render the same
meaning.
 As soon as we heard the good news, we started dancing.
  As soon as I heard him cry on the phone, I took a cab to his place.
 As soon as she saw me with the girl she is jealous of, she broke up with me.
 As soon as I reached the station, the train left.

Would rather… than

We use the correlative conjunction ‘would rather…than’ to show a person’s preference. We
use a bare infinitive after would rather and than.
Examples:
 She would rather stay single than date you.
 I would rather have coffee than tea.
 We would rather leave the job than do illegal things for money.

As…as
We use the correlative conjunction ‘as…as’ to compare a person or thing with another person
or thing. The first ‘as’ is followed by an adjective or adverb, and the second ‘as’ introduces
a noun.

Structure: as + adjective/adverb + as + noun/pronoun

Examples:
 I am not as smart as this man.
 You look as big and powerful as a bodybuilder.
 The kid was running as fast as us.
 The second ‘as’ can also introduce a clause.
 The match is turning out to be as exciting as I thought it would be.
 As soon as we heard the news of his accident, he got there as fast as we possibly
could.
As much…as
We use ‘as much…as‘ to compare an uncountable noun to something else. Here, ‘as much‘
is followed by an uncountable noun, and ‘as’ is followed by a clause.
Structure: as much+ uncountable noun + as + clause
Examples:
 They gave me as much money as they had.
 You can eat as much food as you want.

As many…as
This structure is used to compare a countable noun to something else.

Examples:
  You can eat as many apples as you want.
 They are bringing in as many writers as possible.
 We gave him as many chances as we could.

Scarcely/Hardly…when
The correlative conjunction ‘scarcely/hardly…when’ is used to join two past actions that
happened one after another.
Examples:
Hardly had I stepped outside when it started raining.
(firstly, I stepped outside, and then it started raining. There is not much time difference
between the two actions. The correlative conjunction ‘scarcely/hardly…when’ adds these two
actions and focuses on the fact that these actions took place simultaneously, without much
time gap.)
 Scarcely had we reached the station when the train arrived.
 Scarcely had she started the car when her mother called her.
 Hardly had Jon received the award when Nao started crying in happiness.
 Note that ‘hardly/scarcely…when’ can be replaced with ‘no sooner…than’ to give the
same meaning.
 Hardly had Rohan finished the food when he collapsed on the floor.
or
 No sooner had Rohan finished the food than he collapsed on the floor.
or
 As soon as Rohan finished the food than he collapsed on the floor.
Note that with these expressions, the first clause follows inversion: the subject comes after
the verb. And we write the first clause either in the Past Perfect tense or the Simple Past
tense; the second clause is always written in the Simple Past tense.
 Hardly had I stepped outside when it started raining.
 Hardly did I step outside when it started raining.
NOTE:

POINT #1: Correlative conjunctions require a parallel structure.

It’s important to note that correlative conjunctions require the elements they join to be
parallel: both of them need to be the same.
A structure is called parallel when all the elements added to the list are the same: same part of
speech, same tense, and same number.

 I not only loved your performance but also want to see you perform again. 

(Notice that the first element (loved your performance) is in the Simple past tense, and the
second element (want to see you perform again) is in the Simple Present tense. They are not
in the parallel structure as both the actions are in different tenses.)
Parallel structure:
  I not only loved your performance but also wanted to see you perform again. 
or
 
POINT #2: Faulty subject-verb agreement
If the correlating conjunctions ‘either…or’ and ‘neither…nor’ introduce the elements as the
subject of a sentence, the verb must follow what comes after OR and NOR.
 Neither you nor I are capable of doing this (incorrect). 
 Neither you nor I am capable of doing this (correct). 

According to the proximity rule, the verbs in such cases need to follow what they are closest
to.
 Either my girlfriend or my friends will share her notes with me (incorrect). 
 Either my girlfriend or my friends will share their notes with me (correct). 

The possessive adjective in the object should refer to the possession of the noun “my
friends.” But it’s referring to the possession of the first element (my girlfriend), not following
the proximity rule.
 Neither my college nor my classmates showed me its support (Incorrect).
 Neither my college nor my classmates showed me their support (Correct). 
 Not only the boys but also the girl called his parents immediately (Incorrect). 
 Not only the boys but also the girl called her parents immediately (correct).

POINT #3: Don’t use a comma before the second conjunction. (One exception)

Most writers, when using correlative conjunctions, get confused about whether to use a
comma with correlative conjunctions or not.
Generally, we don’t use a comma with correlative conjunctions.

He brought gifts not only for you but also for me (correct). 

He brought gifts not only for you, but also for me (incorrect).
I can buy either your painting or his painting (correct). 
I can buy either your painting, or his painting (incorrect).

We don’t use a comma before the second conjunction generally. However, you will have to
use a comma before the second conjunction if the following two conditions are fulfilled:
The second conjunction in the pair belongs to a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so).
The second conjunction (coordinating conjunction) is followed by a clause.
  Not only do I love you, but I also look up to you. 
 Either you leave the job, or you do what the company says. 
 Not only has she taken this job seriously, but she also has started enjoying it. 

Note that when we use a comma with the correlative conjunction not only…but also, the
subject of the but also clause splits the conjunction but. This happens because ‘but’ ‘works as
a coordinating conjunction here as well.
POINT #4: Don’t use NEITHER…NOT in a negative sentence.
Using the correlative conjunction neither…nor creates double negation in a sentence, which
is an error.

I don’t want to see neither you nor her. 

They haven’t received neither the payment nor the certificate. 

To avoid making this mistake of double negation while using neither…nor, make sure the
sentence is positive.
 I want to see neither you nor her. 

 They have received neither the payment nor the certificate. 

REPETITION OF KEYWORDS AND PHRASES

Repetition of keywords and use of reference words are also needed

for cohesion. Repetition of Key Words We can tie sentences or paragraphs together
by repeating certain keywords from one sentence to the next or from one paragraph to the
next. This repetition of keywords also helps to emphasize the main idea of a piece of writing.

We can tie sentences or paragraphs together by repeating certain keywords from one sentence
to the next or from one paragraph to the next. This repetition of keywords also helps to
emphasize the main idea of a piece of writing.

For example, in the following paragraph, notice how many times the
words owned and ownership are repeated:

Nobody owned any part of the land. Sotopo's father owned many cattle, and if the cows

continued to produce calves, he might as well become the next chief. Old
Grandmother owned the beautifully tanned animal skins she used as coverlets in winter. And
Sotopo owned his polished hard-wood assegais. But the land belonged to the spirits who
governed life; it existed forever, for everyone, and was apportioned temporarily according to
the dictates of the tribal chief and senior headman. Sotopo's father occupied the hillside for
the time being, and when he died the older son could inherit the loan -- land, but no person or
family every acquired ownership (The Covenant by James Michener).
By repeating the words owned and ownership throughout the paragraph, the writer has tied
each sentence to each other and has clearly indicated what the main idea of the paragraph is.
In this case, the main idea is ownership of something. And what exactly is being (or not
being) owned? By repeating the word land, the author shows us that the entire main idea
is ownership of land.

PARALLELISM
Parallelism is a grammatical term for arranging words with syntactically accurate structure.
In other words, parallelism refers to making sentences have the same, or parallel,
structure. Parallelism is essential to proper writing (and speaking, for that matter).
Examples of Parallelism: Here is an example with incorrect parallel structure:
 I like to fish, swimming, and to hike.
In this example, the list series does not use parallel structure. The terms are not parallel.

5 GOLDEN RULES in PARALLELISM – Grammar

Steps to revise sentences for parallel structure:
1) Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared.
2) Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged in the same way.
3) If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in
each part.

Example1:
He likes reading, writing and swimming’
OR we can say: ‘He likes to read, write and swim’ (but not ‘He likes reading, writing and to
swim’ because the structure is not the same throughout)

Example2:
Sam has a pen in his bag.
Sam has a pencil in his bag.
Sam has two books in his bag.
A better way of conveying the same would be:  Sam has a pen, a pencil and two books in his
bag.

Example3:
Betty has intelligence, honesty, and she is funny.
OR A better way of conveying would be: Betty has intelligence, honesty, and humour.

5 GOLDEN RULES to be mastered to write parallel sentences:

1. When you connect two or more clauses or phrases with a conjunction (for, and, nor,
but, etc.) use parallel structure.

Example:
Not Parallel: My best friend took me dancing and to a show.
Parallel: My best friend took me to a dance and a show.
 2. When you connect two clauses or phrases with correlative conjunction (not only, but
also, either…or, neither…nor, if…then, etc.) use parallel structure.

Example:
Not Parallel: Sam wants both a satisfying job and that pays well.
Parallel: Sam wants both a satisfying and a well-paying job.
 

3. Observe the parallel structure of sentences while comparing elements.

Example:
Not Parallel: I like to read books over watching movies.
Parallel: I like reading books over watching movies.
4. Observe parallel structure when elements are in a list.
Example:
Not Parallel: Traditional societies believed the king to be religious, political, social, and head
of the military forces.
Parallel:    Traditional societies believed the king to be a religious, political, social, and
military head.

5. When you connect two clauses or phrases with a word of comparison, such as ‘than’
or ‘as’, use parallel structure.

Example
Not Parallel: I would rather pay for my education than financial aid.
Parallel:     I would rather pay for my education than receive financial aid.

Parallelism and Repetition

It is important to note that structures will still be parallel if some words are missing from the
latter parts, as long as they are exactly the same as in the first parts. The parallelism is in
effect starting in a different place and getting smaller.
Take a look at these parallel structure examples. The first one is the full parallel structure. In
the others that follow, the second part has been reduced. Note that it is only identical words
that can be taken out. 
Reducing the Parallel Structure
 He's not sure whether to buy a new car or to go away on holiday
 He's not sure whether to buy a new car or go away on holiday 
 She is pleased not only by his attitude but also by his intelligence
 She is pleased not only by his attitude but also his intelligence
o I don't mind if he comes at 7pm or if he comes later. 
o I don't mind if he comes at 7pm or he comes later. 
 I don't mind if he comes at 7pm or comes later. 
 I don't mind if he comes at 7pm or later.