SUMMARY OF

BURTON’S
MICROBIOLOGY
FOR THE HEALTH
SCIENCES
 MICROBIOLOGY
CHAPTER I - MICROBIOLOGY THE SCIENCE

Microbiology - study of microbes.

*Microbes are said to be ubiquitous, meaning they are virtually everywhere

2 major categories:
1. Acellular Microbes - Infectious particles
a. Prions
b. Viruses
2. Cellular Microbes - microorganisms
a. Prokaryotes
i. Archaea
ii. Bacteria
b. Eukaryotes
i. Algae
ii. Fungi
iii. Protozoa
Pathogen - disease causing microorganisms
Opportunistic pathogens - do not cause disease but have potential to cause disease should the
opportunity presents itself

PATHOGENS AND EXAMPLES OF THE DISEASE THEY CAUSE

Algae Infection, intoxication

Bacteria Anthrax, botulism, cholera, diarrhea, diphtheria, ear and eye infections, food
poisoning, gas gangrene, gonorrhea, hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS),
intoxications, Legionnaires disease, leprosy, lyme disease, meningitis, plague,
pneumonia, rocky mountain spotted fever, scarlet fever, staph infections, strep
throat, syphilis, tetanus, tuberculosis, tularemia, typhoid fever, urethritis, urinary
tract infection, whooping cough

Fungi Allergies, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, intoxications, meningitis, pneumonia,

thrush, tinea (ringworm) infections, yeast vaginitis.

Protozoa African sleeping sickness, amebic dysentery babesiosis chaga’s disease,

cryptosporidiosis, diarrhea, giardiasis, malaria, meningoencephalitis, pneumonia,
toxoplasmosis, trichomoniasis

Viruses Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), bird flu, certain types of cancer,
chickenpox, cold sores (fever blisters), common cold, dengue, diarrhea,
encephalitis, genital herpes infections, german measles, hantavirus pulmonary
syndrome (HPS), hemorrhagic fevers, hepatitis, infectious mononucleosis,
influenza, measles, meningitis, monkeypox, mumps, pneumonia, polio, rabies,
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), shingles smallpox, warts, yellow fever

• Photosynthesis - process where microbes produce oxygen

• Saprophytes / decomposers - organisms that lives on dead or decaying matter
• Nitrogen fixation - bacteria convert free nitrogen from air into ammonia in the soil
• Phytoplankton - tiny marine plants
• Zooplankton - tiny marine animals
• Infectious disease - results when a pathogen colonizes the body and subsequently causes disease
• Microbial intoxication - results when person ingest a toxin that has been produced by microbe
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Father of microbiology
• Abiogenesis - theory that life can arise from nonliving material (theory of spontaneous generation)
• Biogenesis - life can only arise from pre-existing life
• Rudolf Virchow - first proposed biogenesis
• Louis Pasteur - “pasteurization”; introduced aerobic and anaerobic
• Pasteurization - kill pathogens in many types of liquids
- Heating liquid to 63 to 65 degrees Celsius for 30 minutes or
- 73 to 75 degrees for 15 seconds
• Robert Koch - germ theory of disease
• Pure culture - refers to a condition in which only one type of organism is growing on a solid culture
medium or liquid culture medium in laboratory
• Synergistic infection - caused by not only by one particular microbe but the combined effects of 2 or
more microbes
• Fastidious - microbes having complex and demanding nutritional requirements
• Phycology (algology) - study of algae
• Mycology - study of fungi
• Clinical Microbiology - laboratory diagnosis of infectious disease of humans

CHAPTER 2 - VIEWING THE MICROBIAL WORLD

• Coccus (Cocci) - spherical bacterium

• Bacillus - typical rod shaped bacterium
• Simple microscope - containing only one magnifying lens
• Compound microscope - more than one magnifying lens
• Brightfield microscope - when objects are observed against a bright background
• Darkfield microscope - when objects are observed against a dark background
• Phase- contrast microscope - used to observe unstained microscope
• Fluorescence microscope - contain built-in ultra violet light source
• Electron microscope - use an electron beam a source of illumination and magnets to focus on the beam

o 1 mm = 1,000 𝝁m
o If pinhead is 1mm in diameter there are 1,000 cocci line up side by side
o 3 𝝁m - length of average rod-shaped bacteria
o 100 - total magnification when using high power objective of a compound light microscope equipped
with X10 ocular lens
o Resolution of transmission of electron microscope is 1,000 better than of unaided eye, 1,000
times better than compound light microscope and 100 times better than scanning electron
microscope
o Wavelength of visible light limiting factor of any compound light microscope

• Hans Jansen - developed the 1st compound microscope

 CHAPTER 3 - CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY

• Acellular Microbes - infectious particles

• Cellular Microbes - microorganisms
• Cell - fundamental unit of any living organism
• Metabolism - refers to all chemical reactions that occur within a cell
• Eukaryotic cells - possess true nucleus
• Prokaryotic Cells - no true nucleus
• Virus - result of regressive or reverse evolution
- Composed of only few genes protected by protein coat and sometimes may contain one or
2 more enzymes
• Cytology - study of the structures and functions of cells

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

(Eu=true) (Caryo = nut/ nucleus)

• Cell membrane - where cell is enclosed or held intact

• Nucleus - controls the function of entire cell

3 components of nucleus
● Nucleoplasm
● Chromosomes
● Nuclear membrane

● Nucleoplasm - gelatinous matrix or base material of nucleus

● Chromosomes - embedded or suspended in nucleoplasm
● Nuclear membrane - membrane that serves as skin around nucleus
● Genotype/ Genome - organism’s complete collection of genes
● Nucleus - where rRNA molecules are manufactured
● Cytoplasm - gelatinous, semifluid nutrient matrix; where metabolic reaction occur
● Cytosol - semifluid portion of cytoplasm excluding granules and organelles
● Endoplasmic reticulum - highly convoluted system of membranes
● Transport network of tubules and flattened sacs within cytoplasm
● Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - when many ribosomes are attached
● Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - ribosomes are not attached
● Ribosomes - sites of protein synthesis
● Polyribosome / polysome - clusters of ribosomes
● Golgi Complex - completes the transformation of newly synthesized proteins into “packaging plants”
● Lysosome - small vesicles that originate at the golgi complex
● Peroxisome - membrane bound vesicles which hydrogen peroxide is both generated and broken
down
● Mitochondria - powerhouse of the cell
● Plastids - sited of photosynthesis
● Chloroplast - one type of plastids contains green photosynthetic pigment
● Chlorophyll - green photosynthetic pigments
● Photosynthesis - process which light energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates and oxygen
● Cytoskeleton - system of fibers
3 types: Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments

● Microtubules - composed of tubulins

● Cell wall - external structure provide rigidity, shape and protection
 - Plants, algae, fungi and most bacteria - have cell wall
- Animals, protozoa, mycoplasma species - do not have cell wall

● Motile - possess either flagella/cilia

- Prokaryotic cell possess only 1 chromosome
- Eukaryotic cell possess many chromosome

● Plasmid - small circular molecule of double stranded DNA

● Plastid - cytoplasmic organelle found only in certain eukaryotic cells
● Bacterial cell wall - rigid exterior cell wall that defines the shape of bacterial cells
● Gram Positive - thick layer of peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid
molecules
● Gram Negative - thinner layer of peptidoglycan but this layer is covered with complex layer of lipid
macromolecules
● Glycocalyx - slimy gelatinous material produced by cell membrane and secreted outside cell wall
2 types of glycocalyx:
● Slime layer
● Capsule
● Slime Layer - not highly organized and is not firmly attached to the cell wall
● Capsule - highly organized and attached to the cell wall
● Peritrichous Bacteria - Possess flagella over entire surface
● Lophotrichous - tuft flagella at one end
● Amphitrichous - one or more flagella at each end
● Monotrichous - possess single polar bacterium
● Spirochetes - (spiral shaped bacterium) - have 2 flagella like fibris called axial filaments
● Pili (Fimbriae) - hair like structures
● Sex Pilus - enables the transfer of genetic material from one bacterial cel of another
● Endospore - enable bacteria to survive adverse conditions
● Sporulation - process where endospore is formed

- A eukaryotic cell contains numerous membranes and membrane bound structures. The only
membrane bound structures. The only membrane possessed by a prokaryotic cell is its cell
membrane

● Binary fission - reproduction process of binary fission

- One cell splits in half to become 2 cells
● Generation time - length of time it take for one cell to split into 2 cell
● Taxonomy - science of classification of living organism

* King David(or Philip) Came Over For Good Spaghetti

- Kingdom
- Division/ phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
● Genotype - complete collection of genes
● Phenotype - complete collection of physical characteristic Binomial
System of Nomenclature
- 1st name - genus
- 2nd name - specific epithet
 EXAMPLES OF BACTERIA NAMED FOR THE DISEASE THAT THEY CAUSE

BACTERIUM DISEASE

Bacillus Anthracis Anthrax

Chlamydophila Pneumoniae Pneumonia

Chlamydophila Psittaci Psittacosis

Chlamydophilla Trachomatis Trachoma

Clostridium Botulinum Botulism

Clostridium Tetani Tetanus

Corynebacterium Diphtheria

Francisella Tularensis Tularemia

Klebsiella Pneumoniae Pneumonia

Mycobacterium Leprae Leprosy

Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Tuberculosis

Mycoplasma Pneumoniae Pneumonia

Neisseria Meningitidis Meningitis

Streptococcus Pneumoniae Pneumonia

Vibrio Cholerae Cholera

● Parrot Fever - Psittacosis

● Rabbit Fever - Tularemia
● Hansen’s Disease - Leprosy

CHAPTER 4 - ACELLULAR AND PROKARYOTIC MICROBES

● Virions - complete virus particles

- Virus are not alive to reproduce
- Possess either DNA or RNA not both
- Unable to replicate on their own. Must be introduced to host cell
- Do not divide by binary fission, mitosis or meiosis
- Lack genes and enzymes necessary for energy production
● Capsid - protein coat that surrounds the DNA or RNA of a typical virion
● Capsomeres - small protein units
● Bacteriophage - virus that inject bacteria
● Lytic Cycle - ends with the destruction of bacterial cell Animal Virus - infect human and animals

Step in the multiplication of Bacteriophage (APBAR)

a. Attachment - the phage attaches to a protein
b. Penetration - phage injects its DNA into the bacterial cell
c. Biosynthesis - phage genes are expressed
d. Assembly - phage pieces or parts are assembled
e. Release - complete phages escapes from the bacterial cell by lysis of the cell
● Antiviral Agents - drugs used to treat viral infections
● Oncogenic virus - virus that can cause cancer

Steps in multiplication of Animal Viruses

a. Attachment - virus attaches to a protein/ polysaccharide molecule
b. Penetration - entire virus enters host cell
c. Uncoating - viral nucleic acid escapes from the capsid
d. Biosynthesis - viral genes are expressed, production of virus pieces
e. Assembly - viral pieces are assembled
f. Release - complete virions escape from the host cell by lysis or budding

● HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) - cause of AIDS

- Single stranded RNA Virus known as HIV
● Mimivirus - extremely double stranded DNA virus
- Recovered from amoebas
- It mimic bacteria
● Viroids - infectious RNA molecules that cause variety of plant disease
● Prions - infectious protein molecules that cause variety of animal and human diseases

Domain Bacteria
3 general shapes of bacteria
- Round (cocci)
- Rod Shape (bacilli)
- Spiral Shaped

*Bacteria reproduced by binary fission

● Diplococci - pairs of cocci

● Streptococci - chains of cocci
● Staphylococci - clusters of cocci
● Pleomorphic - bacterial species having cell of different shapes

Staining Procedures
1. Simple stains - sufficient to determine bacterial shape and morphologic arrangement
2. Structural staining procedure - used to observe bacterial capsules spores and flagella collectively

● Hans Cristian Gram - developed staining technique (gram staining)

● Acid Fast Stain - often used on mycobacterium species
● Differential Staining Procedure - gram and acid fast staining procedure
● Motility - bacterium’s ability to swim
● Bacterial colony - a mound or pile of bacteria on a solid culture medium
● Obligate aerobes and microaerophiles - require oxygen
● Obligate aerobes - require atmosphere containing about 20 to 21& of oxygen
● Microaerophiles - require reduced oxygen concentrations (usually around 5% oxygen)
● Anaerobes - organisms that do not require oxygen for life and reproduction
● Aerotolerant anaerobes - does not require oxygen, grows better in the absence of oxygen but can
survive in atmosphere containing molecular oxygen
● Facultative anaerobes - are capable of surviving in either the presence or absence of oxygen
● Capnophiles - grow better in laboratory in the presence of increased concentration of oxygen
●
NOTE:* unique bacteria (rickettsias, chlamydias and mycoplasmas) -are bacterias but they do not possess
all the attributes of typical bacterial cell
• Rickettsias, chlamydia and closely related bacteria - gram negative cell wall
- Obligate intracellular pathogens, causes disease in humans and animals
- Will not grow on artificial media
- Must live within host cell
- Arthropod borne

● Arthropod borne - transmitted by arthropod vectors

HUMAN DISEASE CAUSED BY UNIQUE BACTERIA

GENUS SPECIES HUMAN DISEASES

Rickettsia R. akari Rickettsialpox (a mite borne disease)

R. Prowazekii Epidemic typhus (louse borne disease)

R. Rickettsii Rocky mountain spotted fever (tick borne

disease)

R. Typhi Endemic or murine typhus (flea borne disease)

Ehrlichia spp. E. chaffeensis Human monocytic ehrlichiosis

Anaplasma spp. Anaplasma Human granulocytic ehrlichiosis

phagocytophilum

Chlamydia (and Chlamydia Pneumoniae pneumonia

chlamydia like
bacteria)
Chlamydia psittaci Psittacosis “parrot fever”

Chlamydia trachomatis) Trachoma (eye disease) Conjunctivitis (eye

disease) Nongonococcal urethritis (sexually
transmitted disease) Lymphogranuloma
venereum (sexually transmitted disease)
Mycoplasma M. pneumoniae Atypical pneumonia (mite borne disease)

MM. Genitalium Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU)

Orentia O. tsutsugamushi Scrub typhus ( a mite borne disease)

Ureaplasma U. urealyticum Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU)

● Obligate intracellular organisms - organisms that can onl exist within host cell
● Mycoplasma - smallest of the cellular microbes
- Pleomorphic
- They lack cell walls

● Photosynthetic bacteria - capable of converting light energy into chemical energy

● Oxygenic photosynthesis - photosynthesis that produces oxygen
● Anoxygenic photosynthesis - photosynthesis that does not produce oxygen

NOTE: Some cyanobacteria produce toxins called cyanotoxins that can cause disease and even death in
animals and humans

● Acidophiles - extremely acidic

● Alkaliphiles - extremely alkaline
● Thermophiles - extremely hot
● Psychrophilic - extremely cold
● Halophiles - extremely salty
● Piezophiles - extremely high pressure

CHAPTER 5

• Eukaryotic microbes - algae, fungi, all protozoa, lichens, and slime moulds

• Algae - photosynthetic, eukaryotic organisms that are classified in the kingdom protista
*algae range in sizes from tiny, unicellular, microscopic to large, multicellular plantlike seaweeds

• Diatoms- tiny, usually unicellular algae that live in both freshwater and seawater
• Dinoflagellates - microscopic unicellular, flagellated often photosynthetic algae
- Some dinoflagellates produce light and sometimes referred to as “fire algae”
- Responsible for red tides
• Desmids - unicellular algae, some of which resembled a microscopic banana
• Spirogyra - example of filamentous alga, often producing long green strands in a pond
• Chlamydomonas - unicellular flagellated alga, containing one chloroplast and a stigma
• Volvox - multicellular alga, consisting of as many 60,000 interconnected by flagellated cells arranged to
form a hollow sphere
• Euglena - possess features possessed by both algae and protozoa
- Contains chloroplast, is photosynthetic and store energy in the form of starch

NOTE: Algae are the only of a very rare cause of human infection (ex. Protothecosis - example of human
algae infection)

• Protozoa - are eukaryotic organisms together with algae are classified in kingdom protista
*most protozoa are single-celled free-living organisms
*protozoa are more anima like than plantlike
2 stages of protozoan life
- Trophozoite stage
- Cyst stage
• Trophozoite - is the motile, feeding, diving stage in protozoan lifecycle
• Cyst- non motile, dormant, survival stage
• Parasitic Protozoa - breakdown and absorb nutrients from the body of the host in which they live
- Ex. Malaria, ardiassis, african sleeping sickness and amebic dysentery
* protozoa are divided into groups according to their method of locomotion
• Amebae (amebas) - move by means of cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia
• Pseudopodia - false feet
• Ciliates - move about by means of large numbers of hairlike cilia on their surfaces
• Flagellates - move by means of whiplike flagella

Photogenic flagellates
● Trypanosoma brucei (transmitted by tsetse fly) - causes African sleeping sickness
● Trypanosoma cruzi - American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ Disease)
● Trichomonas varinalis - cause persistent sexually transmitted infection (trichomoniasis)
● Giardia lamblia - causes persistent diarrheal disease
 Sporozoan - non-motile protozoa
● Plasmodium spp. - causes malaria in many areas of the world (transmitted by female anopheles
mosquito)
● Cryptosporidium parvum - cause severe diarrheal disease in immunosuppressed patient

FUNGI
• Mycology - study of fungi
• Saprophytic fungi - living on organic matter, in water and soil
• Parasitic fungi - living on and within animals and plants

*fungi are not plants

*fungal cell walls contain a polysaccharide called chitin
Chitin - also found in the exoskeletons of arthropods

Fungal Reproduction
● Budding
● Hyphal extensions
● Formation of spores
2 general categories of fungal spores:
1. Sexual spores
2. Asexual spores

• Sexual spores - produced by the fusion of 2 gametes

• Asexual spores - conidia
• “Lower fungi” - zygomycota and chytridiomycota
• Zygomycota - include common bread moulds and other fungi that cause food spoilage
Chytridiomycotina - not considered to be true fungi by some taxonomist, live in water and in soil
• “Higher Fungi” - basidiomycota and ascomycota
• Basidiomycota - include some yeast, some fungi that cause plant disease and the large “fleshy fungi”
that lives in the woods (mushroom, toadstools, bracket, fungi, puffballs)
• Ascomycota - include certain yeast and some fungi that cause plant disease
• Deutoremycota (fungi imperfecti) - contains fungi having no modes of sexual reproduction
Ex. aspergillus and penicillium
• Yeast - eukaryotic single celled (unicellular) organisms that lack mycelia
- Usually reproduce by budding
Yeast that cause human infection
- Candida albicans
- Cryptococcus neoformans

• Saccharomyces cerevisiae - baker’s yeast

• Moulds - often seen in water, soil and food
- They grow in the form of cytoplasmic filaments or hyphae that make up mycelium of the mould
• Aerial hyphae - extend above the surface of whatever the mould is growing in
• Vegetative hyphae - beneath the surface

• Phytophthora infestans - potato blight mould that cause a famine in ireland in the mid century

*many commonly used antibiotics are produced by moulds (penicillium cephalosporium)

• Fleshy Fungi - large fungi that are encountered in forest (not microorganisms)
• Mycoses - variety of yeast and moulds that cause human infections
• Mycotoxins - can cause human disease called microbial intoxications
• Dermatophytes - moulds that cause tinea (ringworm) infections
• Superficial mycoses - fungal infections of the outermost areas of the human body (hair, fingernails,
toenails and dead outermost layers of skin)
• Cutaneous mycoses - fungal infection of the living layers of skin
• C. albicans - opportunistic yeast that lives harmlessly on the skin and mucous membrane of the mouth,
gastrointestinal tract and genitourinary tract(yeast infection)
• Subcutaneous mycoses - fungal infection of the dermis and underlying tissues
• Madura foot - eukaryotic mycetoma in which patients foor becomes covered with large slightly fungus
containing bumps
• Systemic or generalized mycoses - fungal infection of internal organs on the body
*common bread moulds can cause human disease - even deaths
• Rhizopus and Mucor spp. - inhalation by an immunosuppressed patient can lead to a respiratory
disease called by zygomycosis and mucormycosis
• Dimorphic fungi - can live either as yeast or as moulds, depending on growth conditions
Pathogenic Dimorphic Fungi
● Histoplasma capsulatum (histoplasmosis)
● Sporothrix schenckii - (sporotrichosis)
● Coccidioides immitis - (coccidioidomycosis)
● Lichens - 2 combination of organisms (apga or cyanobacterium and a fungus)
● Slime moulds - found in soil or in rotten logs; are not known to cause human disease

CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

Cell contains of very large molecules - macromolecules

Such as:
● Ribonucleic acid
● Deoxyribonucleic acid
● Proteins
● Lipids
● Polysaccharides

● Organic chemistry - study of compounds that contain carbon

● Inorganic chemistry - involves all other chemical reactions
● Biochemistry - chemistry of living cells

Organic chemistry
Organic compounds - compounds that contains carbon

CARBON BONDS
1. Amorphous carbon - also known as gas black, channel black and carbon black
- It is the black soot that forms when material containing carbon is burned with insufficient
oxygen for it to burn completely
Ex. used to make inks, paints, rubber products and cores of dry cell bacteria

2. Graphite - one of the softest materials known

- Primarily used as lubricant, although in a form called coke, is used in the production of steel
Ex. black material in pencil

3. Diamond - one of the hardest substances known, naturally occurring diamonds are used to make
diamond tipped saw blades
● Covalent bond - line between the carbon atoms represent a shared electron
● Hydrocarbon - organic compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen
● Chain - series of many carbon atoms bonded together
● Biochemistry - involves the study of molecules, and can be thought of as both a branch of chemistry and
a branch of biology
● Carbohydrates - biomolecule that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1
● Monosaccharides - simplest carbohydrates sugar and smallest sugars
● Glucose - C6 H12 O6 - main source of energy for body cell, is found in most sweet fruit and in blood
● Disaccharides - double - ringed sugars that results from the combination of 2 monosaccharides
Ex. sucrose, lactose and maltose
● Dehydration synthesis reaction - 2 synthesis of disaccharide from 2 monosaccharides by removal of
water molecule
● Glycosidic bond - bond holding the 2 monosaccharides together
● Hydrolysis reaction - disaccharide react with water which causes them to breakdown into 2
monosaccharide
(disaccharide + H2O = two monosaccharide)
● Sucrose + Water = glucose + fructose
● Lactose + water = glucose + galactose
● Maltose + water = glucose + glucose
● Peptidoglycan - a complex macromolecule consisting of repeating disaccharide attached by proteins
● Polysaccharide - carbohydrate that contains many monosaccharides
- Bacterial cell walls contain cellulose and fungal cell wall contains chitin
● Lipids - constitute an important class of biomolecule
• Fatty acids - can be thought as the building blocks of lipids
- Long chain carbohydrate acids that are insoluble in water
• Saturated fatty acids - contain only single bonds between the carbon atoms
• Waxes - consist of a saturated fatty acid and a long chain
• Fats and oils - most common types of lipids
- Triglycerides
- Composed of glycerol
• Phospholipids - contain glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate groups and an alcohol
• Glycolipids - abundant in the brain and in the myelin sheath of nerves
• Steroids - complex, 4 - ringed structures
- Includes cholesterol, bile salts, fat - soluble vitamins and steroid hormones
• Prostaglandins and leukotrienes - derived from a fatty acids called arachidonic acid
- They act as mediator of hormones, lower or raise blood pressure, cause inflammation and
induce fever
• Proteins - the substance of life
- Contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur
- Polymers that are composed of amino acids
• Amino acids - building blocks of protein
• Peptide bond - when water is removed by dehydration synthesis, amino acids become linked together
by a covalent bond
• Enzymes - protein molecules produced by living cell as “instructed” by genes on the chromosomes
• Biological enzymes - biological molecule that catalyze metabolic reactions
• Catalyst - defined as an agent that speeds up chemical reaction without being consumed in the
process
• Apoenzymes - protein molecules can only function as enzymes after they link up with a non protein
cofactor
• Coenzymes - vitamin type compounds
• Holoenzymes - combination of apoenzymes plus a cofactor
• Nucleic acids - DNA and RNA
- Comprise the 4th major group of biomolecules in living cell
- Contains hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorous
• Nucleotides - building block of nucleic acid polymer
• DNA Nucleotides - building blocks of DNA
- Nitrogen base, deoxyribose and phosphate
• RNA Nucleotides - building blocks of RNA
- Nitrogenous base, ribose and phosphate
• DNA Replication - it occurs by separation of the DNa strands and the building of complementary
strand
- The most important enzyme taking part in DNa replication is DNA polymerase

MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS

• Physiology - study of the vital life process of organisms especially how these processes normally
function in living organisms
• Microbial physiology - concerns the vital life process of microorganisms
*all living protoplasm contains 6 major chemical elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulfur

• Nutrient - refers to the various chemical compounds that organism including microorganisms
use to sustain life
• Phototrophs - use light as an energy source
• Chemotrophs - use either organic or inorganic as an energy source
- Chemolithotrophic - organisms that use inorganic chemicals as an energy source
- Chemoorganotrophic - organisms that use organic chemical as an energy source
- Autotrophs - use carbon dioxide as their sole source of carbon
• Heterotrophs - use organic compounds other than CO2 as their carbon source
• Photoautotrophs - organisms that use light and CO2 as their carbon source
Ex. plants, algae, cyanobacteria, purple and green sulfur bacteria
• Photoheterotrophs - use light as an energy source and organic compounds other than CO2 as
their carbon sources
• Chemoheterotrophs - use chemicals as energy source and organic compounds other than CO2 as
their carbon sources

• Ecology - the study of the interaction between organisms and the world around them
• Ecosystem - interaction of living things and their nonliving environment
• Metabolism - refers to all chemical reactions that occur within any cell
• Metabolic enzymes - enzymes that enhance and regulate metabolic reaction
• Enzymes - protein that catalyze biochemical reaction
• Substrate - a particular substance a particular enzyme can only exert its effect of act on
• Endoenzymes - remain within the cell that produced them
• Exoenzymes - leave the cell to catalyze reaction outside the cell
• Metabolite - any molecule that is a nutrient, an intermediary product or an end product in a metabolic
reaction
• Catabolism - refers to all catabolic reactions that are occurring in a cell
• Catabolic reaction - involve the formation of bonds which required energy
- Cell major energy source
 - Any time that chemical bond is broken, energy is released
• Anabolism - refers to all anabolic reactions that are occurring in a cell
• Anabolic reaction - assembly of smaller, involved in the formation of bonds that require energy
• Biological pathways - series of linked biochemical reaction that occur in a stepwise manner, leading
form a starting material to an end product
• Nutrient - energy source
• Chemical bonds - stored energy
• Aerobic respiration of glucose - complete catabolism of glucose
a. Glycolysis - glycolytic pathway - nine step biological pathways involving nine separate
biochemical reaction
- A 6-carbon molecule of glucose is ultimately broken down into 3 carbon
molecules of pyruvic acid
b. Krebs Cycle - the pyruvic acid molecules produced during glycosis are converted into acetyl-
coenzyme, with then enter the krebs cycle
- Biochemical pathway consisting of 8 separate reactions, each of which is
controlled by a different enzyme
c. Electron transport chain - “respiratory chain”, products produced during krebs cycle enter the
electron transport chain
- Consist of a series of oxidation - reduction reaction

FERMENTATION OF GLUCOSE
• Fermentation - reaction do not involve oxygen, usually takes place in anaerobic environment
• Oxidation - whenever an atom, ion or molecule loses one or more electrons in a reaction

BACTERIAL GENETICS
• Genetics - study of heredity
• Genotype - complete collection of genes
• Phenotype - all the physical traits, attributes of characteristics of a microorganism, manifestation of
genotype
• Mutation - a change in characteristics of a cell caused by a change in DNA molecule that is
transmissible to the offspring
• Beneficial mutation - beneficial to an organisms
• Harmful mutation - lead to the production of non-functional enzyme
• Silent mutation - no effect on the cell
• Mutagens - physical or chemical agents that cause an increased mutation rate
• Mutant - organism containing mutation
• Episome - a plasmid that can exist either autonomously or can integrate into a chromosome
• Lysogeny - phage genome is present in the cell bu is not causing the lytic cycle to occur
• Prophage - the bacteriophage when all that remains of it is, is its own DNA, integrated into the
bacterial chromosomes
• Virulent bacteriophage - bacteriophage that always causes the lytic cycle to occur
• Transduction - means “to carry across” some bacterial genetic material can be carried across
from one bacterial cell to another by bacterial virus
• Transformation - a bacterial cell become genetically transformed following uptake of DNa fragments
“haked DNA” from the environment
• Conjugation - genetic material usually in the form of a plasmid, transferred through a hollow sex pilus
from a donor cell to a recipient cell.
• Genetic engineering - technique to transfer eukaryotic genes, particularly human genes, into other
easily cultured cells to facilitate large -scale production of important gene products
• Gene therapy - insertion of normal gene into cells to correct specific genetic or inquired disorder that
is being caused by a defective gen
 CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH ON VITRO

Factors that affect microbial growth

a. Availability of nutrients
b. Temperature
c. Osmotic pressure and salinity
d. Gaseous atmosphere
e. Moisture
f. pH
g. Barometric pressure

• Osmotic pressure - pressure that exerted on a cell membrane by solutions both inside and outside the
cell
• Osmosis - movement of a solvent
• Crenation - the shrinkage of cell due to the lost of water, the cell is said to be crenated
• Plasmolysis - the solution in which cell suspends the bacterial cell have rigid cell wall, the cell does
not shrink away from the cell wall
• Isotonic - the solution when the concentration of the solutes outside a cell equals the concentration of
the solutes inside the cell
• Haloduric organisms - organisms that do not prefer to live in salty environments but capable of
surviving there
• Piezophiles - organisms that thrive deep in the ocean and in oil wells, where the atmosphere pressure
is very high
• Bacterial growth - refers to an increase in number of organisms rather than increase in their size
• Generation time - the time it takes for one cell to become 2 cells by binary fission
• Artificial or synthetic media - the media that are used in microbiology lab to culture bacteria
• Chemically defined medium - one in which all the ingredients are known, the medium was prepared
in the laboratory by adding certain numbers of gram of each of the
components
• Complex medium - one of which the exact content are not known
• Enriched medium - broth or solid medium containing a rich supply of special nutrients that promotes the
growth of fastidious organisms
• Selective medium - has added inhibitors that discourage the growth of certain organisms without
inhibiting growth of the organisms being sought
• Differential medium - permits the differentiation of organisms that grow on the medium
• Inoculation - adding portion of the specimen to the medium
• Aseptic technique - practiced in microbio lab to prevent infection of individuals and contamination of the
work environment, clinical specimens and cultures
• Incubation - placing media into a chamber that contains the appropriate atmosphere and moisture
level and is set to maintain appropriate pressure
- Types: CO2, -CO2, anaerobic
• Pure culture - culture that contains only one species of organisms
• Viable plate count - used to determine the number of viable bacteria in a liquid sample
• Population growth curve - consist of 4 phase
a. Lag phase - bacteria absorbs nutrients, synthesize enzymes and prepare for cell division
b. Logarithmic growth phase or log phase - bacteria multiplying so rapidly that the number
of organisms double with each generation time
c. Stationary phase - rate of division shows, the number of bacteria that are dividing equals the
number that are dying
d. Death phase - microorganisms die at rapid phase
• Chemostat - controlled environment which organisms are continuously cultured
• Sterilization - involves the destruction or elimination of all microbes
• Disinfection - involve the elimination of most or all pathogens from nonliving objects
• Pasteurization - method of disinfection of liquids
• Disinfectants - chemicals used to disinfect inanimate object, such as bedside equipment and operating
rooms
• Antiseptics - solutions to disinfect skin and other living tissue
• Sanitation - reduction of microbial population to levels considered safe by public health standards
• “-cidal” - kill organisms
• Static - merely inhibit their growth and reproduction
• Bacterial agents - kill bacteria but not necessarily bacterial endospore
• Sporicidal agents - kill bacterial endospore
• Fungicidal agents - kill fungi, fungal spores
• Algicidal agents - kill algae in pool and hot tubs
• Virucidal agents - destroy viruses
• Pseudomonacidal agents - kill pseudomonas species
• Tuberculocidal agents - kill M. Tuberculosis
• Microstatic agents - drug or chemical that inhibits metabolism and reproduction of bacteria
Lyophilization - process that combines dehydration and freezing
- Good method of preserving microorganisms for future use
• Sepsis - refers to the presence of pathogens in blood or tissues
• Asepsis - the absence of pathogens in blood or tissues
• Antisepsis - prevention of infection
• Antiseptic technique - use of antiseptic
- Developed by Joseph Lister
• Thermal death point - the lowest temperature that will kill all the organisms in standardized pure
culture within a specified temperature
• Antiseptics - antimicrobial chemical agents that can safely be applied to skin

CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH IN VIVO USING ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS

• Chemotherapeutic agent - any drug used to treat any condition or disease

• Antimicrobial agents - chemotherapeutic agents used to treat infectious diseases
• Antibiotic - substance produced by a microorganism that is effective in killing or inhibiting the growth of
other microorganisms
• Antibacterial agent - treat bacterial disease
• Antifungal agents - treat fungal diseases
• Antiprotozoal agent - treats protozoal diseases
• Antiviral agents - treat virus diseases
• Semisynthetic antibiotics - modified antibiotics that have been chemically modified to kill a wider
variety of pathogens or reduce size
• Superbug - an organism that is resistant to only one antimicrobial agent, multiply drug resistant
organisms
• Intrinsic resistance - naturally resistant bacteria because the drug is unable to cross the organisms
cell wall or cell membrane and thus reach its size of action
• Acquired resistance - when a bacterial that were once susceptible to a particular drug to become
resistant to it
• Drug binding site - the protein molecule the bacterial cell in the surface of the cell, the drug first bind to
before entering the bacterial cell
 MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND MICROBIAL TECHNOLOGY
• Microbial ecology - study of the numerous interrelationships between microorganisms and the world
around them
• Symbiosis or symbiotic relationship - living together or close association of 2 dissimilar organisms
• Symbionts - organisms that live together in symbiosis relationship
• Neutralism - symbiosis relationship in which neither symbiont is affected by the relationship
• Commensalism - symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to one symbiont and of no consequence
• Mutualism - symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to both symbionts
• Parasitism - symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to one symbiont and detrimental to the other
symbiont
• Indigenous microflora - “normal Flora” includes all of the microbes that reside on and within that
person

Microflora on the skin

- most common bacteria on the skin
● Staphylococcus
● Corynebacterium
● Propionibacterium
Microflora in the mouth (most common)
● a hemolytic streptococci

NOTE: Colons contains as many as 500 to 600 different species

• Microbial antagonism - “microbes vs. microbes”

• Opportunistic pathogens - organism that are hanging around, awaiting the opportunity to cause
infection
• Biotherapeutic agent or Probiotics - bacteria and yeast that are ingested to reestablish and stabilize
the microbial balance within our bodies
• Synergism - when 2 or more microbes “team up” to produce a disease that neither could cause by itself

INFECTIOUS DISEASE OF FARM ANIMALS

CATEGORY DISEASE

Prion diseases Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease), scrapies

Viral disease Blue tongue (sore muzzle), bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), equine
encephalomyelitis (sleeping sickness), equine infectious anemia, foot and mouth
disease, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, influenza, rabies, swine pox, vesicular
stomatitis, warts

Bacterial disease Actinomycosis (lumpy jaw), anthrax, blackleg, botulism, brucellosis (bangs
disease), campylobacteriosis, distemper (strangles), erysipelas, food rot, fowl
cholera, leptospirosis, listeriosis, mastitis, pasteurellosis, pneumonia, redwater
(bacillary hemoglobinuria), salmonellosis, tetanus (lock jaw), tuberculosis,
vibriosis
Fungal disease Ringworm
Protozoal disease Anaplasmosis, bovine trichomoniasis, cattle tick fever (babesiosis), coccidiosis,
cryptosporidiosis

• Biotechnology - any technological application that use biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof to make or modify products or process for specific use
• Bioremediation - use of microorganisms to clean up various types of wastes including industrial
waste and other pollutants
PLANTS DISEASE CAUSED BY MICROORGANISMS
CATEGORY DISEASE

Virus Bean mosaic disease, tobacco mosaic disease, wheat mosaic

disease

Fugus Black spot of roses, brown patch of lawns, chestnut blight, cotton
root rot, dutch elm disease, ergot, mushroom root rot, powdery
mildews, various tots, various rusts, various smuts, wheat rust

Fungus (a water Blue mold of tobacco, downy mildew of grapes, late blight of
mold) potatoes

Viroid Citrus exocortis, potato spindle tuber

Bacteria Crown gall, various leaf spots

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH

• Epidemiology - study of factors that determine the frequency, distribution, and ways to prevent, control
or eradicate diseases in populations.
• Communicable disease - if the infectious disease is transmissible from one human to another
• Contagious disease - communicable disease that is easily transmitted Infectious disease - disease
cause by pathogens
• Zoonotic disease/ zoonoses - disease that humans acquire from animals
• Incidence - number of new cases of a particular disease in a defined population during specific time
period
• Morbidity rate - usually expressed as the number of new cases of a particular disease that occurred
during specified time period per a specifically defined population
• Period prevalence - number of a particular disease existing in a given population during a specific
number of time
• Point prevalence - number of cases of the existing disease in a given population at a particular
moment in time
• Mortality - refers to death
• Mortality rate or death rate - ratio of the number of people who dies of a particular disease during a
specified time period per specified population
• Sporadic Disease - occurs only occasionally within the population of a particular geographic area
• Endemic disease - diseases that are always present with in that population
• Epidemic - disease occur greater than usual number of cases in a particular region, and usually occur
within a relatively short period of time
• Pandemic Disease - disease that is occurring in epidemic proportions in many countries
simultaneously, sometimes worldwide
• John Snow - Father of epidemiology
• Reservoirs of infection - sources of microbes that cause infectious disease, maybe living host or
inanimate objects or material
• Carrier - a person who is colonized with a particular pathogen is not currently causing disease
in that person
• Passive carriers - carry pathogen without ever having the disease
• Incubatory carrier - harbors and can transmit a particular pathogen while recovering
• Active carriers - have completely recovered from disease but continue to harbor pathogen
EXAMPLES OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES
CATEGORY DISEASE PATHOGEN ANIMAL MODE OF
RESERVOIRS TRANSMISSION

VIRAL DISEASES Avian influenza An influenza virus Birds Direct or indirect contact
“bird flu” with infected birds

Equine Various Birds, small Mosquito bite

encephalitis arboviruses mammals
Hantavirus Hantaviruses Rodents Inhalation of
pulmonary contaminated dust or
syndrome aerosols
Lassa fever Lassa virus Wild rodents Inhalation of
contaminated dust or
aerosols
Marburg Marburg virus Monkeys Contact with blood or
disease tissues from infected
monkeys
Rabies Rabies virus Rabid dogs, cats, Animal bite or inhalation
skunks, foxes,
wolves, racoons,
coyotes, bats

Yellow fever Yellow fever virus Monkeys Aedes aegypti mosquito

bite
West nile virus West nile virus Birds Mosquito bite
encephalitis
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Cattle, Inhalation,
sheep,goats ingestion,entry through
BACTERIAL
cuts, contact with
DISEASES
mucous membrane

Bovine Mycobacterium Cattle Ingestion

tuberculosis bovis
Brucellosis Brucella spp. Cattle, swine, Inhalation, ingestion of
goat contaminated milk, entry
through cuts, contact
with mucous membrane
Campylobacter Campylobacter Wild mammals, Ingestion of
infection spp. cattle, sheep, contaminated food and
pets water
Cat-scratch Bartonella Domestic cats Cat scratch, bite or lick
disease henselae
Ehrlichiosis Ehrlichia spp. Deer, mice Tick bite

Endemic typhus Rickettsia typhi Rodents Flea bite

Leptospirosis Leptospira spp. Cattle, rodents, Contact with

dogs contaminated animal
urine
Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi Deer, rodents Tick bite

Pasteurellosis Pasteurella Oral cavities of Bites, scratches

multocida animals
 Plague Yersinia pestis Rodents Flea bite
Psittacosis Chlamydophila Parrots, Inhalation of
(ornithosis parrot psittaci parakeets, contaminated dusts
fever) other pet birds, and aerosols
pigeons,
poultry
Relapsing fever Borrelia spp. Rodents Tick bite

Rickettsial pox Rickettsia akari Rodents Mite bite

Rocky mountain Rickettsia rickettsii Rodents, Tick bite

spotted fever dogs

Salmonellosis Salmonella Poultry, Ingestion of

spp. livestock, contaminated
reptiles food,handling reptiles

Scrub typhus Orientia Rodents Mite bite

tsutsugamushi
Tularemia Francisella Wild Entry through cuts,

Tularensis Mammals Inhalation, tick or deer

fly bites
Q fever Coxiella burnetii Cattle, sheep, Tick bite, air, mild
goats contact with infected
animals
FUNGAL Tinea (ringworm) Various Various animals Contact with
DISEASES infections dermatophytes including dogs infected animals
PROTOZOAL African Subspecies of Cattle, wild Tsetse fly bite
DISEASES trypanosomiasis trypanosoma game animals
brucei
American Trypanosoma Numerous wild Trypomastigotes in the
trypanosomiasis cruzi and domestic feces of reduviid bug
(chagas disease) animals are rubbed into bite
including dogs, wound or the eye
cats, wild
rodents
Babesiosis Babesia microti Deer, mice, Tick bite
voles
Leishmaniasis Leishmania spp. Rodents, dogs Sandfly bite

Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma Cats, pigs, Ingestion of oocysts in

gondii sheep, rarely cat feces or cyst in raw
cattle or undercooked meat
HELMINTH Echinococcosis Echinococcus Dogs Ingestion of eggs
DISEASES (hydatid disease) granulosis
Dog tapeworm Dipylidium Dogs, cats Ingestion of flea
infection caninum containing larval stage
Rat tapeworm Hymenolepis Rodents Ingestion of beetle
infection diminuta containing the larval
stage
• Fomites - inanimate objects capable of transmitting pathogens

Arthropods that serve as vectors of Human Infectious Diseases

VECTORS DISEASES
Black Flies Onchocerciasis (“River Blindness”) (H)
Cyclops spp. Fish tapeworm infection (H), guinea worm infection (H)
Fleas Dog tapeworm infection (H), epidemic typhus (B), murine
typhus (B), plague (B)
Lice Epidemic relapsing fever (B), epidemic typhus (B), trench fever
(B)
Mites Rickettsial Pox (B), scrub typhus (B)
Mosquitoes Dengue Fever (V), filariasis (“elephantiasis”) (H), malaria (P),
viral encephalitis (V), yellow fever (V)
Reduviid Bugs American trypanosomiasis (Chagas Disease) (P)
Sand Flies (Phlebotomus Spp.) Leishmaniasis
Ticks Babesiosi (P), Colorado tick fever (V), ehrlichiosis(B), lyme
disease (B), relapsing fever (B), Rocky mountain spotted fever
(B), tularemia (B)
Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) African trypanosomiasis (P)

5 principal modes of transmission:

● Contact (direct or indirect, droplet, airborne, vehicular transmission, vector transmission)

PATHOGENS COMMONLY TRANSMITTED VIA FOOD AND WATER

PATHOGEN VEHICLE

Campylobacter Jejuni (bacterium) Chickens

Cryptosporidium parvum (protozoan) Drinking Water
Cyclospora cayetanensis (protozoan) Drinking Water, raspberries
E. coli (bacterium) Meats, produced contaminated by manure in
growing fields, drinking water
Giardia lamblia (giardia intestinalis) (protozoan) Drinking water
Listeria monocytogenes (bacterium) Soft cheeses and deli meats
Salmonella enteritidis (bacterium) Eggs

Salmonella typhimurium (bacterium) Unpasteurized milk

Shigella spp, (bacteria) Drinking water

COMMON ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE

ROUTE OF EXIT ROUTE OF TRANSMISSION OR DISEASES

ENTRY
Skin Skin discharge -> air -> respiratory Chickenpox, colds, influenza,
tract measles, staph and strep infections
Skin to skin Impetigo, eczema, boils, warts, syphilis

Respiratory Aerosol droplet inhalation Colds, influenza, pneumonia, mumps,

Nose or mouth -> hand or object measles, chickenpox, tuberculosis
-> nose

Gastrointestinal Feces -> hand ->mouth Stool -> Gastroenteritis, hepatitis, salmonellosis,
soil, food, or water shigellosis, typhoid fever, cholera,
->mouth giardiasis, amebiasis
Salivary Direct salivary transfer Herpes, cold sore, infectious
mononucleosis, strep throat

Genital secretions Urethral or cervical secretions Semen Gonorrhea, herpes, chlamydia infection,
Cytomegalovirus infection, aids, syphilis,
warts
Blood Transfusion or needlestick injury Hepatitis b, cytomegalovirus
infection, malaria, aids malaria
Insect Bite relapsing fever

Zoonotic Animal bite Rabies

Contact with animal carcasses Tularemia, anthrax

Arthropod Rocky mountain spotted fever, lyme

disease, typhus, viral encephalitis,
yellow fever, malaria, plague

• Bioterrorism and biological warfare agents - the use of microorganism in times of war by terrorist or
extremist to cause harm to others
*4 pathogens that are potential Bioterrorism agents
- B. Anthracis, C. botulinum, V. major, and Y. pestis

• Anthrax - caused by B. anthracis, a spore forming, gram-positive bacillus

- Involve marked hemorrhaging and serous effusion in various organs and body cavities and
are frequently fatal
3 forms of anthrax
● Inhalation anthrax - most severe
● Gastrointestinal anthrax - second severe
● Cutaneous anthrax - develop lesions

• Botulism - potentially fatal microbial intoxication caused by C. Botulinum

- C. Botulinum - is a spore forming anaerobic gram - positive bacillus
- May cause nerve damage, visual difficulty, respiratory failure, flaccid paralysis of voluntary
muscles, brain damage, coma and death within a weak if untreated
- Can result from entry of C. Botulinum spores into open wounds

• Smallpox - serious, contagious, and sometimes fatal viral disease.

- Patients experience fever, malaise, headache, prostration, severe backache, a characteristic
skin rash, and occasional abdominal pain and vomiting
- Smallpox can become severe, with bleeding into the skin and mucous membrane, followed by
death
• Plague - caused by Y. pestis, a gram-negative coccobacillus.
- Predominantly zoonosis and is usually transmitted to humans by flea bite
- It can manifest itself in several ways: bubonic plague, septicemic plague pneumonic plague and
plague meningitis.
● Bubonic plague - named for the swollen, inflamed and tender lymph nodes (buboes) hat develop
● Pneumonic Plague - highly communicable, involves the lungs
● Septicemic Plague - may cause septic shock, meningitis, or death

• Black Death - what plague was referred to during the middle ages, because of the darkened bruises
appearance of the corpses.
October 1977, Somalia - last known case of naturally acquired smallpox
May 1980 - WHO announces the Global eradication of smallpox

CRITICAL BIOLOGICAL AGENTS CATEGORIES FOR PUBLIC HEALTH

CATEGORY BIOLOGICAL AGENTS DISEASE

Category A - agents having Variola Major Smallpox

the greatest potential for
adverse public health
impact; most require broad-
based public health
preparedness efforts
Bacillus Anthracis Anthrax
Yersinia Pestis Plague
Clostridium Botulinum Botulism (Botulinal Toxins)
Francisella Tularensis Tularemia
Filoviruses and arenaviruses Viral hemorrhagic fevers

Category B- agents having a Coxiella burnetii Q fever

moderate to high potential Brucella spp. Brucellosis
for large-scale dissemination Burkholderia mallei Gladers
or a heightened general Burkholderia pseudomallei Melioidosis
public health awareness that Alphaviruses Encephalitis
could cause mass public Rickettsia Prowazekii Typhus fever
fear and civil disruption Toxins Toxic syndrome
Vhlamydophila psittaci Psittacosis
Food safety treats
Water safety treats

• Acid Rain - chemicals are expelled in the air and carried to earth by rain Sedimentation/ settling - debris
settle to the bottom of the tank

HEALTHCARE EPIDEMIOLOGY
- referred to as the study of the occurrence, determinants, and distribution of health and disease
within healthcare settings
• Healthcare - associated infections - infections that are acquired within hospitals or other healthcare
facilities
• Community - acquired infections - infections that are acquired outside of healthcare facilities
• Iatrogenic infection - an infection that result from medical or surgical treatment - an infection that is
caused by a surgeon, another physician, or some other health worker
• Infection control - measures are designed to break various links in the chain of infection
• Asepsis - preventing pathogens from reaching vulnerable spots
• Aseptic techniques - actions taken to prevent infection or break the chain of infection
• Medical asepsis - clean technique, its goal is to exclude pathogens
Categories of Disinfectants
a) Chemical sterilant - kill bacterial spores with prolonged exposure times
b) High-level disinfectants - kill all microbes, except large number of bacterial spores
c) Intermediate-level disinfectants - might kill mycobacteria, vegetative bacteria, most viruses and
most fungi, but not necessarily kill bacterial spores
d) Low level disinfectants - kill most vegetative bacteria, some fungi, and some viruses within 10
minutes of exposure.

• Surgical asepsis - is a sterile technique. Its goal is to exclude all microbes

• Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis - father of handwashing
• Standard precautions - are to be applied to the care of all patients in al healthcare settings, regardless
of the suspected or confirmed presence of infectious agents

DIAGNOSING INFECTIOUS DISEASE

• Clinical specimen - used to diagnose infectious disease, must be the highest possible quality
• Plasma - liquid portion of blood
• Serum - the liquid portion if the blood specimen is allowed to clot
• Bacteremia - the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream
• “-emia” - refers to the bloodstream
• Toxemia - toxins in the bloodstream
• Fungemia - fungi in the bloodstream
• Viremia - Virus in the bloodstream
• Parasitemia - parasites in the bloodstream
• Septicemia - chills fever, prostration, and the presence of bacteria or their toxins in the
bloodstream’
• Meningococcemia - specific type of septicemia, in which the bloodstreams contain Neisseria
meningitidis (also known as Meningococci)
• Leukemia - proliferation of abnormal white blood cells (leukocytes) in the blood

PATHOGENESIS OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE

• Path/pathogen - pertain to disease

4 periods or phase in the course of an infectious disease

1. Incubation Period - time that elapses between arrival of the pathogen and the onset of symptoms
2. Prodromal Period - patient feels “out of sorts” but is yet experiencing actual symptoms
of the disease
3. Period of illness - patient experiences the typical symptoms associated with that particular
disease
4. Convalescent period - patient recovers

• Systemic infection - if the infection has spread throughout the body

• Chronic disease - insidious onset and last a long time
• Acute disease - has a rapid onset, usually followed by a relative rapid recovery
• Subacute disease - disease that come on more suddenly than a chronic disease but less suddenly
than acute disease
• Symptoms of disease - is defined as some evidence of a disease is experienced or perceived by the
patient
• Symptomatic disease - disease in which the patient is experiencing symptoms
• Asymptomatic disease - disease that the patient is unaware of because he or she is not experiencing
symptoms
• Sign of disease - objective findings, such as laboratory test which are not perceived by the patient
 • Latent infections or disease - disease that is lying dormant not currently manifesting itself
• Virulent - pathogenic strains
• Avirulent - non - pathogenic strains of a particular species
• Virulence factors - physical attributes or properties of pathogen that enable them to escape various
host defense
• Receptors/integrins - molecules on host cells surface that pathogens are able to recognize and attach
to it
• Adhesins or ligands - molecules on pathogen’s surface that recognize and attach to the receptors on
a host cells surface
• Bacterial fimbriae - are virulence factor, in that they enable fimbriated (piliated bacteria) to adhere to
cells and tissue within the human body
• Obligate intracellular pathogens - pathogen must live within host cells to survive and multiply
• Intraleukocytic pathogens - live within monocytes, causing disease known as human monocytic
ehrlichiosis
• Ehrlichia spp. And anaplasma phagocytophilum - gram negative bacteria that closely resemble
rickettsia spp.
• Facultative intracellular pathogens - capable of both intracellular and extracellular

EXISTENCE PATHOGENS THAT ROUTINELY MULTIPLY WITHIN MACROPHAGES

CATEGORY OF EXAMPLES DISEASES
PATHOGENS
Viruses Herpes virus Genital herpes, herpes labialis (cold
sores or fever blisters)

HIV Aids
Rubeola virus Measles
Poxvirus Smallpox, monkeypox
Rickettsias Rickettsia rickettsii Rocky mountain spotted fever
Rickettsia prowazekii Epidemic (louse borne) typhus
Other bacteria Brucella spp. Brucellosis
Legionella pneumophila Legionellosis
Listeria monocytogenes Listeriosis
Mycobacterium leprae Hansen disease (leprosy)
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
Protozoa Leishmania spp. Leishmaniasis
Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis
Trypanosoma cruzi Chagas Disease (american
trypanosomiasis)
Fungi Cryptococcus neoformans Cryptococcosis

• Bacterial capsule - serve as antiphagocytic function

• Flagella - virulence factor, they enable flagellated bacteria to invade areas of the body

*the most important virulence factors are certain exoenzymes and toxins that pathogens produce
• Necrotizing Enzymes - are exoenzyme that cause destruction of cells and tissues
• Coagulase - virulence factor that causes clotting
• Kinases - “fibrinolysins” - exoenzymes that dissolve clots
• Streptokinase - kinase produced by streptococci
• Staphylokinase - kinase produce by staphylococci
• Hyaluronidase - “spreading factor”, enables pathogens to spread through connective tissue by breaking
down hyaluronic acid, the polysaccharide “cement” that holds tissue cells together
• Collagenase - enzyme that breaks down collagen
• Hemolysins - enzymes that damage red blood cells
• Lecithinase - exoenzyme that cause destruction of host cell membrane
• Endotoxins - component of the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria
• Pyrogen - substance that causes fever
• Shock - life threatening condition resulting from very low blood pressure and inadequate blood supply to
body tissues and organs especially kidney and brain
• Septic shock - type of shock that results from gram negative sepsis
• Exotoxins - poisonous proteins that are secreted by a variety of pathogens
• Neurotoxins - endotoxins that adversely affect the central nervous system
• Enterotoxins - exotoxins that adversely affect the gastrointestinal tract
• Exfoliative toxins - (epidermolytic toxin) - causes epidermal layers of skin to slough away leading to a
disease known as “scalded skin syndrome”
• Erythrogenic toxin - produced by some strain of S. pyogenes causes Scarlet fever
• Leukocidins - toxins that destroy white blood cells
• Diphtheria Toxin - produced by some strains of C. diphtheriae referred to as toxigenic strains

BACTERIA VIRULENCE FACTORS:

Bacterial Structures
● Flagella - enable bacteria to gain access to anatomic areas that nonmotile bacteria cannot reach;
may enable bacteria to “escape” from phagocytes
● Capsules - serve an antiphagocytic function
● Pili - enable bacteria to attach to surface
Enzymes
● Coagulase - enables bacteria to produce clots within which to “hide”
● Kinase - enable bacteria to dissolve clots
● Hyaluronidase - dissolves hyaluronic acid, enabling bacteria to penetrate deeper into tissues
● Lecithinase - destroys cell membrane
● Necrotizing enzymes - cause massive destruction of tissue
Toxins
● Endotoxins - released from the cell walls of gram-negative bacteria; causes fever and septic shock
● Exotoxins - produced within the cell, but then released from the cell
○ Neurotoxins - cause damage to the central nervous system; tetanospasmin and botulinal
toxin are examples
● Enterotoxins - cause gastrointestinal disease
● Clostridium difficile toxin B -the cytotoxin that causes pseudomembranous colitis
● Staphylococcus aureus - the toxin that causes most cases of toxic shock syndrome
● Exfoliative toxin - produced by some strains of S. aureus; causes scalded skin syndrome
● Erythrogenic toxin - produced by some strains of streptococcus pyogenes; causes scarlet fever
● Diphtheria toxin - produce\d by toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae; causes
diphtheria
● Leukocidins - cause the destruction of leukocytes

• Antigenic variations - a phenomenon when some pathogens periodically change their surface
antigens
• Molecular mimicry - pathogen cover their surface antigens with host proteins, so the pathogens
will not be recognized as being foreign
NON-SPECIFIC HOST MECHANISM
- ways in which the body protects itself from pathogens

3 lines of defense
- The first 2 lines of defense are non-specific, in the sense that they are directed against any foreign
substances that enter our bodies

• Antigen - foreign substance that stimulate production of specific antibodies “antibody - generating”
substance
• Antibodies - special protein that are usually produced in the body in response to the
presence of foreign substance
• Nonspecific host defense mechanism - general and serve to protect the body against many harmful
substances
1st line of defense
➢ Skin and mucous membrane (physical/ barriers)
- Intact skin and mucous membrane serves as nonspecific host defense mechanism by serving as
physical and mechanical barrier to pathogens
➢ Cellular and Chemical factor
- Dryness, acidity and temperature of the skin inhibit colonization and growth of pathogens,
perspiration flushes them away
• Sticky mucus - serves as nonspecific host defense mechanism by trapping pathogens.
It also contains toxic substance that can kill bacteria/inhibit their growth
• Lysozyme - destroys bacterial cell walls by degrading peptidoglycan
• Lactoferrin - protein that binds iron, a mineral that is required by all pathogens
• Lactoperoxidase - enzyme that produce superoxide radical, highly reactive forms of oxygen which are
toxic to bacteria
*The mucociliary covering on epithelial cells in the respiratory tract move trapped dust and microbes upward
toward the throat, where they are swallowed or expelled

• GI - Gastrointestinal
* Pathogens entering the GI tract are often killed by digestive enzymes or the acidity or alkalinity of different
anatomical regions
• Peristalsis and urination - serve to remove pathogens from the GI tract and urinary tract, respectively

The acidity of vaginal fluid usually inhibits colonization of the vagina by pathogens
• Microbial antagonism - when indigenous microflora prevents the establishment of arriving pathogens
• Superinfection - the overgrowth of pathogen or opportunistic pathogen present at the site when there
are decreased in the number of indigenous microflora of a particular anatomical site
• Colicin/ bacteriocins - proteins produced by some bacteria to kill other bacteria

• Second line of defense - transferrins, fever, interferons, the complement system

• Transferrin - host defense mechanism by depriving pathogens of Iron
• Pyrogen / pyrogenic substance - substances that stimulate the production of fever
- Fever can slow down the rate of growth of certain pathogens and can even kill especially fastidious
ones
• Interferons - small antiviral proteins produced by virus infected cells; they interfere with viral replication
- They are not virus specific, but they are host specific
• Complement system - not a single entity, but rather a group of approximately 30 different proteins that
are found in normal blood plasma. They interact with each other in a stepwise
manner known as the complement cascade
• Complement Cascade - nonspecific host defense mechanism that assist in the destruction of many
different pathogens
• Opsonization - process by which phagocytes is facilitated by the deposition of opsonins into the surface
of particles or cells
• Acute-phase proteins - plasma levels of molecules that increase rapidly in response to infection,
inflammation and tissue injury
• Cytokines - chemical mediators that release from many different types of cell in the human body
- They act as messenger, enabling cells to communicate with each other
• Inflammation - when the body responds to any local injury irritation, microbial invasion or bacterial toxins
by a complex series of events
- Primary purpose of the inflammatory response is to localize an infection, prevent the spread of
microbial invaders, neutralize toxins, and aid in the repair of damaged tissues
4 cardinal or main signs and symptoms of inflammation
- Swelling
- Redness
- Heat
- Pain
• Edema - swelling, edematous-swollen
• Vasodilation - increase in the diameter of capillaries leads to redness, heat and edema Inflammation
exudate - the accumulation of fluid, cells and cellular debris at the inflammation site
➢ Thick greenish yellow - containing many live and dead leukocytes known as purulent exudate or
pus
➢ Many inflammatory responses, such as arthritis or pancreatitis, there is no exudate and are no
invading microorganisms
➢ Bluish green - infection caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

• Pyrogenic substances (pyrogens) - fever producing substances

• Pyogenic - pus producing

3 major categories of leukocytes found in blood

- Monocytes, lymphocytes and granulocytes
• Phagocytes - phagocytic white blood cells
• Phagocytosis - the process by which phagocytes surround and engulf foreign material

• Granulocytes - named for the prominent cytoplasmic granules that they posses. Includes basophils,
eosinophils and neutrophils
• Macrophages - develop from a type of leukocyte called monocytes during the inflammatory response to
infections
• Wandering macrophages - those that leave the bloodstream and migrate to infected areas
• Fixed macrophages - remain within tissues and organs and serve to trap foreign debris
• Chemotaxis - direct migration of phagocytes
• Chemotactic agents - chemicals that cause chemotaxis
• Chemokines - chemotactic agent that are produced by the various cells of the human body
• Leukopenia - an abnormally low number of circulating leukocytes,
• Neutropenia - an abnormally low number of circulating neutrophils
 SPECIFIC HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS: AN INTRODUCTION TO IMMUNOLOGY

• Immunology - scientific study of the immune system and immune responses.

• Immune system - considered to be a specific host defense mechanism and the 3rd line of defense
• Antigens - molecules that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies
• Antibodies - proteins produced by the immune system in response to antigens Humoral Immunity -
always involves the production of antigen.
- After production, these humoral antibodies remain in blood plasma, lymph, and other body secretions
where they protect against the other body secretions where they protect against the specific
pathogen that stimulated their production
- Antibody - mediated immunity (AMI)
• CMI - cell-mediated immunity
- Involves various cell types, with antibodies only playing a minor role if any
• Immunity - a significant result of immune responses is to make a person resistant to certain infectious
disease
- Condition of being immune
• Acquired immunity - immunity that results from the active production or receipt of protective antibodies
during one’s lifetime
• Active acquired immunity - if the antibodies are usually produced within the person’s body; usually long
lasting
• Passive acquired immunity - the person receives antibodies that were produced by another person or
by more than one person, in some cases, by animal; usually temporary
• Natural Active Acquired Immunity - immunity that is acquired in response to the entry of a live
pathogen into the body
• Artificial active acquired immunity - immunity that is acquired in response to vaccines
• Natural Passive Acquired Immunity - Immunity that is acquired by fetus when it receives maternal
antibodies in utero or by an infant when it receives maternal
antibodies contained in colostrum
• Artificial passive acquired immunity - immunity that is acquired when a person receives antibodies
contained in antisera or gamma globulin
• Protective antibodies - antibodies that protect us from infection
• Vaccination - is defined as material that can artificially induced immunity after injection or in some cases,
ingestion of material (eg. Oral polio vaccine)
• Vaccination - deliberately exposes a person to a harmless version of a pathogen to stimulate the
person’s immune system to produce protective antibodies

Types of Available Vaccines

a. Attenuated Vaccine - vaccines made from weakened pathogen, mutant strains of pathogens that
have been derived from the virulent organisms
Attenuation - the process of weakening pathogens
- Should not be administered to immunosuppressed individuals, because even weakened
pathogens could cause disease in these persons
b. Inactivated Vaccines - vaccine made from pathogens that have been killed by heat or chemical
- Can be produced faster and more easily, but they are less effective than live vaccines,
because the dead cells are usually less effective and produce a shorter period of immunity
c. Subunit Vaccines - is one that uses antigenic portions of pathogen, rather than using the whole
pathogen
d. Conjugate Vaccines - conjugating bacterial capsular antigens to molecules that stimulate the
immune system to produce antibodies against the less antigenic capsular antigens.
e. Toxoid Vaccine - an exotoxin that has been inactivated by heat or chemicals. Toxoids can be injected
 safely to stimulate the production of antibodies that are capable of neutralizing the exotoxins of
pathogens.
Antitoxins - antibodies that neutralize toxins
Antiserum - a serum containing antitoxins
f. DNA Vaccines - (Gene Vaccine) - only experimental, a particular gene from a pathogen is inserted
into plasmids, and the plasmids are then injected into skin or muscle tissue
g. Autogenous Vaccine - is the one that has been prepared from bacteria isolated from a localized
infection, such as a staphylococcal boil.
- The pathogens are killed and then injected into the same person to induce production of more
antibodies

• Antigens - stimulate immune system to produce antibodies

• Antigenic Determinant or Epitopes - individual molecules that stimulate the production of antibodies
• Plasma cells - the cells that secrete antibodies, they are derived from the B cells
• Primary response - the initial response to antigen
• Secondary, anamnestic or memory response - subsequent response to the same antigen
• Antibody - an immunoglobulin having particular specificity for an antigen
• Antigen - antibody complex - the combination of an antibody and an antigen (Ag-Ab Complex, or immune
complex)
• Hybridomas - long lived cells that produce monoclonal antibodies
• Natural Killer Cells (NK cells) - kills foreign cells, host cells infected with viruses or bacteria, and tumor
cells
• Hypersensitivity - can be thought as an overly sensitive immune system

Types of Hypersensitivity Reactions

I. Immediate type Hypersensitivity reaction - occur from within a few minute to 24 hours after contact
with particular antigen))
a. Type 1 (anaphylactic responses) - classing allergic response like hay fever and food allergies
b. Type 2 (cytotoxic reactions) - involve damage of to or death of body cells
c. Type 3 - immune complex reactions - damage to tissues and organs is initiated by antigen-antibody
complexes
II. Delayed Type Hypersensitivity - reactions usually take 24 to 48 hours or longer to manifest themselves
d. Type 4 - cell-mediated reaction - antibodies play minor role, if any; an example is positive TB skin test

• Atopic Persons - people who are prone to allergies

• Allergens - antigens that cause allergic reaction
• Localized anaphylaxis - usually involve mast cell degranulation. (Hay fever, asthma and hives)
• Systemic Anaphylaxis - can lead to anaphylactic shock, which, if not treated quickly and properly can
lead to death
* Systemic is more severe than localized)
• Autoimmune Disease - results when a person’s immune system attacks that person’s body tissues as
if they were non self or foreign
• Immunosuppressed - when a person’s immune system is not functioning properly
• Antiserum - reagent used to detect antigens contains antibodies
OVERVIEW OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
• Infectious disease - diseases that caused by pathogens, following colonization of some body site by
Pathogens.

Infectious Diseases of the Skin

• Epidermis - the superficial portion of the skin
• Dermis - the inner layer of skin, containing blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, and nerve ending,
glands, and hair follicles.
• Dermatitis - inflammation of the skin
• Sebaceous Gland - glands in the dermis that usually open into hair follicles and secrete an oily
substance called sebum.
• Folliculitis - inflammation of a hair follicle, the sac that contains a hair shaft
• Sty (stye) - inflammation of sebaceous gland that opens into a follicle of an eyelash
• Furuncle - a localized pyogenic infection of the skin, usually resulting from a coalescence of
furuncles.
• Macule - a surface lesion that is neither raised nor depressed, such as lesions of measles
• Papule - a surface lesion that is firm and raised, such as the lesions of chicken pox
• Vesicle - a blister or small fluid-fluid sac, such as is seen in chickenpox and shingles
• Pustule - a pus-filled surface lesion

Infectious Diseases in of the Ear

• Otitis media - infection of the middle ear
• Otitis externa - infection of the outer ear canal

Infectious Diseases of the Eye

• Conjunctiva - the thin, tough lining that covers the inner wall of the eyelid and the sclera (the white
eye)
• Conjunctivitis - an infection or inflammation of the conjunctiva
• Keratitis - an infection or inflammation of the cornea - the domed covering over the iris and lens
• Keratoconjunctivitis - an infection that involves both the cornea and conjunctivitis

Infectious Diseases of the Respiratory System

• Bronchitis - inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the bronchial tubes; most commonly
caused by respiratory viruses.
- Bronchopneumonia - combination of bronchitis and pneumonia
• Epiglottis - inflammation of the epiglottis; may cause respiratory obstruction, frequently caused by
Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib)
• Laryngitis - inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx
• Pharyngitis - inflammation of the mucous membrane and underlying tissue of the pharynx; commonly
referred to as “sore throat”
• Strep Throat - caused by Streptococcus Pyogenes
• Pneumonia - inflammation of one or both lungs, alveolar sacs become filled with exudate,
inflammatory cells and fibrin.
- Most pneumonia is caused by bacteria and viruses, but it can also be caused by fungi and
protozoa
• Sinusitis - inflammation of the lining of one or more of the paranasal sinuses.
- Most common causes are the bacteria, Streptococcus pneumoniae and H. influenzae. Less common
causes are the bacteria S. pyogenes, Moraxella catarrhalis, and staphylococcus aureus.
-
Infectious Diseases of the Oral Region
• Dental caries - tooth decay or cavities.
- Most common cause of tooth decay is S. mutans
• Gingivitis - inflammation of the gingiva (gums)
• Periodontitis - inflammation of the periodontium, in severe cases, teeth loosen and fall out
• Periodontal diseases - gingivitis, periodontitis and trench mouth

Infectious Diseases of the Gastrointestinal Tract

• Colitis - inflammation of the colon
• Diarrhea - an abnormally frequent discharge of semi-solid or fluid fecal matter
• Dysentery - frequently watery stools, accompanied by abdominal pain, fever and dehydration.
Maybe caused by various pathogens including bacteria (shigella spp. - bacillary
dysentery)
• Enteritis - inflammation of the intestines usually referring to the small intestine
• Gastritis - inflammation of the mucosal lining of the stomach
• Hepatitis - inflammation of the liver, usually the result of viral infection, but can be cause by toxic
agents

Infectious diseases of the Genitourinary System

• Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) - maybe caused by any of a variety of microorganisms, introduced by
poor personal hygiene, sexual intercourse, the insertion of catheters,
and some other means.
• Cystitis - inflammation of the urinary bladder, most common type of UTI
- The most common cause is Escherichia Coli, other common cause are species of Klebsiella,
proteus, enterobacter, pseudomona and enterococcus as well as staphylococcus
saprophyticus, staphylococcus epidermidis and candida albicans
• Nephritis - general term referring to the inflammation of the kidneys
• Pyelonephritis - is the inflammation of the renal parenchyma
• Ureteritis - inflammation of one or both ureters. Usually caused by the spreading of infection upward
from the urinary bladder or downward from the kidneys
• Urethritis - inflammation of the urethra. Pathogens are usually sexually transmitted.
- The common cause is the bacterium. Chlamydia trachomitis, but neisseria gonorrhoeae,
ureaplasma and mycoplasma can also be the cause
• Prostatitis - inflammation of the prostate gland. Most often, a prostatitis is not an infectious disease

Infection of the Genital Tract

• Bartholinitis - inflammation of the bartholin ducts in women
• Cervicitis - inflammation of the cervix (that part of the uterus that opens into the vagina)
• Endometritis - inflammation of the endometrium (the inner layer of the uterine wall)
• Epididymitis - inflammation of the epididymis (an elongated structure connected to the testis)
• Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) - inflammation of the fallopian tubes; also known as salpingitis
• Vaginitis - inflammation of the vagina.
- Most common cause C. albicans ( a yeast) , T. Vaginalis ( a protozoan), and a mixture of bacteria
• Sexually transmitted disease (STD) of the genital tract
- Formerly called venereal disease (VD)
- Includes any infections transmitted by sexual activities
- Not only affect genital tract, but can also involve the skin, mucous membranes, blood lymphatic and
digestive systems, and many other anatomic sites
● AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - human immunodeficiency virus
● Chlamydial and herpes infections, gonorrhea, and syphilis
Infectious Disease of the Circulatory System
• Endocarditis - inflammation of the endocardium - the endothelial membrane that lines the cavities
of the heart
• Myocarditis - inflammation of the myocardium - the muscular walls of the heart
• Pericarditis - inflammation of the pericardium - the membranous sac around the heart
• Bacteremia - the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream
• Transient bacteria - the temporary presence of bacteria in the blood
• Lymphadenitis - inflamed and swollen lymph nodes
• Lymphadenopathy - diseased lymph nodes
• Lymphangitis - inflamed lymphatic vessels

Infectious Disease if the Central Nervous System

• Encephalitis - inflammation of the brain
• Myelitis - inflammation of the spinal cord
• Encephalomyelitis - inflammation of the brain and spinal cord
• Meningitis - inflammation of the brain and spinal cord
• Meningoencephalitis - inflammation of the brain and meninges

MULTIPLE CAUSES OF CNS INFECTIONS

• Meningitis
- Can be caused by the ingestion of poisons, the ingestion of drugs, a reaction to a vaccine, or a
pathogen

• Viral meningitis “aseptic meningitis”

- May be caused by a virus that specifically infects the meninges, or may be a result of an immune
reaction to a virus that does not specifically infect the brain
- Can include enteroviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, mumps virus, arboviruses, poliovirus,
adenoviruses, measles virus, herpes simplex and varicella virus

• Bacterial Meningitis
- H. influenzae - the primary cause for children
- Neisseria Meningitidis - the primary cause for adolescents
- S. pneumoniae - primary cause for elderly
- Less common causes - S. aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, salmonella and klebsiella

• Parasites
- Free living amoebae

Opportunistic Infections
- Refers to the infections that normally would not occur in healthy, immunocompetent individuals or
would, at most, cause only mild infection
• Aspergillosis and other mould infection - can become systemic infection in immunosuppressed
individuals
• Candidiasis - a yeast infection of the month (thrush), throat, or vagina; can become a systemic
infection in immunosuppressed individuals
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections - can cause an eye disease that can lead to blindness
• Herpes Simplex Virus Infections - the cause of oral herpes (cold sores) and genital herpes, which
can occur in immunocompetent individuals, but are more
frequent and more severe in immunosuppressed individuals
• Malaria - a parasitic infection that occurs in immunocompetent individuals, but is more common and
more severe in immunosuppressed individuals
 • Mycobacterium avium complex - a bacterial infection that can cause recurring fevers, problems
with digestion, and serious weight loss
• Pneumocytis pneumonia - a fungal infection that can cause fatal pneumonia; prior to newer and
more aggressive treatment, was once that major killer of AIDS patients
• Toxoplasmosis - “toxo” - a protozoal infection of the eyes and brain
• Tuberculosis (TB) - a bacterial lower respiratory infection, can cause meningitis; occurs in
immunocompetent individuals, but is more common and more severe in
immunosuppressed individuals

VIRAL INFECTIONS

Viral Infections of the Skin

• Chickenpox and Shingles
- Are caused by varicella-zoster virus; a herpes virus, that is also known as human herpes virus 3; a
DNA virus
- Infected human serves as reservoirs
- Transmission: direct contact or droplet or airborne spread of vesicle fluid or secretions of the
respiratory system
a) Chickenpox - “varicella”
a. Acute generalized viral infection, with fever and skin rash
b. Usually mild, self-limiting disease, but can be severely damaging to fetus
c. Serious complication include pneumonia, secondary encephalitis
b) Shingels “Herpes Zoster”
a. Reactivation of the varicella virus, often the result of immunosuppression.
- Inflammation of sensory ganglia of cutaneous sensory nerves, producing fluid-filled blisters,
pain and paresthesia

• German Measles (Rubella)

- Caused by rubella virus, an RNA virus in the family of Togaviridae
- Droplet spread or contact with nasopharyngeal secretions of infected people
- Mild febrile viral disease. Fine pinking, flat rash begins in 1 or 2 days after the onset of symptoms
- The rash starts from face and neck to the trunk, arms, and legs, milder that hard measles

• Measles (Hard Measles, Rubeola)

- Caused by measles virus (also known as Rubeola virus); RNA virus in the family of Paramyxoviridae
- Airborne transmission occurs by droplet spread, direct contact with nasal or throat secretions of
infected persons, or with articles freshly soiled with nose and throat secretions
- Acute and highly communicable viral disease with fever conjunctivitis, cough, photosensitivity, koplik
spots are small red spots
- The rash begins on the face between 3 and 7 and the becomes generalized

• Monkeypox
- Caused by monkeypox virus, which is the same group of viruses (orthopoxviruses) as smallpox virus
(variola virus) and the virus used in the smallpox vaccine (vaccinia virus)
- Infected animals serve as reservoirs.
- Transmission: animal bite, contact with infected animal’s blood, body fluids or rash
- Rare viral disease that causes fever, headache, muscle aches, backache, lymphadenitis, malise
(fatigue), and a rash
- Milder disease that smallpox, and is rarely fatal

• Smallpox
- Caused by 2 strains of variola virus: variola minor and variola major; variola virus is a double-stranded
DNA virus in the genus orthopoxvirus, family poxviridae
 - Person to person transmission via respiratory tract (droplet spread) or skin inoculation
- Systemic viral infection with fever, malaise, headache, prostration, severe backache, a characteristic
skin rash
- Can become severe, with bleeding into the skin and mucous membranes, followed by death

• Warts
- Are caused by at least 70 types of human papillomaviruses (HPV); genus papillomavirus within the
family papovaviridae. They are DNA Viruses
- Transmission: direct contact; genital warts - sexually transmitted
- Consist of many varieties of skin and mucous membrane lesions, including common warts, venereal
warts and plantar warts; most are harmless, but some can become cancerous

Varicella Virus - type of herpes virus - is the cause of chickenpox

Variola virus - the cause of smallpox
Vaccinia Virus - the cause of cowpox, used to make vaccine against smallpox

Viral Infections of the Eyes

• Adenoviral Conjunctivitis and Keratoconjunctivitis
- Are caused by various types of adenoviruses.
- Herpes simplex and varicella-zoster viruses can also cause keratoconjunctivitis
- Transmission: direct contact with eye secretions or contact with contaminated surfaces, instruments
and solutions
- Acute viral disease of one or both eyes, associated with inflammation of the conjunctiva, edema
eyelid and periorbital tissue, pain, photophobia, and blurred vision

• Hemorrhagic Conjunctivitis
- Caused by adenoviruses and enteroviruses
- Transmission: direct or indirect contact, with discharge from infected eyes
- Adenovirus transmission may be associated with poorly chlorinated swimming pools
- Viral disease has sudden onset, with redness, swelling, and pain in one or both eyes
- Small, discrete subconjunctival hemorrhages may enlarge to form confluent subconjunctival
hemorrhages.

Viral Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract

• Viral gastroenteritis (Viral Enteritis, Viral Diarrhea)
- Maybe an endemic or epidemic illness in infants, children and adults
- Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, myalgia, headache, malise and low-
grade fever
- Pathogens: most common viruses infecting children in their first years of life are adenoviruses,
astroviruses, caliciviruses, and rotaviruses; those infecting children and adults include norovirus-like
viruses and rotaviruses
- Reservoirs: infected humans, contaminated water and shellfish
- Transmission: fecal - oral route, airborne transmission, contact with contaminated fomites

• Viral Hepatitis
- Inflammation of the liver
- Can have many causes, including alcohol, drugs, viruses
- Viral hepatitis can be cause by about dozen different viruses, including Hepatitis A Virus, B Virus, C,
Virus, D, E, G, hepatitis GB virus A (HGBV-A) HGBV-B, HGBV - C
- Can also occur as a result of viral disease such as infectious mononucleosis, yellow fever, and
cytomegalovirus infection

• HAV - type A hepatitis

- Also known as HAV infection, infection hepatitis and endemic hepatitis
- HAV, a nonenveloped linear ssRNA virus in the genus Hepatovirus, family picornaviridae
- Transmission: person to person, fecal-oral transmission, infected food handlers, fecally contaminated
 foods and water
- Abrupt onset; varies in clinical severity from a mild illness lasting 1-2 weeks to a severe, disabling
disease lasting several months, no chronic infection

• HBV - Type B hepatitis - Serum Hepatitis

- HBV, Circular dsDNA virus, genus: orthohepadnavirus, Family: Hepadnaviridae; the only DNA virus
that causes hepatitis
- Transmission: sexual or household contact with infected person, mother to infant before or during
birth, injected drug use, tattooing, needlesticks and other type of healthcare associated transmission
- Usually has insidious (gradual) onset; severity ranges from inapparent cases to fulminating, fatal
cases; chronic infection occur; may lead to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma

• HCV - Type C Hepatitis - Non A, non B hepatitis

- HCV, an enveloped linear ssRNA virus, genus: hepacivirus, family: flaviviridae
- Transmission: parenterally transmitted (blood transfusion, eg.); rarely sexually transmitted

• HDV - Type D Hepatitis - Delta Virus

- HDV, an enveloped, ssRNA viral satellite (a defective RNA virus); genus: Deltavirus
- Transmission: exposure to infected blood and body fluids; contaminated needles, sexual
transmission; coinfection with HBV is necessary

• HEV - Type E Hepatitis

- HEV, spherical nonenveloped, ssRNA virus, genus:calcivirus, family: calciviridae
- Transmission: fecal-oral transmission; primary via fecally contaminated drinking water, also from
person to person

• HGV - Type G Hepatitis

- HGV, linear, ssRNA virus, genus:hepacivirus, family: flaviviridae
- Parenteral

Viral Sexually Transmitted Disease

• Anogenital HerpesViral Infection (Genital Herpes)
- Usually caused by HSV-2, but is occasionally caused by HSV -1
- Transmission: direct sexual contact, or oral-genital, oral-anal, or anal-genital contact, during
presence of lesions, mother to fetus or mothe to neonate transmission occurs during pregnancy and
birth
- Herpes simplex infections are characterized by a localized primary lesion, latency and tendency to
localized recurrence.

• Genital Warts (genital papillomatosis, condyloma acumiinatum)

- Caused by HPVs of the papocaciriddae family of DNA viruses (Human wart viruses).
- Transmission: direct contact, sexually transmitted, through breaks in skin or mucous membranes, or
from mother to neonate during birth

Viral infection of the Lower Respiratory Tract

• Acute, Febrile, Viral Respiratory tract
- Can be caused by one of many viruses, including parainfluenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus
(RSV), adenovirus, rhinoviruses, certain coronaviruses, coxsackieviruses, and echoviruses, RSV is
the major viral respiratory tract pathogen during infancy, may cause pneumonia, croup, bronchitis,
otitis media, and death
- Transmission: direct oral contact or by droplets, indirectly via handkerchiefs, eating utensils. Or other
fomites, or for some other viruses, the fecal- oral route

• Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS)

- At least 5 hantaviruses (sin nombre, bayou black creek canal, new york-1, monongahela)
 - Reservoirs: rodents, including deer mice, pack rats, and chipmunks
- Transmission: inhalation of aerosolized rodent feces, urine, and saliva; person to person
transmission does not occur

• Influenza (Flu)
- Caused by influenza virus types A, B, C.; single stranded RNA viruses, Family: Orthomyxovirus;
influenza A- cause severe symptoms and associated with pandemics
- Reservoirs: infected humans, pigs and birds
- Transmission: airborne spread and direct contact

• Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)

- caused by avian influenza virus type A
- Reservoirs: infected wild and domesticated birds
- Transmission: bird to human transmission via contact with infected poultry or surfaces that have
been contaminated with excretions from infected birds; person to person are relatively rare

• Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)

- Caused by SARS associated coronavirus
- Transmission: respiratory droplets or by touching the mouth, nose or eye after touching contaminated
surface or objects

Viral Infections of the Circulatory System

• HIV infection and AIDS
- AIDS is caused by HIV, single stranded RNA viruses in the family Retroviridae
- Transmission: direct sexual contact (homo and heterosexual); sharing of contaminated needles and
syringes by inntravenous drug abusers; transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products;
mother to child, breastfeeding, transplantation of tissues and organs from infected person,
needlestick, scalpel and broken glass injuries
- Acute symptoms usually occur within 7 weeks to several months after infection

• Infectious Mononucleosis (kissing disease)

- The etiologic agent is Epstein Barr virus (EBV), also known as Human herpes virus, DNA virus,
family: Herpesviridae; it is also known as oncogenic

• Oncogenic - cancer causing virus

- Acute viral disease that may be asymptomatic or may be characterized by fever, sore throat,
lymphadenopathy and fatigue, splenomegaly

• Mumps (infectious parotitis)

- Caused by mumps virus, RNA virus, genus: Rubulavirus, Family: Paramyxoviridae
- Transmission: droplet spread and direct contact with saliva of an infected person
- Swelling and tenderness of salivary gland

• Viral hemorrhagic disease

- Caused by many different viruses, including dengue virus, yellow fever virus, crimean-congo
hemorrhagic fever virus, lassa virus, ebola virus, and marburg virus
- Reservoirs: infected humans, african green monkeys (marburg virus)
- Transmission: person to person via direct contact with infected blood, secretions, internal organs, or
seman, or by needlestick

Viremia - presence of virus in the bloodstream

Viral load - number of viruses in the bloodstream
Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System
• Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
- Caused by lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, family: Arenaviridae
- Reservoirs: infected rodents, common house mice
- Transmission: human become infected following exposure to mouse urine, droppings, saliva or
nesting materials; virus can enter broken skin, though nose, the eyes or mouth; or via bite of an
infected rodent

• Poliomyelitis (polio, infantile paralysis)

- Caused by polioviruses, RNA viruses, family: Picornaviridae
- Transmission: person to person, primarily via the fecal-oral route, also throat secretions

• Rabies
- Caused by rabies virus, bullet shaped RNA virus, family: Rhabdoviridae
- Reservoirs: wild and domesticated mammals, including dogs, foxes, coyotes.
Wolves, jackals, skunks, raccoons, mongooses, and bats
- Transmission: via the bite of rabid animal, airborne transmission from bats in caves also occur;
person to person transmission is rare

• Viral meningitis
- Caused by enteroviruses, other cause includes coxsackie viruses, arboviruses, measles virus,
mumps virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and adenoviruses, leptospirosis can also cause
aseptic meningitis

Viral Encephalitis (arthropod - borne viral encephalitis)

Eastern Equine encephalitis (EEE)
- EEE virus, an RNA virus, family: togaviridae
- Reservoirs: birds, horses
- Transmission: aedesm coquillettidia, culex, and culiseta mosquitoes

California Encephalitis
- California encephalitis virus, RNA virus, family: bunyaviridae
- Reservoirs: rabbits, rodents
- Transmission: aedes and culex mosquitoes

La Crosse Encephalitis
- La crosse encephalitis Virus, RNA virus, Family: bunyaviridae
- Reservoirs: chipmunks, squirrels
- Transmission: aedes mosquitoes

St. Louis Encephalitis

- St. louis encephalitis virus, RNA Virus, family: flaviviridae
- Reservoirs: birds
- Transmission: culex mosquitoes

West nile encephalitis

- West nile encephalitis virus, RNA virus, family: flaviviridae
- Birds, perhaps horses
- Culex mosquitoes

Western equine encephalitis (WEE)

- WEE virus, RNA virus, family: togaviridae
- Birds, horses,
- Aedes and culex mosquitoes
SOME MAJOR VIRAL INFECTIONS OF HUMAN

DISEASE VIRAL PATHOGEN

AIDS HIV

Avian Influenza (Bird flu) Avian Influenza viruses

chickenpox Varicella-zoster virus

Cold sores (fever blisters) HSVs

Genital herpes HSVs

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome hantaviruses

Infectious mononucleosis Epstein-barr virus

influenza Influenza viruses

monkeypox Monkeypox virus

mumps Mumps virus

poliomyelitis poliovirus

rabies Rabies virus

Rubella (german measles) Rubella virus

Rubeola (hard measles) Rubeola Virus

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) SARS- associated coronavirus

smallpox Variola virus

Swine flu Swine flu viruses

Viral hepatitis Various hepatitis viruses

warts papillomaviruses

West nile virus encephalitis West nile virus

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

Bacterial Skin Infections of the Skin

• Acne
- Etiologic agents: propionibacterium acnes and Propionibacterium spp., all are which anaerobic,
gram-positive bacilli
- Reservoir: infected humans
- Transmission: probably not transmissible

• Anthrax
- Etiologic agents: B. anthracis, an encapsulated, spore-forming, gram-positive bacillus
- Reservoir: anthrax infected animals, spores that may be present in soil, animal hair, wool, animal
skins and hides, and products made from them
- Transmission: via entry of endospores through breaks in skin, inhalation of spores, or ingestion of
bacteria in contaminated meat
- Pulmonary anthrax is not transmitted from person to person
 • Gas gangrene
- Pathogens: most common cause Clostridium perfringens, other cause: clostridium spp.
- Reservoirs: soil is the primary reservoir
- Transmission: humans become infected when soil containing clostridial spores enters, person to
person transmission does not occur

• Leprosy
- Pathogens: Mycobacterium leprae, an acid-fast bacillus
- Reservoirs: Infected humans
- Transmission: may gain entrance through respiratory system or broken skin

• Staphylococcal Skin Infections (Folliculitis, furuncles, carbuncles, abscess, impetigo, impetigo of

the newborn, scalded skin syndrome)
- Pathogens: most are caused by S. aureus, a gram positive coccus, impetigo may be caused by
Streptococcus pyogenes,
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: persons with draining lesions or any purulent discharge are the most common sources
of epidemic spread. Transmission occurs via direct contact with a person having a purulent lesion or
is an asymptomatic carrier

Viral and Bacterial Ear Infections

• Otitis Externa (External Otitis, Ear Canal infection, Swimmer’s Ear)
- Pathogens: escherichia coli, P. aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, and staphylococcus aureus. Fungi,
such as aspergillus spp. Are less common causes of otitis extrema
- Reservoirs: Contaminated Swimming pool water, sometimes indigenous microfloral
- Transmission: articles inserted into the ear canal

• Otitis Media (Middle Ear Infection)

- Pathogens: streptococcus pneumoniae, haemophilus influenzae and moraxella catarrhalis. Less
common bacterial causes include streptococcus pyogenes and S. aureus. Viral causes include
measles, virus, parainfluenza virus and RSV
- Reservoirs and Transmission: otitis media is probably not communicable

Bacterial Infections of the Eye

• Bacterial Conjunctivitis (Pink Eye)
- Pathogens: Haemophilus influenzae subsp. Aegyptius and streptococcus pneumoniae
- Reservoirs: Infected humans
- Transmission: Human to human transmission, via contact with eye and respiratory discharges,
contaminated fingers, facial tissues, clothing, eye makeup, eye medications, ophthalmic instruments,
and contact lens-wetting and lens cleaning agents

• Chlamydial conjunctivitis (Inclusion conjunctivitis, paratrachoma)

- Pathogens: Chlamydia Trachomatis
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: contact with genital discharges of infected people, contaminated fingers to eye
infection in newborns cia an infected birth canal or non-chlorinated swimming pools

• Trachoma (Chlamydia Keratoconjunctivitis)

- Pathogens: caused by certain serotypes (serovars) of C. trachomatis
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: direct contact with infectious ocular of nasal secretions or contaminated articles, also
spread by flies serving as mechanical vector
 • Gonococcal Conjunctivitis (Gonorrheal Ophthalmia Neonatorum)
- Pathogens: caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a kidney bean shaped, gram negative diplococcus,
- Reservoirs: infected humans, infected birth canals
- Transmission: via contact with infected birth canal during delivery. Adult infection can result from
finger to eye contact with infectious genital secretions

Bacterial Infections of the Respiratory Tract

Bacterial Infections of the Upper Respiratory Tract

• Diphtheria
- Pathogens: caused by toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae, pleomorphic, gram - positive
bacilli
- Reservoirs:infected humans
- Transmission:airborne droplets, direct contact, and contaminated fomites

• Streptococcal pharyngitis (Strep Throat)

- Pathogens: Streptococcus Pyogenes
- Reservoirs:infected humans
- Transmission:human to human by direct contact, usually hands; aerosol droplets; secretions from
patients and nasal carriers, and contaminated dust, lint, or handkerchief; contaminated milk and milk
products that have been associated with foodborne outbreaks of streptococcal pharyngitis

Infections of the Lower Respiratory Tract Having Multiple Causes

• Pneumonia
- Pathogens: may be cause by gram positive or gram negative bacteria, mycoplasmas, chlamydias,
viruses, fungi or protozoa
- Community Acquired Pneumonia: Streptococcus Pneumoniae most common, other bacterial
pathogens include Haemophilus influenzae, staphylococcus aureus, klebsiella pneumoniae
- Reservoirs: infected humans, infected psittacine birds in psittacosis, soil and bird droppings in
histoplasmosis and cryptococcosis
- Transmission: depending on the pathogen involved, by droplet inhalation, direct oral contact, contact
with contaminated hands and fomites, or inhalation of yeast and fungal spores
-
Bacterial Infections of the Lower Respiratory Tract
• Legionellosis (Legionnaires Disease, Pontiac Fever)
- Pathogens: Legionella pneumophila, other legionella spp.
- Reservoirs: water source, such as ponds, lakes and creeks; hot water and air conditioning system,
cooling towers, and evaporative condensers, and likes
- Transmission: result of aerosols of legionella spp. That has been produced by vegetable misting
devices in supermarkets. Not transmitted from person to person

• Mycoplasma Pneumonia (Primary Atypical Pneumonia)

- Pathogens: Mycoplasma pneumoniae
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: droplet inhalation or direct contact with an infected person, or articles of contaminated
with nasal secretions, or sputum from an ill, coughing patient

• Tuberculosis
- Pathogens: Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Reservoirs: infected humans (primary)rarely, primates, cattle and other infected mammals
- Transmission: airborne droplets produced by infected people during coughing, sneezing, and even
talking, singing; usually
 • Whooping Cough (pertussis)
- Pathogens: Bordetella pertussis
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: droplets produced by coughing

Bacterial Infections of Gastrointestinal Tract

• Bacterial Gastritis and Gastric Ulcer
- Pathogens: H. pylori
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: via ingestion, oral - oral or fecal - oral transmission

• Campylobacter enteritis
- Pathogens: Campylobacter jejuni, and less common, campylobacter coli.
Campylobacter coli
- Reservoirs: animals including poultry, cattle sheep, swine, rodents, birds, kittens, puppies, and other
pets
- Transmission: ingestion of contaminated food, raw milk, or water; or contact with infected pets or
farm animals; or contaminated cutting boards

• Cholera
- Pathogens: Vibrio cholerae
- Reservoirs: infected humans, aquatic resources
- Transmission: fecal- oral route, contact with feces or vomitus of infected people, ingestion of fecally
contaminated water or foods, or mechanical transmission by flies

• Salmonellosis
- Pathogens: Salmonella enterica, salmonella typhimurium, and S. enterica spp.
- Reservoirs: wide range of wild and domestic animals, and farm animals
- Transmission: ingestion of contaminated food, unpasteurized milk, meat, poultry, raw fruits and
vegetables, fecal oral transmission from person to person

• Typhoid Fever (Enteric Fever)

- Pathogens: Salmonella typhi, less severe infection is caused by salmonella paratyphi
- Reservoirs:infected humans rarely domestic animals
- Transmission:e fecal -oral route. Food and water contaminated by feces or urine of patients or
carriers; oysters harvested from fecally contaminated waters; fecally contaminated fruits, vegetables,
or from feces to food by mechanical transmission by flies

• Shigellosis (Bacillary Dysentery)

- Pathogens: Shingella dysenteriae, shingella flexneri, shingella booydi and shingella soneii
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: direct and indirect fecal oral transmission from patients or carriers; fecally
contaminated food, milk and drinking water. Flies can mechanically transfer organisms from latrines
to food

• Clostridium difficile
- associated diseases
- Pathogens: C. difficile
- Reservoirs: member of indigenous microflora
Enterovirulent Escherichia Coli
• Enterohemorrhagic E. Coli (EHEC) Diarrhea
- Pathogens: EHEC
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: fecal - oral route, inadequate cooked, fecally contaminated beef.
Unpasteurized milk,person to person contact, or fecally contaminated water

• Enterotoxigenic E. Coli (ETEC) diarrhea (traveler’s diarrhea)

- Pathogens: E. Coli (ETEC)
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: fecal - oral route, ingestion of fecally contaminated food or water

Bacterial Sexually Transmitted Diseases

• Genital Chlamydia Infections, Genital Chlamydias
- Pathogens: Caused by serotypes of C. trachomatis, less common ureaplasma ereolyticum
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: direct sexual contact, or mother to neonate during birth.

• Gonorrhea
- Pathogens: Neisseria gonorrhoea
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: direct mucous membrane contact, usually sexual contact, adult to child, and mother
to neonate during birth

• Syphilis
- Pathogens: Treponema palladium
- Reservoirs: Infected humans
- Transmission: direct contact with lesions, body secretions, mucous membranes, blood, semen,
saliva and vaginal discharges of infected people, usually during sexual contact; blood transfusion, or
trans placentally from mother to fetus

Bacterial Infections of the Circulatory System

Rickettsia and Ehrlichia Disease of the Cardiovascular System
• Rocky mountain spotted fever (tick borne typhus fever)
- Pathogens: Rickettsia Rickettsii
- Reservoirs: infected ticks on dogs, rodents and other animals
- Transmission: bite of infected tick, person to person transmission rarely occurs - blood transfusion

• Endemic Typhus Fever

- Pathogens: Rickettsia Typhi
- Reservoirs: Rats, mice, possibly other mammals, and infected rat, fleas
- Transmission: Rat to flea to human

• Epidemic Typhus Fever

- Pathogens: Rickettsia prowazekii
- Reservoirs: Infected human and body lice
- Transmission: human to louse human; infected lice defecate while feeding, and the rickettsiae in the
feces are rubbed into the bite wound or other superficial abrasions

• Erlichiosis
- Pathogens: Ehrlichia chaffeensis - invades human monocytes, anaplasma phagocytophilum -
invades human granulocytes, canine species - ehrlichia ewingii
- Reservoirs: unknown
- Transmission: via tick bite
Other Bacterial Infections of the Cardiovascular System
• Lyme Disease
- Pathogens: Borrelia burgdorferi
- Reservoirs: Ticks, rodents, and mammals
- Transmission: via tick bite, person to person transmission does not occur

• Plague
- Pathogens: Yersinia pestis
- Reservoirs: Wild rodents and their fleas and rarely rabbits, wild carnivores and domestic cats
- Transmission: via flea bite; my also occur as a result by handlung tissues of infected animals, as well
as droplet transmission from person to person (in pneumonic plague)

• Tularemia
- Pathogens: Francisella tularensis
- Reservoirs: Wild animal and some domestic animals and hard ticks
- Transmission: via tick bite; ingestion of contaminated meat or drinking water, entry of organisms into
a wound while skinning infected animals, inhalation of dust, or animal bites. Person to person
transmission does not occur

Bacterial infection of the central nervous system Botulism - Microbial intoxication

• Listeriosis
- Pathogens: Listeria monocytogenes
- Reservoirs: Soil, water, mud, silage, infected mammals, and soft cheeses
- Transmission: ingestion of raw or contaminated milk, soft cheese, or vegetables; from mother to fetus
in utero or during passage through an infected birth canal

• Tetanus (Lock Jaw)

- Pathogens: Clostridium tetani
- Reservoirs: Soil contaminated with human, horse or other animal feces
- Transmission: introduced into a puncture wound, burn or needlestick by contaminated with soil, dust,
or feces
SOME HUMAN DISEASE CAUSED BY ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
DISEASE ANAEROBE(S) THAT CAUSE (S) THE DISEASE

Acne Propionibacterium acnes

Actinomycosis Various actinomyces spp. And propionibacterium

propionicus

Acute necrotizing ulcerative Fusobacterium necrophorum and anaerobic spirochetes

gingivitis (also known as Vincent
angina and trench mouth)

Botulism Clostridium botulinum

Brain abscess Most often caused by bacteroides and fusobacterium spp.

And anaerobic gram - negative cocci; often polymicrobial

Gas gangrene (myonecrosis) Clostridium perfringens (usually), clostridium novyi,

clostridium septicum

Gynecologic and obstetric Many different types of anaerobes, including bacteroides

infectious processes spp., clostridia and anaerobic gram- positive cocci

Intra abdominal infectious Many different types of anaerobes, including bacteroides,

processes fusobacterium spp., C. Perfringens, and other clostridia,
anaerobic gram positive cocci

Oral/dental infectious processes Many different types of anaerobes, including

(periodontitis) porphyromonas, wolinella, and fusobacterium spp. And
anaerobic gram positive cocci

Liver abscess Many different types of anaerobes, including bacteroides,

fusobacterium, clostridium and actinomyces

Perineal and perirectal infectious Many different types of anaerobes, including bacteroides,
processes fusobacterium, clostridium, eubacterium spp. Fusobacterium
nucleatum and anaerobic gram-positive cocci

Peritonitis Many different types of anaerobes, including bacteroides

and clostridium spp., F. necrophorum and anaerobic gram -
positive cocci

Pleuropulmonary infectious Many different types of anaerobes, including bacteroides,

processes porphyromonas, actinomyces, and eubacterium spp.,
fusobacterium nucleatum and anaerobic gram positive cocci

Sinusitis Bacteroides and fusobacterium spp. And anaerobic gram

positive cocci, often polymicrobial

Tetanus Clostridium tetani

RECAP ON SOME MAJOR BACTERIAL INFECTIONS OF HUMANS
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis (a spore forming, gram positive bacillus)

Cholera Vibrio cholerae (comma- shaped gram-negative bacilli)

Diphtheria Corynebacterium diphtheriae (a gram - positive bacillus)

Gas gangrene Clostridium perfringens and some other clostridium spp.

Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae

Legionellosis Legionella pneumophila and some othe legionella spp.

Leprosy (hansen’s disease) Mycobacterium leprae

Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes

Lyme disease Borrelia burgdorferi

Plague Yersinia pestis

Rocky mountain spotted fever Rickettsia rickettsii

Salmonellosis Salmonella enteritidis and salmonella typhimurium

Shigellosis Shigella dysenteriae, shigella flexneri, shigella boydii and shigella

sonnei

Strep throat Streptococcus pyogenes

Syphilis Treponema pallidum

Tetanus Clostridium tetani

Trachoma Certain serotypes of chlamydia trachomatis

Tuberculosis Most cases are caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis

Tularemia Francisella tularensis

Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi

Whooping cough (pertussis) Bordetella pertussis

Wound botulism Clostridium botulinum

FUNGAL INFECTIONS

• Superficial mycoses - are fungal infections of the outer shafts and the outermost, non living layer
of the skin (the epidermis)
• Mycoses - fungal infections
• Tinea or ringworm infection - fungal infection of the living layers of skin (the dermis), hair shafts,
and nails
• Dermatophytes - moulds that cause fungal infections in dermis
• Subcutaneous mycoses - these are fungal infections of the dermis and underlying tissues
• Systemic mycoses - generalized or deep seated mycoses
- Most serious types of fungal infections
Fungal Infections of the Skin
• Ringworm infections - are fungal infections and have nothing to do with worms
• Dermatophytoses - also known as tinea (ringworm) infections and dermatomycoses
- Pathogen: Caused by various filamentous fungi (moulds), dermatophytes, include species of
microsporum, epidermophyton and trichophyton
- Reservoirs: infected humans and animals and soil
- Transmission: direct or indirect contact with lesions of humans or animals, or contact with
contaminated floors, shower stalls or locker room benches

Fungal Infections of the Respiratory System

Lower Respiratory Tract
• Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever)
- Pathogen: Coccidioides immitis
- Reservoirs: Soil in arid and semiarid areas of the western hemisphere
- Transmission: occurs by inhalation of arthrospores. Not directly transmissible person to person or
animal to person

• Histoplasmosis
- Pathogen: Histoplasma capsulatum
- Reservoirs: Warm, moist soil containing a high organic content and bird droppings
- Transmission: inhalation of conidia from soil

• Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP, interstitial plasma-cell pneumonia)

- Pathogen: Pneumocystis jiroveci
- Reservoirs: Infected humans
- Transmission: unknown

• Pulmonary zygomycosis
- Pathogen: Bread moulds, mucor rhizopus and absidia
- Reservoirs: Infected humans
- Transmission: inhaling air borne spores

• Thrush
- Pathogen: Candida albicans
- Reservoirs: infected humans
- Transmission: contact with secretions or excretions of mouth, skin, vagina or feces of patients,
mother to neonate
-
Fungal Infections of the Genitourinary System
• Yeast vaginitis
- Pathogen: C. albicans, other candida spp.
- Reservoirs:
- Transmission:
RECAP ON MAJOR FUNGAL INFECTIONS OF HUMANS
DISEASE FUNGAL PATHOGEN

Aspergillosis Various species of aspergillus

Black piedra Piedraia hortae

Coccidioidomycosis Coccidioides immitis

Cryptococcosis Cryptococcus neoformans

Dermatomycoses Various filamentous fungi (moulds), collectively

referred to as dermatophytes

Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum

Penicilliosis Various species of penicillium

Pneumocystis pneumonia Pneumocystis jiroveci

Sporotrichosis Sporothrix schenckii

Tinea nigra Hortaea werneckii

Tinea versicolor Malassezia furfur

Thrush Candida albicans

White piedra Usually caused by trichosporon beigelii

Yeast vaginitis C. albicans

Zygomycosis Various zygomycetes, including bread mould

PARASITIC INFECTIONS
• Parasitism - symbiotic relationship that is often is of benefit to one party at the expense of the other
party
• Parasites - defined as organisms that live or in other living things, at whose expense they gain some
advantage
• Ectoparasites - parasites that live outside the host’s body
• Endoparasites - parasites that live inside the host’s body
• Definitive host - harbors the adult or sexual stage of the parasite or the sexual phase of the parasites
life cycle
• Intermediate host - harbors the larval or asexual stage of the parasite or the asexual phase of its
cycle
• Facultative parasite - an organism that can be parasitic but does not have to live as a parasite
• Parasitology - study of parasites

Protozoal Infections of the Eyes

• Amebic eye infections
- Pathogen: Acanthamoeba
- Reservoirs: ameba -contaminated water
- Transmission: infections have occurred primarily in people who wear soft contact lenses and have
used non sterile, homemade cleaning or wetting solutions, or have become infected in ameba-
contaminated spas or hot tub
 • Toxoplasmosis
- Pathogen: Toxoplasma gondii
- Reservoirs:cats and other felines that usually acquire infection by eating infected rodents or birds
- Transmission: eating infected raw or undercooked meat, ingesting oocyst

Protozoal Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract

• Amebiasis
- Pathogen: Entamoeba histolytica
- Reservoirs: symptomatic and asymptomatic humans and fecally contaminated food or water
- Transmission: a) ingestion of fecally contaminated food or water containing cysts,
b) by flies transporting cyst from feces to food, c) fecally soiled hands of infected food handlers, d)
oral anal sexual contact and e) anal intercourse involving multiple sex partners

• Balantidiasis
- Pathogen: Balatidium Coli
- Reservoirs: pigs and anything that might be contaminated by pig feces
- Transmission: ingestion of B. coli cyst in fecally contaminated food or water

• Cryptosporidiosis
- Pathogen: Injection of oocyst of cryptosporidium parvum
- Reservoirs: infected humans, cattle and other domestic animals
- Transmission: fecal oral transmission, from person to person, from animal to person, or ingestion of
contaminated water or food

• Cyclosporiasis
- Pathogen: Cyclospora cayetanensis
- Reservoirs: fecally contaminated water sources and produced that has been rinsed with fecally
contaminated water
- Transmission: primarily water borne

• Giardiasis
- Pathogen: giardia lamblia
- Reservoirs: infected humans, possibly beavers and other wild animals that have consumed water
containing giardia cyst
- Transmission: fecal oral route, ingestion of cyst in fecally contaminated food or water

Trichomoniasis - caused by Tricomonas Vaginalis

Meningoencephalitis - N. fowleri

Protozoal Infections of the Circulatory System

• African trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness)
- Trypanosoma brucei (t. Brucei spp. Gambiense - western and central africa, T. brucei spp.
- Rhodesiense - eastern africa)
- Gambiense - infected humans; rhodesiense - wild animals and domestic cattle
- Humans become infected when mature trypanosomes are injected into the bloodstream as the
infected tsetse flies take blood meal

• American trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ disease)

- T. cruzi
- Infected humans and more than 150 species of domestic and wild animals including dogs, cats and
rodents
- Vectors are rather large bugs: reduviid bugs, triatomine bugs, kissing bugs, nose coned bugs
- The person becomes infected by rubbing the insect feces which contain the parasite into the bite
would or eye: transmission by blood transfusion can also occur
 • Babesiosis
- Baesia microti and other babesia spp. Inculding basesia divergens
- Rodents - b. Mirotic; cattle - b.divergens
- Occurs by tick bite and rarely by blood transfusion

• Malaria
- Plasmodium vivax (most common), p. Falciparum (most deadly), p. Malariae and P. ovale
- Infected humans and infected mosquitoes
- Female anopheles mosquito while taking blood meal

• Helminth - parasitic worm

- Roundworms (nematodes), flatworms
Flatworms are divided into tapeworms (cestodes), flukes (trematodes)

HELMINTH INFECTIONS OF HUMANS

ANATOMIC HELMINTH DISEASE HELMINTH THAT CAUSES THE DISEASE
LOCATIONS

Skin Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Onchocerca volvulus

Muscle and Trichinosis Trichinella spiralis
subcutaneous
tissues Dracunculiasis Dracunculus medinensis

Eyes Onchocerciasis Onchocerca volvulus Loa loa - also known

as african eyeworm

Respiratory system Paragonimiasis Paragonimus westermani

Gastrointestinal tract Ascariasis infection Paragonimus westernmani
Hookworm infection Ancylostoma duodenale

Pinworm infection (enterobiasis) Enterobius vermicularis

Whipworm infection (trichuriasis) Trichuris trichiura

Strongyloidiasis Strongyloides stercoralis

Beef tapeworm infection
Dog tapeworm infection
Dwarf tapeworm infection
Fish tapeworm infection
Pork tapeworm infection
Rat tapeworm infection
Fasciolopsiasis
Fascioliasis
Clonorchiasis
Circulatory system Filariasis
Schistosomiasis (bilharzia)
Central Nervous Cysticercosis
System
Hydatid cyst disease
Taenia saginata
Dipylidium caninum
Hymenolepsis nana
Diphyllobothrium latum
Taenia solium
Hymenolepis diminuta
Fasciolopsis buski (intestinal fluke)
Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke)
Clonorchis sinensis (chinese or oriental liver fluke)
Wuchereria bancrofti and brugia malayi
Trematodes in schistosoma
Cyst (larval stage) of the pork tapeworm (taenia
solium) are found in the brain
Echinococcus granulosus or echinococcus
multilocularis
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