GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS

CHEMISTRY
 The field of study concerned with the characteristics, composition, and transformations of matter.

MATTER
 Anything that has mass and occupies space.
 Mass refers to the amount of matter (substance) present in a sample.
 Includes all things – both living and nonliving as well as naturally occurring and manmade.
 Examples: plants, soil, rocks, air, bacteria, plastics
 Various forms of energy such as heat, light, and electricity are not considered to be matter.
 The universe is composed entirely of matter and energy.
 The classification of a given matter sample in terms of physical state is based on whether its shape and
volume are definite or indefinite.
 Matter exists in three physical states:
a) Solid
b) Liquid
c) Gas

SOLID
 Physical state characterized by a definite shape and a definite volume.

LIQUID
 Physical state characterized by an indefinite shape and a definite volume.
 Always takes the shape of its container to the extent that it fills the container.

GAS
 Physical state characterized by an indefinite shape and a indefinite volume.
 It assumes the shape and volume of its container.

COMMON PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

 Volume and Shape
 Density
 Compressibility
 Thermal Expansion

DEFINITE VOLUME AND DEFINITE SHAPE

 The strong, cohesive forces hold the particles in essentially fixed positions, resulting in definite volume
and definite shape.

HIGH DENSITY
 The constituent particles of solids are located as close together as possible (touching each other).
Therefore, a given volume contains large numbers of particles, resulting in a high density.

SMALL COMPRESSIBILITY
 Because there is very little space between particles, increased pressure cannot push the particles any
closer together; therefore, it has little effect on the solid’s volume.
VERY SMALL THERMAL EXPANSION
 An increased temperature increases the kinetic energy (disruptive forces), thereby causing more
vibrational motion of the particles. Each particle occupies a slightly larger volume, and the result is a
slight expansion of the solid. The strong, cohesive forces prevent this effect from becoming very large.

LIQUID
 The physical state characterized by potential energy (cohesive forces) and kinetic energy (disruptive
forces) of about the same magnitude.
 Particles that are randomly packed but relatively near one another.
 The molecules are in constant, random motion; they slide freely over one another but do not move with
enough energy to separate.

DEFINITE VOLUME AND INDEFINITE SHAPE

 The attractive forces are strong enough to restrict particles to movement within a definite volume. They
are not strong enough to prevent the particles from moving over each other in a random manner that is
limited only by the container walls.

HIGH DENSITY
 The particles in a liquid are not widely separated; they are still touching one another. Therefore, there
will be a large number of particles in a given volume – a high density.

SMALL COMPRESSIBILITY
 Because the particles in a liquid are still touching each other, there is very little empty space. Therefore,
an increase in pressure cannot squeeze the particles much closer together.

VERY SMALL THERMAL EXPANSION

 Most of the particle movement in a liquid is vibrational because a particle can move only a short distance
before colliding with a neighbor.
 The increased particle velocity that accompanies a temperature increase results only in increased
vibrational amplitudes.
 The net effect is an increase in the effective volume a particle occupies, which causes a slight volume
increase in the liquid.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCE
 Forces “Within” molecules.
 An attractive force that acts between a molecule and another molecule.
 Intermolecular forces are weak compared to intramolecular forces.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 Dipole-dipole interactions
 Hydrogen bonds
 London forces
DIPOLE-DIPOLE INTERACTIONS
 An IMF that occurs between polar molecules.
 Molecules with dipole moments can attract each other electrostatically by lining up so that the positive
and negative ends are close to each other.
 The greater the polarity of the molecules, the greater the strength of the dipole-dipole interactions.

HYDROGEN BONDS
 Unusually strong dipole-dipole interactions are observed among hydrogen-containing molecules in
which hydrogen is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative element of small atomic size (fluorine,
oxygen, and nitrogen).
 The vapor pressures of liquids that have significant hydrogen bonding are much lower than those of
similar liquids wherein little or no hydrogen bonding occurs.

 Two Factors:
a) The highly electronegative element to which hydrogen is covalently bonded attracts the bonding
electrons to such a degree that the hydrogen atom is left with a significant charge.
b) The small size of the “bare” hydrogen nucleus allows it to approach closely, and be strongly
attracted to a lone pair of electrons on the electronegative atom of another molecule.

LONDON FORCES
 A weak temporary intermolecular force that occurs between an atom or molecule (polar or nonpolar) and
another atom or molecule (polar or nonpolar).
 Results from momentary uneven electron distributions in molecules.
 Significant in large atoms/molecules.
 Occurs in all molecules, including nonpolar ones.

CONCEPT CHECK:
1) Which are stronger, intramolecular bonds or intermolecular forces? Intramolecular bonds
2) Which has the stronger intermolecular forces, N2 or H2O? H2O
3) Which gas would behave more ideally at the same conditions of P and T, CO or N2? N2

VAPOR PRESSURE
 Pressure exerted by a vapor above a liquid when the liquid and vapor are in equilibrium with each other.
 Magnitude of vapor pressure depends on the nature and temperature of the liquid.
 Liquids that have strong attractive forces between molecules have lower vapor pressures than liquids that
have weak attractive forces between particles.
 Substances that have high vapor pressures evaporate readily – they are volatile.
 Volatile substance – a substance that readily evaporates at room temperature because of a high vapor
pressure.

BOILING
 A form of evaporation where conversion from the liquid state to the vapor state occurs within the body
of the liquid through bubble formation.
 Occurs when the vapor pressure of the liquid reaches a value equal to that of the prevailing external
pressure on the liquid (for an open container it’s atmospheric pressure).

BOILING POINT
 The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid becomes equal to the external (atmospheric)
pressure exerted on the liquid.
 Normal boiling point – the temperature at which a liquid boils under a pressure of 760 mm Hg.
 Boiling point changes with elevation.

VISCOSITY
 The viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its resistance to flow. Water, gasoline, and other liquids that
flow freely have a low viscosity. Honey, syrup, motor oil, and other liquids that do not flow freely, have
higher viscosities.
 We can measure viscosity by measuring the rate at which a metal ball falls through a liquid (the ball falls
more slowly through a more viscous liquid) or by measuring the rate at which a liquid flows through a
narrow tube (more viscous liquids flow more slowly).

SURFACE TENSION
 Surface tension is defined as the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid, or the force
required to increase the length of a liquid surface by a given amount. This property results from the
cohesive forces between molecules at the surface of a liquid, and it causes the surface of a liquid to
behave like a stretched rubber membrane.
 Among common liquids, water exhibits a distinctly high surface tension due to strong hydrogen bonding
between its molecules. As a result of this high surface tension,
the surface of water represents a relatively “tough skin” that can withstand considerable force without
breaking. A steel needle carefully placed on water will float.

SOLUTION
 A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances with each substance retaining its own chemical
identity.
 Components of a solution:
a) Solute – component of a solution that is present in a lesser amount relative to that of the solvent;
substance being dissolved.
b) Solvent – component of a solution that is present in the greatest amount; liquid water.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION

 Contains 2 or more components.
 Has variable composition.
 Properties change as the ratio of solute to solvent is changed.
 Dissolved solutes are present as individual particles (molecules, atoms, or ions).
 Solutes remain uniformly distributed and will not settle out with time.
 Solute generally can be separated from the solvent by physical means such as evaporation.

SOLUBILITY
 The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent under a given set of
conditions.
 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE IN SOLUBILITY:
a) Most solids become more soluble in water with increasing temperature.
b) In contrast, gas solubilities in water decrease with increasing temperature.

 EFFECT OF PRESSURE IN SOLUBILITY:

a) Pressure has little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids in water.
b) Pressure has major effect on the solubility of gases in water.

HENRY’S LAW
 The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid at a given temperature is directly proportional to the
partial pressure of the gas above the liquid.
 As the pressure of a gas above the liquid increases, the solubility of the gas increases.

SATURATED SOLUTION
 A solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved under the conditions at
which the solution exists.

SUPERSATURATED SOLUTION
 An unstable solution that temporarily contains more dissolved solute than that present in a saturated
solution.
 Will produce crystals rapidly, often in a dramatic manner, if it is slightly disturbed or if it is “seeded”
with a tiny crystal of solute.

UNSATURATED SOLUTION
 A solution that contains less than the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved under the
conditions at which the solution exists.
 Most solutions we encounter fall into this category.

 CONCENTRATED SOLUTION
a) a solution that contains a large amount of solute relative to the amount that could dissolve.

 DILUTE SOLUTION
a) a solution that contains a small amount of solute relative to the amount that could dissolve.

 AQUEOUS SOLUTION
a) a solution in which water is the solvent..

 NON- AQUEOUS SOLUTION

a) a solution in which a substance other than water is the solvent.

FOR A SOLUTION TO DISOLVE IN A SOLVENT

 Two types of interparticle attractions must be overcome:
a) Attractions between solute particles (solute-solute attractions).
b) Attractions between solvent particles (solvent-solvent attractions).

 New type of interaction forms:

a) Attraction between solute and solvent particles (solute-solvent attractions.)

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF SOLUTION FORMATION

 The state of subdivision of the solute.
 The degree of agitation during solution preparation.
 The temperature of the solution components.

SOLUBILITY RULES:
 In general, it is found that the greater the difference in solute-solvent polarity, the less soluble is the
solute.
 Substances of like polarity tend to be more soluble in each other than substances that differ in polarity.
 “Like dissolves like” (but not in all cases).
 Use Solubility Guidelines for ionic compounds in water.

CONCENTRATION
 The amount of solute present in a specified amount of solution.
 Two Methods of Expressing Concentration:
a) Percent Concentration
b) Molarity

PERCENT CONCENTRATION
 Three different ways of representing percent concentration:
a) Percent by Mass

b) Percent by Volume

c) Mass-Volume Percent

MOLARITY
 Moles of solute in a solution divided by the liters of solution.

DILUTION
 The process in which more solvent is added to a solution in order to lower its concentration.
 Dilution with water does not alter the numbers of moles of solute present.
 Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution

COLODIAL DISPERSION
 A homogeneous mixture that contains dispersed particles that are intermediate in size between those of a
true solution and those of an ordinary heterogeneous mixture.
a) Dispersed phase (like the solute)
b) Dispersing medium (like the solvent)
TYNDALL EFFECT
 The light-scattering phenomenon that causes the path of a beam of visible light through a colloidal
dispersion to be observable.
 When we shine a beam of light through a true solution, we cannot see the track of the light.
 A beam of light passing through a colloidal dispersion can be observed because the light is scattered by
the dispersed phase.

SUSPENSION
 A heterogeneous mixture that contains dispersed particles that are heavy enough that they settle out
under the influence of gravity.

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY
 A physical property of a solution that depends only on the number of solute particles (molecules or ions)
present in a given quantity of solvent and not on their chemical identities.
 a) Vapor-pressure lowering
b) Boiling-point elevation
c) Freezing-point depression
d) Osmotic pressure

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

 Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent lowers the vapor pressure of the resulting solution below that of
the pure solvent at the same temperature.

BOILING-POINT ELEVATION
 Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent raises the boiling point of the resulting solution above that of
the pure solvent.

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

 Adding a nonvolatile solute to a solvent lowers the freezing point of the resulting solution below that of
the pure solvent.

OSMOSIS
 The passage of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane separating a dilute solution (or pure
solvent) from a more concentrated solution.
 Semi-permeable membrane – a membrane that allows certain types of molecules to pass through it but
prohibits the passage of other types of molecules.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 The pressure that must be applied to prevent the net flow of solvent through a semipermeable membrane
from a solution of lower solute concentration to a solution of higher solute concentration.

OSMOLARITY
 Used to compare the osmotic pressures of solutions.
 Osmolarity = Molarity × i
 i is the number of particles produced from the dissociation of one formula unit of solute.

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
 A solution with a lower osmotic pressure than that within cells.

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
 A solution with a higher osmotic pressure than that within cells.

ISOTONIC SOLUTION
 A solution with an osmotic pressure that is equal to that within cells.

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
 A solution with a lower osmotic pressure than that within cells.

 SOLUTE
a) the substance that is dissolved in another substance

 SOLVENT
a) the substance that something is dissolved into it.
 CONCENTRATION
a) refers to how much solute is dissolved in the solvent.

 CONCENTRATED
a) solutions with a large amount of solute dissolved in solvent.

 DILUTE
a) solutions with a small amount of solute dissolved the solvent.

MOLARITY
 Two solutions can contain the same compounds but be quite different because the proportions of those
compounds are different.
 Molarity is one way to measure the concentration of a solution.

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume of solution in liters

SOLUTION TO STOICHIOMETRY
 the procedure for calculating the molar concentration or volume of solution products or reactants.

STOICHIOMETRY
 The study of quantities of materials consumed and produced in chemical reactions.

CALCULATING MASS OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS

 Balance the equation.
 Convert mass or volume to moles, if necessary.
 Set up mole ratios.
 Use mole ratios to calculate moles of desired substituent.
 Convert moles to mass or volume, if necessary.
TITRATIONS
 Acid-base, precipitation, or oxidation-reduction reactions commonly used
 the first reactant is titrated with the second reactant until stoichiometric equivalence is reached
(i.e., until all of the 1st reactant is just used up and there is essentially none of the 2nd left over
either)
 the second reactant is added slowly, in small aliquots from a buret (for high accuracy and
precision of volume added)
 this is used to determine:
a) the moles of the first reactant (and related qtys) or
b) the molarity of the second reactant

LIMITING REACTANT
 used up in a reaction
 determines the amount of product

EXCESS REACTANT
 added to ensure that the other reactant is completely used up
 cheaper & easier to recycle
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY
 Colligative properties of solutions are properties that depend upon the concentration of solute molecules
or ions, but not upon the identity of the solute. Colligative properties include vapor pressure lowering,
boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.

VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

 Vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor in thermodynamic equilibrium with ts condensed phase in a
closed container. When non-volatile solute is dissolved in solvent, the vapor pressure of solvent is
lowered. The presence of solute decreases the rate of escape of solvent molecules resulting to lower
vapor pressure.

BOILING-POINT ELEVATION
 The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of that liquid
equals the atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg). The addition of the solute increases the boiling point of
the solution. The atmospheric pressure remains the same while the vapor pressure of the solution is
lowered resulting in the increase of the difference in atmospheric pressure and vapor pressure of the
solution. Therefore, a higher temperature is required to boil the solution.

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

 Normal freezing or melting point is the temperature at which solid and liquid are in equilibrium under 1
atm. Addition of solute will decrease the vapor pressure and so will decrease the freezing point. In order
for a liquid to freeze it must achieve a very ordered state that results in the formation of a crystal.
 If there are impurities in the liquid, i.e. solutes, the liquid is inherently less ordered. The presence of
impurities in a liquid or in a substance makes variation in the freezing point by making them low or high.
Therefore, a solution is more difficult to freeze than the pure solvent so a lower temperature is required
to freeze the liquid.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 This is the external pressure that must be applied to the solution in order to prevent it being diluted by
the entry of solvent via osmosis. Diffusion in liquids, substance tend to move or diffuse from regions of
higher concentration to region of lower concentration. The overall effect is to equalize concentration
throughout the medium. Osmosis, on the other hand is the movement of solvent particles across a
semipermeable membrane from a dilute solution into concentrated solution. The solvent moves to dilute
the concentrated solution and equalize the concentration on both sides of the membrane. Osmotic
pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. Therefore, doubling the
concentration will also double the osmotic pressure. The osmotic pressure of two solutions having the
same molal concentration are identical.
 The extent to which a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure is proportional to its concentration.
This was discovered by French chemist Francois Raoult (1830-1907). Raoult’s law states that for
nonelectrolyte solutions, the partial vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution (P1) is equal to the vapor
pressure of the pure solvent (Po1) multiplied by the mole fraction of the solvent (X1). This law is
mathematically expressed as: P1 = X1 Po1
 For solutions of electrolytes, the vapor pressure lowering equation can be expressed as: P1= iPo1 X1
where i is the van’t Hoff factor, named after Jacobus Henricus van’ Hoff (1852-1911), who won the very
first Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1901 for his work on colligative properties of solution. The i factor
gives the number of particles per formula unit of the solute. For example, NaCl solution dissociates to
give one Na+(aq) and one Cl-(aq), the iNaCl = 2, because there is one Na+ and one Cl- ion in solution
per formula unit of solute. On the other hand, if both components of a solution are volatile (readily
evaporates), the vapor pressure of the solution is the sum of the individual partial pressures. The total
pressure is given by Dalton’s law of partial pressure: PT = PA + PB or PT = XA PoA + XB PoB

Osmosis is of prime importance to living organisms because it influences the distribution of nutrients and
the release of metabolic waste products. Living cells of both plants and animals are enclosed by a
semipermeable membrane called the cell membrane, which regulates the flow of liquids and of dissolved
solids and gases into and out of the cell.

The osmotic pressure (II) of a solution isp the prepssurep requpired top stpop osmosis. The osmotic
pressure of the solution is given by:
II=MRT
where M is the molarity of solution, R the gas constant (0.0821 L . atm / K . mol), and T the absolute
temperature (in Kelvins).
The osmotic pressure is expressed in atm. And since osmotic pressure measurements are carried out under
constant temperature, molarity is preferred over molality as concentration. Again, for solutions of
electrolytes, the osmotic pressure equation can be expressed as:
II-iMRT
where i is the van’t Hoff factor, the number of particles per formula unit of the solute.

Boiling Point Elevation

Remember that boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor of a liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure. In the presence of a non-volatile, non-electrolytic solute such as sugar, the pressure that will be
exerted by the vapor of the solvent is lesser in comparison with that of the pure solvent at equal volumes.
And as a consequence, the solution will boil at a higher temperature than that of the pure solvent.
Since we have already established that the boiling point of the solution is greater than that of the pure
solvent, the boiling point elevation (DTb) is mathematically expressed as follows:

where (Kb) is boiling point elevation constant, equivalent to 0.52 oC/m for aqueous solutions. This means
that, for example, 1 mole of sugar (nonelectrolyte) in 1 kilogram of water will increase the boiling point
from 100oC to 100.52oC. And (m) is the molal concentration of solute. It is also important to note that DTb
is a positive quantity and should be added to the boiling point of pure solvent (water), which is 100oC.
Remember that molality is used here over molarity because we are dealing with a solution whose
temperature is not constant and concentration cannot be expressed in molarity because it changes with
temperature.

Freezing Point Depression

Water freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC. Salt water will not freeze until the temperature is below 0oC. The
more salt, the lower the freezing point of the solution. In the above experiment, energy is lost from the water
in the form of heat. This heat is used to melt the ice. Since heat is lost from the water the temperature of the
water goes down. Since there is now salt dissolved in the water it cannot freeze again, hence we observe a
lower temperature.