ACCTEACH MIDTERM REVIEWER
Mursell’s Six Principles of Teaching
CHAPTER 5: PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING
TEACHING
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Behavioral Perspective - applied behavior has been
found in educational situation. E.g., reward system
Cognitive Perspective – considers cause relations
of constructs like beliefs, traits, memories, and even
emotions.
Developmental Perspective – the neo-Piagetian
theories of cognitive development are anchored on
developmental psychology:
1. Human Cognitive competence is viewed
from the psychology 00 of cognitive
development as a product of several
stages/phases of development.
2. The psychology pf development involves the
basic knowledge of how cognitive change
takes place along with the recognition of
other factors that give way to cognitive
competence.
3. The psychology of cognitive development
concerns itself with individual differences,
considering the cognitive processes and
abilities, rate, and prospect of change, as
well as the mechanism of change.
Social cognitive perspective – successful blend of
behavioral, cognitive, and social elements initially
espoused by Albert Bandura in his social learning
theory.
Constructive perspective – emphasizes the prior
knowledge and experience of the learner that
include the social and cultural determinants of the
learning process.
- Lev Vygotsky – describes how positive
interactions are with more capable peers and
the use of cognitive tools.
- Theories on motivation – included in the
constructivist perspective.
- Motivation – internal state that enhances,
prolongs, and guides behavior.
PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ACCORDING
TO VARIOUS AUTHORS
James L.
1. PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT – when one
talks about knowledge management,
however it becomes necessary to analyze the
meaning of the word “knowledge” from
different perspectives.
Fleming (1996) Observations related to context
development:
a. Collection of data is not information.
b. Collection of information is not knowledge.
c. Collection of knowledge isn’t wisdom.
d. Collection of wisdom is not truth.
Context – refers to words just before or after a
certain word sentence that help make clear what it
means.
Information – relates to description, definition, or
perspective (what, who, when, where).
Knowledge – comprises strategy, practice, method,
or approach (how).
Wisdom – embodies principles, insight, moral, or
archetype (why).
THE PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT IS
CATGEORIZED INTO SIX LEVELS:
Level 1-Context consists of the textbook only
• Predominantly verbal
• No problem-solving experience
• Lacks dynamic appeal
• Limited verbal responses to verbal stimuli
Level 2 - Context consists of textbook, together
with collateral
• supplemental materials
• Wider in context
• More readings of expository
• Advocates more extensive reading
Level 3-Context consists of non-academic and
current materials (magazine articles, newspaper
clippings)
• Concrete, specific, actual, and immediate
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 • Reality vs. theory
• Leads to extensive discussion
Level 4-Context consists of multi-sensory aids
• Effective when used as aid in learning
• Related to contemplated learning
• Ineffective if learner is passive.
Level 5-Context consists of demonstration and
presentation by the experts
• Concrete setting
• Learning beyond the classroom setting
Level 6-Field experiences: personal, social, and
community understanding.
• Concrete, abundant, dynamic, readily
apprehended setting for learning
• Goes beyond verbalization
• Concrete and firsthand experiences
2. PRINCIPLE OF FOCUS – instruction can
be effective if there is a definite area of
concentration. The following are the four
levels of focus.
Level 1 - Focus established by page assignment in
textbook
• Uniform structure
• Learning without unity
• Memorization
Level 2 - Focus established by announced topic,
together with page or chapter references
• Insight and understanding
• Varied learning pattern
Level 3 - Focus established by broad concepts to
be comprehended or problem to be solved
• Directed at the mental processes of the
learner
• More varied learning patterns
Level 4 - Focus established as a concept or a
problem to be solved, a skill to be acquired to
carry an undertaking
• Flexibility
• Acquisition of more facts and information.
3. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIALIZATION – a
social process that encompasses the ways of
thinking, interacting, and problem solving.
Socialization has three levels namely:
Level 1 - Social pattern characterized by
submission
• Rudimentary level of socialization
• No-group function
• Teacher-controlled
Level 2 - Social pattern characterized by
contribution
• Sympathetic and positive discipline
• Freedom
• Lacks authority
Level 3 - Social pattern characterized by
cooperation
• Goes beyond friendliness and sympathy
• Teacher as an organizer
• Positive team spirit
4. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALIZATION
– the effectiveness of instruction must
progress in terms of the learner’s own
purposes, aptitudes, abilities, and
experimental procedures.
• Individualization through different
performance in uniform tasks. In this
setting, the teacher sets the lesson format
as part of his classroom structuring and
sees to it that while the task is the same
to all.
• Individualization through
homogeneous grouping. Learners vary
in age, ability, and sex, and classrooms
tend to lean toward homogeneity.
• Individualization through contract
plan. One of the guiding principles of
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 individualization asserts that the
individual must be the focus in the
planning and delivery of services and
support.
• A contract plan may be a plan of study
where the learner is provided a set of
activities to do and a time limit to
accomplish the specific tasks.
• Individualization through individual
instruction. This kind of instruction
calls for a person-centered planning for
learning tasks normally adapted to the
level of capability of the learner.
• Individualization through large units
with optimal-related activity. This is
the kind of instruction where large topics
or big blocks are divided into smaller
units which could be completed within a
specified time frame.
• Individualization through individual
undertakings stemming from and
contributing to the joint undertaking
of the group of learners. Instruction is
done to ensure cooperative learning
while the group works on a specific
learning activity. The task is divided
among the members so that each member
has a particular activity to work on.
5. PRINCIPLE OF SEQUENCE - sequence
is a movement from meaningless to
emergence of meaning from immediate
toward remote, from concrete toward
symbolic, from the crude to the
discriminating.
Series of application of the principle of sequence:
• Sequence through logical succession of
blocks of content (lesson and courses).
provide a learning sequence where
comprehension or understanding of
whatever is introduced is reinforced.
• Sequence through knotting, learning
lesson / course, together by
introductions, previews, pre-tests,
reviews. This is done by supplementing
discussion/ studies/analysis of lesson by
introductions/ reviews related to the
lesson.
• Sequence organized in terms of
readiness. Effective instruction is
achieved if the teacher can order or set
the learning task according to the
readiness of the learners to understand or
assimilate whatever material is to be
given to them.
• Sequence organized in terms of lines
emerging meanings. This calls for
planning specific learning tasks that will
depend on the ability of the learners to
give meaning to specific situations,
deduce impressions from whatever is
read to think of possibilities as a result of
doing the activity.
6. PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION –
evaluation is a component of effective
instruction, and it is necessary to determine
whether the objectives of instruction have
been carried out and learning and
understanding has taken place. Types of
Evaluation
• Diagnostic evaluation. This is the
evaluation done at the beginning of the unit
or course to determine the different levels to
where the students can be grouped whether
slow, average, or fast.
• Formative evaluation. This evaluation is
intended to improve the delivery of
instruction in the classroom.
• Summative evaluation. This phase of
evaluation calls for summing up all pertinent
data related to the performance of the
individual learners.
John Dewey’s Educational Philosophy on
Principles of Teaching
• Teaching is good when it is based on the
psychology of learning. This is based on the
concept that the child is made the center of
the educative process.
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• Teaching is good when it is well planned
such that the activities and experiences of the
learner are continuously related and
interrelated into larger, more meaningful,
more inclusive, relation patterns.
• Teaching is good when the learner is made
conscious of the goals or aims to be
accomplished. This concept calls for proper
motivation.
• Learning is good when it provides learning
experiences or situations that will insure
understanding. Good teaching requires a rich
environment of instructional materials and
devices.
• Teaching is good when there is provision to
meet individual differences. This is based on
the psychological principle that individuals
differ from each other in their learning
potential.
• Teaching is good when it utilizes the past
experiences of the learner. This concept is
based on the principle of apperception.
This means that learning is easier when you
start from what the pupils already know.
• Teaching is good when the learner is
stimulated to think and to reason. The best
teaching method is that which liberates and
encourages thinking.
• Teaching is good when it is governed by
democratic principles. In democratic
teaching, social relationship is placed on a
plane of natural respect, cooperation,
tolerance, and fair play.
• Teaching is good when the method used is
supplemented by another method and
instructional devices. It is an accepted fact
that a good method is a synthesis of many
methods.
• Teaching is good when evaluation is made
an integral part of the teaching process.
Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching.
• Teaching is good when drill or review is
made an integral part of teaching and
learning. The teacher must bear in mind that
drill and review have different meanings and
functions.
Carnegie Mellon’s Teaching Principles
Teaching is a multifaceted activity involving
multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and
flexibility.
- Effective teaching involves acquiring
relevant knowledge about the learners and
using that knowledge to inform the course
design and classroom teaching.
- Effective teaching involves aligning the three
major components of instruction: learning
objectives, assessments, and instructional
activities.
• Effective teaching involves articulating
explicit expectations regarding
learning objectives and policies. There
is variation expected of learners across
classrooms and within a given discipline.
• Effective teaching involves prioritizing
the knowledge and skills we choose to
focus on. Coverage of the course must
have focus. A single course must not
have too many topics that may work
against student learning.
• Effective teaching involves recognizing
and overcoming blind spots. make
connections, draw on relevant bodies of
knowledge, and choose appropriate
strategies or techniques.
• Effective teaching involves adopting
appropriate teaching roles to support
our learning goals. The learners are
supposed to be responsible for their own
learning, but the teachers' roles are
critical in guiding their thinking and
behavior.
• Effective teaching involves
progressively refining our courses
based on reflection and feedback.
Teaching requires adapting. Teaching
involves be making changes when
appropriate (when something is not
working bet try something new).
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 END OF CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6: PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
BASED ON THE PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
Principles – bases in stimulating, directing, guiding,
and encouraging teachers in their learning. /
Workable under normal conditions.
Note: When classroom situations are abnormal,
common sense must be the guiding factor.
Common sense – ability of a person to do and say
the right thing at the right time in the right way.
• Opportunity to learn. Learning experiences
give learners the chance to observe and
practice the actual processes, products, skills,
and values which are expected of them.
• Connection and challenge. Learning
experience should connect with challenge
their current ways of thinking and acting.
• Action and Reflection. Learning
experiences should be meaningful and
encourage both action and reflection on the
part of the learner.
• Motivation and purpose. Learning
experiences should be motivating and their
purpose clear to the learners.
• Inclusivity and difference. Learning
experiences should respect and
accommodate differences between learners.
Language. Culture, health, location, values,
abilities and disabilities, and previous
education shape students’ past experiences.
• Independence and collaboration. Learning
experiences should encourage student to
learn both independently and from and with
others.
• Supportive environment. The school and
classroom setting should be safe and
conducive to effective learning.
Theory and Research-based
Principles of Learning
Learners’ prior knowledge can help or hinder
learning. Students get into courses with knowledge,
beliefs, and attitudes gained in other courses, and
even through daily life.
How learners organize knowledge influences how
they learn and apply what they know. Students
naturally make connections between
pieces knowledge.
Learners’ motivation determines, directs, and
sustains what they do to learn. Motivation plays
an important role in setting the direction, intensity,
persistence, and quality of the learning behaviors in
which they engage in.
To develop mastery, learners must acquire
component skills, practice integrating them, and
know when to apply what they have learned.
Students must develop not only the component skills
and knowledge necessary to perform complex tasks
but must also practice.
Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted
feedback enhances the quality of students’
learning. Learning and performance are best
achieved when students engage in practice that
focuses on a specific goal or criterion.
Learners’ current level of development interacts
with the social, emotional, and intellectual
climate of the course to impact learning. Students
are social beings, more than being intellectual and
emotional.
To become self-directed learners, students must
learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to
learning. Students engage in various metacognitive
processes that involve assessment of the task at
hand, evaluation of personal strengths and
weaknesses, planning approaches, and monitoring
strategies.
Principles of Learning
Learning is an experience which occurs inside the
learner and is activated by the learner. Learning
takes place when the learner allows it to happen in
his mind.
Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning
and relevance of ideas.
Learning is a consequence of experiences. Students
learn more and better if lessons are anchored on
experience.
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Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process.
Learners will learn more if they are given chances to
work together and share ideas. This is made possible
by engaging them in group activities.
Learning is an evolutionary process. Learning,
especially if this means a change in behavior, does
not happen in an instant.
Learning is sometimes a painful process. This
means that learning requires sacrifice, hard work,
and study time.
One of the richest resources for learning is the
learner himself. The core of learning is the learner.
The discussion should be drawn not only on the
experiences of teachers, but also on the learners’
experiences.
The process of learning is emotional, as well as
intellectual. Learners cannot learn that must if they
are bothered, arising from problems in or out of the
classroom. Thus, teachers should be sensitive the
students’ problems.
The process of problem solving, and learning is
highly unique and individual. The use of different
teaching strategies that can cater multiple
intelligences and learning styles are highly
recommended.
END OF CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7: MANAGEMENT OF
INTRUCTION (PART
1)
Lesson plan – allow a teacher to set specific student
learning goals and identify the concrete steps and
activities to achieve those aims.
SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Relevant and Timely) – method of lesson planning
offers realistic goals and outcomes for students.
Lesson Plan Preparation
Preplanning phase – teacher conceptualizes,
envisions the possible outcome, and thinks of the
best activities and approaches to employ.
Active planning phase – this is the actual writing of
the lesson plan where final decisions are made as to
content, strategies, activities, and instructional
materials.
Review planning phase – this is the phase a teacher
addresses the need to find out how well the
objectives can be carried out and if adjustments are
to be made in anticipation.
Closure planning phase – this is where planning
for evaluation is done. A set of criteria is drawn to
facilitate pre-identification of objectives.
Objectives
Objective Deviation – complete transformation of
the individual to become an asset to the society.
Education is also concerned with the identification
of moral and spiritual values.
Goals may be stated at various level of specificity.
Goals are defined and stated in terms of student
behavior.
Levels of Generality and Specificity of Goals
1 – Goals are broad and philosophical in
nature.
2 – Goals are more specific than level 1goals.
3 – Goals that are behaviorally stated specific
to the classroom levels and are stated in terms of
behavioral outcomes.
Source of Learning Objectives
Constitutional aims – all institutional
goals/objectives are geared toward a realization of
the national developments goals as provided by
Batas Pambansa Blg 232 known as Educational Act
of 1982.
• To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate
of economic development and social
progress
• To assure the maximum participation of all
people in the attainment and enjoyment of
the benefits of such growth
• To achieve and strengthen national unity and
consciousness and preserve, develop, and
promote desirable cultural, moral, and
spiritual values in a changing world
Institutional mission – objectives set by the
institution to carry out its vision.
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Curriculum Goals – determined by an operational
philosophy and carefully selected learning activities
presented in a meaningful pattern / Stated in general
terms and which does not reflect criteria or
achievement.
Course / Subject Goals – these are derived from
program activities. / Stated in the form of topics,
concepts, or general behavior.
Unit Objectives – formulated by the teacher. It is
also referred to as classroom objectives which
divide course into several units / one to three weeks
of instruction.
Lesson objectives – specific instructional
objectives. It includes expected behavior, content,
and outcomes. Objectives Specification
Kinds of Objective
Objective – describes a performance teachers
expect from learners to exhibit before they are
considered competent. It describes an intended
result of instruction rather than the process of
instruction itself.
Bloom’s Taxonomy – hierarchal classification of
learning objectives.
Three concepts of Learning Domain
Cognitive -these are objectives that deal with the
recall or recognition of knowledge and the
development of intellectual abilities and skills.
Learning in this aspect refers to the mental
processes like memorization and ability to think,
analyze, and solve problems.
Affective. Those that deal with the development of
attributes like genuine interest, desirable attitudes,
values, and commitment as expected learning
outcomes, categorized as follows:
• Receiving. The student will listen to
classmates who express opinions/views.
• Responding. The student will answer a call
for sand bagging at Bucayao Riyer.
• Valuing. The student will express
appreciation for ancient Arnbahan Mangyan
poems.
• Organizing. The student will prefer reading
newspapers to playing video games.
• Characterizing. The student will follow the
standard norms-- a set of rules adapted in
school.
Psychomotor. Objectives that deal with physical
and kinesthetic skills (including keyboarding, using
technical instruments, and other skills).
• Perception. The student will identify by its
feel a type of visual aid.
• Set. The student will demonstrate how to
step on a gear.
• Guided response. The student will imitate
how a particular vowel sound is produced.
• Mechanism. The student will set the
microscope for testing accumulation of
bacteria.
• Complex overt response. The student will
encode in the computer.
• Adaptation. The student will arrange the
exhibits according to subject area.
• Origination. The student will create steps
for a new folk dance.
Criteria of Measurable Objectives
1. Specific. The first criterion stresses the need
for a specific goal rather than a more general
one. This means the goal is clear and
unambiguous, without unnecessary
trimmings. A specific goal will usually
answer the five wh-questions.
2. Measurable. The second criterion stresses
the need for concrete standard criteria for
measuring progress toward the attainment of
the goal. (How much, how many)
3. Attainable. The third criterion points out the
importance of goals that are realistic and
attainable. (How can the goal be
accomplished?")
4. Relevant. The fourth criterion stresses the
importance of choosing goals that matter.
Relevant goals are purpose-driven. They
make the team, department, and organization
forward. acles. Goals that are relevant will
receive that needed support. (Does this seem
worthwhile, is this the right time, does this
match our other efforts/needs, Is it applicable
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 in current socio-economic-technical
environment)
5. Time-bound. The fifth criterion stresses the
importance of formulating goals within a
time frame, giving them a target date. A
commitment to a deadline helps a team
achieve and therefore complete the goal on
or before the due date. (When, what can I do
in six months, what can I do today)
Measurable objectives are utilized as assessment
tools. In developing your objectives, the
following should be included:
• Conditions (how or where the learner will
perform the task)
• Behavioral verbs (describe learner
behavior)
• Criteria (how well the learner performs the
behavior)
Criteria (How well the learner performs the
behavior?)
1. Learner's behavior. One of the challenges
associated with observing and evaluating
learner's behavior is the accuracy of results.
2. Observable behavior. This kind of behavior
can be recognized through one of the senses.
It is usually described by action words, such
as touching, walking, saying, or writing.
3. Measurable behavior. A behavior must first
be observable to be measurable. The
observer must be able to clearly determine
whether the behavior is occurring and then
the occurrences and the duration are counted.
4. Behavioral problems, feelings, or attitudes
that are complex, such as anger or sadness
are not easy to characterize and calculate.
However, by identifying specific observable
and measurable behaviors associated with
feelings, the teacher can measure and record
progress easily and accurately.
Sequencing Objectives
• While listing and arranging your objectives,
consider how each one links to another goal.
• Finalize and decide how your sequencing of
objectives will support the achievement of
such goals and the requirements for future
assignments.
Levels of Cognitive Objective
Remembering – define, duplicate, list, memorize,
recall, repeat, reproduce, state (Can the student
recall or remember the information?)
Understanding – classify, describe, discuss,
explain, identify. Locate, recognizer, report, select,
translate, paraphrase (Can the student explain ideas
or concepts?)
Applying – choose, demonstrate, dramatize,
employ, illustrate, interpret, operate, schedule,
sketch, solve, use, write (Can the student use the
information on a new way?)
Analyzing – appraise, compare, contrast, criticize,
differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, examine,
experiment, question, test (Can the
student distinguish between the different parts?)
Evaluating – appraise, argue, defend, judge, select,
support, value, evaluate (Can a student justify a
stand or decision?)
Creating – assemble, construct, create, design.
Develop, formulate, write (Can the student create
new product or point of view?) Levels of
Psychomotor Objective
The psychomotor domain of learning is focused on
process and skills involving the mind and the body
1. Perception (Awareness) - recognize,
distinguish, notice, touch, hear, feel
2. Set (Readiness) – arrange, prepare, get set
3. Guided Response (Attempt) – imitate, copy,
follow, try
4. Mechanism (Basic Proficiency) – make,
perform, shape, complete
5. Complex over response (Expert
proficiency) – coordinate, fix, demonstrate
6. Adaptation (Adaptable proficiency) –
adjust, integrate, solve
7. Origination (Creative proficiency) – design,
formulate, modify, redesign, troubleshoot.
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Levels of Affective Objective
Krathwohl's affective domain taxonomy is perhaps
the best known of any of the affective taxonomies.
The taxonomy is ordered according to the principle
of internalization.
Internalization - refers to the process whereby a
person's affect toward an object passes from a
general awareness level to a point where the affect is
"internalized" and consistently guides or controls
the person's behavior.
• Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to
the existence of certain ideas, materials, or
phenomena, and being willing to tolerate
them.
• Responding is committed to taking action or
acting in response to the ideas, materials, or
phenomena
• Valuing is perceived by others as giving
importance to specific concepts, things, or
experiences.
• Organization is to associate the value to
those already held and bring it into
harmonious and internally reliable
viewpoints.
• Characterization by value or value set is to
act consistently in agreement with the values
and beliefs one has internalized. Examples
are to revise, to require, to be rated high in
the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage. and
to resolve.
END OF CHAPTER 7 PART 1
CHAPTER 7: MANAGEMENT OF
INTRUCTION (PART 2)
Content standards are put up in accordance with
educational goals to have quality programs and
challenging courses. Structure of Subject Matter
Content
The subject matter structure points to the
interrelationships among the components of a
subject matter.
This is where the content, skills, and other affective
elements are integrated.
• Affective (values) is the apex of the triangle.
Teaching of values connects teaching of
facts, skills, and concepts to the life of the
learners, thus acquiring meaning.
• Cognitive is placed at the tip of the triangle,
emphasizing that facts, concepts, principles,
hypotheses, theories, and laws are the core of
the teaching-learning process.
• Skills at the top of the triangle. It means that
the emphasis of the subject, say Physical
Education, is more on manipulative and body
skills.
Three Domains
Knowledge (cognitive)
Skills (manipulative)
Values (affective)
Cognitive – facts/procedures, concepts/theories,
generalizations/laws, principles/hypotheses.
Skill – thinking skills
(divergent/metaphoric thinking,
convergent/critical thinking, problem
solving/creative thinking), manipulative skills
Cognitive Domain Elements
• Fact - is an idea or action that can be
verified.
• Concept - is a categorization of events,
places, ideas.
• Generalization - is a general statement of
idea.
• Principle - is a rule, tenet, guide, an essential
element of quality, or basic source or cause,
a natural or original tendency.
• Hypotheses - are educated guesses about
relationship/s.
• Procedure - means process, algorithm,
stepby-step description, and seriation in the
teaching of content to achieve the best
results, procedure is done from the simple to
complex (inductive method).
• Theory - is a set of facts, concepts, and
principles that describes underlying
unobservable mechanisms that regulate
human learning development and behavior.
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 • Laws - are firmly established, thoroughly
tested principle or theory.
Skills Domain Elements
Thinking skills refer to skills beyond recall and
comprehension.
• Divergent skills. This thinking refers to the
ability to come up with solutions to one
problem. It is the process oi idea generation.
• Convergent skills. These skills ale about
narrowing down from many possible ideas or
opinions and ending up with the single best
thought or solution.
• Problem solving is a mental process that
involves discovering, analyzing, and solving
problems.
➢ Algorithm. Solving a problem using
an algorithm means following
specific, step-by-step instructions.
➢ Heuristics. General problem-solving
strategy is the informal, intuitive,
speculative strategies that sometimes
lead to an effective solution and
sometimes do not.
• Metaphoric thinking. This type of thinking
uses analogical thinking, a figure of speech
where a word is used in a manner different
from its ordinary designation to suggest or
imply a parallelism or similarity.
• Critical thinking is the process of
independently analyzing, synthesizing, and
evaluating information as a guide to behavior
and beliefs. It takes a variety of forms:
➢ Verbal reasoning. An example is
evaluating the persuasive techniques
found in oral or language.
➢ Argument analysis. You are
engaged in this critical thinking
process when you discriminate
between reasons that do and do not
support a particular conclusion.
➢ Hypothesis testing. It is evaluating
the value of data and research results
in terms of the methods used to
obtain them and their potential
relevance to particular conclusions.
➢ Decision making. We are engaged in
critical thinking when the pros and
cons of each proposed alternative
approach are weighed.
• Creative thinking. This type of thinking
involves producing something that is both
original and worthwhile (Sternberg 2003). It
is original thinking, one type of divergent
thinking. It includes:
➢ A state of mind. Creative thinking
skills are as much about attitude and
self-confidence as about talent. It is
often less ordered, structured, and
less predictable.
➢ Creativity and emotions. Strong
emotional self-management is often
needed to allow conditions of
creative thinking to emerge.
➢ Creative thinking techniques.
There is no limit to ways of thinking
creatively. Some techniques include
a) Brainstorm ideas b) Allow oneself
to play with an idea while you go for
a walk. c) Draw or paint a theory on
paper. d) Ask the same question at
least twenty times and try to give a
different answer each time. e)
Combine some of the features of two
different objects ideas to see if you
can create some more. f) Change
your routine. g) Let your mind be
influenced by new stimulus h) Be
open to ideas when they are still new.
i) Ask questions, such as "What
if ...?" or "Supposing
➢ Combine analytical and creative
thinking skills. Many important
breakthroughs in science and
innovation have resulted from: a)
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 focusing on a subject in a logical, b)
focusing on a subject in a logical, c)
dreams or daydreams when the
innovator did not try so hard to find
the answer.
➢ Keep an idea book. Inspiration can
strike any time. Ideas can also slip
away very easily.
Manipulative Skills - These motor skills involving
an object / skill oriented.
• Content selection. Content must be aligned
with the goals of education and the
institution's vision and mission.
• Validity. Content must be applicable to
different situations, Current trends and
issues, time, and place. It must not show
manifestations of bias.
• Significance. Content must be reflective of
the current needs of the community and the
society in general. It must provide or offer
solution to pressing problems.
• Self-sufficiency. Content preparation should
afford an opportunity for self-learning.
Language used provides better
understanding.
• Interest. Content should be able to develop
interest in the learner. Real facts and life
situations are made more meaningful.
• Utility. Content should provide the
necessary information for knowledge and
skills acquisition which could be utilized as
the needs arise. It will teach learners the
muchneeded values.
• Learnability. Language used must be
simple, precise, and easily understood.
Graphics must provide for clearer
explanation/ discussion of topics.
• Feasibility. It is the capability of being done
with conditions as they are; likely probable;
capable of being used to meet objectives; and
capable of meeting success
Determining Appropriate Instructional
Approaches and Methods
Through proper selection of instructional
approaches and methods, learning is enhanced and
made.
Best approach which will work well for him, and his
learners are chosen by the teacher.
Approach becomes boring on the part of the learners
when a particular method is constantly used.
Different Approaches and Methods
• Teaching approach. This refers to one's
personal philosophy of teaching; his
understanding of the nature of education; and
the roles of the teacher, the student, the
administration, and the parents.
• Teaching Method. This is an organized,
orderly, or systematic, well-planned
procedure. It includes steps to follow to
achieve the objectives of instruction.
Direct expositive instruction methods
• Direct instruction. In this method, the
teacher provides information, facts, rules,
action sequences, and uses three of Bloom's
taxonomy: knowledge, comprehension, and
application.
• Expository instruction. This is a teaching
strategy where the teacher presents the
students with the subject matter
accompanying rules and examples for
illustration. The teacher expounds on subject
through illustration or use of visuals and
application and historical information.
• Deductive approach. The is more teacher
centered, in such the teacher gives the
learners a new concept, explains it, and then
asks them to practice using the concept.
• Demonstration method. This is applicable
to any number of subjects, including writing,
art, and even sports. In most instances, many
learners find it useful to watch a
demonstration prior to trying it themselves.
Guided / Exploratory Approach
The approaches and methods under the guided/
exploratory instruction are divided into
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processoriented methods and cognitive-oriented
methods
Exploratory learning - is based on constructivist
theories of learning and teaching.
Discovery learning - there is student interaction
with the world through the exploration and
manipulation of objects, wrestling with questions
and controversies, or performance of experiment.
Process-oriented methods. A Process-Oriented
Guided Inquiry Leaning (POGIL) classroom or lab
consists of any number of students working in small
groups using designed guided inquiry materials.
Process-oriented method is a step-by-step
acquisition of knowledge and skills. Learners are
actively engaged in activities designed to develop
specific learning competencies.
Inductive method. In contrast with the deductive
method, inductive instruction makes use of student
"noticing" instead of explaining a given concept
followed by explanation through examples, which
shows how the concept is used. The purpose is for
the students to notice" by way of examples how the
concept works.
Inquiry method. Inquiry as a teaching method has
its roots from Social Studies teachers.
- Inquiry is a term used broadly to refer to
everything from pseudo-experiments where
the teacher has the students reify
Laboratory. This method is defined as a teaching
procedure that uses investigation and
experimentation. It is a teaching procedure that uses
experimentation with apparatus and materials to
discover or verify facts and to study scientific
relationship.
Problem Solving Problem solving is the ability to
identify and solve problems by applying appropriate
skills systematically. It is a process—an ongoing
activity which starts from “what is known” to
discover “what is not yet known.”
Project method. Project method of teaching
according to Kilpatrick (1918) is a whole-hearted
purposeful activity proceeding in a social
environment.
Cognitive-oriented method. This method
emphasizes the development of thinking skills,
which is also referred to as thinking operations. The
thinking skills that should be taught directly are
interpreting, comparing, criticizing, classifying,
analyzing, summarizing & creating.
• Metacognitive. This is a method that requires
students not only to acquire thinking skills,
but also to monitor and control their
commitment and attitude during the learning
process.
• Constructivism. This method regards the
learner as the core of the learning process.
He is at the center of the educational stage.
• Reflective teaching. As the term "reflect"
denotes, this method affords the students to
reflect on their own experiences to give new
meaning to them. The teacher's role is to
guide them to go about analyzing learning
experiences that will lead to new learning
and new concepts that can be applied to new
learning situations.
Structure-oriented methodologies. There is a need
to provide productive learning environments which
involve motivating learners to participate in and
persist with academic tasks.
• Cooperative learning. In classrooms using
cooperative learning, students work on
activities in small heterogeneous groups, and
based on performance, can receive rewards
or recognition
• Peer-mediated. A method wherein an older,
brighter, and more responsible member of
the class is requested to tutor, coach, instruct,
or teach other classmates.
• Partner learning. A collaborative process in
which students experience learning from and
with each other for individual purposes
• Inductive learning. A kind of learning
method that allows learning to arrive to a
generalization after starting from the
specifics /gives way learning through
examples.
END OF CHAPTER 7 (PART 2)
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