Density.

 This equation is well-known but used often in

thermodynamics, therefore we will shortly introduce the density to be
(Eq. 6.3)ρ=mV
This equation allows simplification of the specific volume (volume
normalized to mass) to be simply expressed as
v=Vm=1ρ
We will use this function when introducing a specific variable, i.e.,
thermodynamic variables normalized to the mass.
Control Volume. Thermodynamics uses control volumes in order to
study changes of the important thermodynamic variables, e.g., the
temperature. Often, a process is described conveniently if a suitable
control volume is chosen. It requires some expertise and experience
to choose control volumes correctly. For doing so, the system is
enclosed with an imaginary boundary and the in- and outflux of mass
and energy are controlled. The thermodynamic state variables of the
system (i.e., the control volume) will change as a consequence of this
in- and outflux across the boundary of the control volume. This in- and
outflux brings in (or removes) energy from the system (see Fig. 6.2).

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Fig. 6.2. Schematic of a thermodynamic system as a control volume to and from

which heat, work, and mass flows.

Thermodynamic System. In general, a thermodynamic system is
referred to as a control volume for which the thermodynamic state
variables (which we will introduce in a moment) are being studied.
Thermodynamic (System) State. The state of a thermodynamic
system is defined by the current thermodynamic state variables, i.e.,
their values. Changes of states imply changes in the thermodynamic
state variables. It should be noted that it is not important for a
thermodynamic system by which processes the state variables were
modified to reach their respective values.
Thermodynamic Process. In thermodynamics, a process is referred
to as the transformation of a thermodynamic system from an initial
thermodynamic state (which is described by the thermodynamic state
variables) to a second thermodynamic state. The changes induced
can be read from the change of the thermodynamic state variables.
Thermodynamics State Variables. The following lists the important
thermodynamic state variables.
•
pressure, denoted p and measured in Pa
•
volume, denoted V and measured in m3; specific volume
(normalized to the mass), denoted v and measured in m3 kg−1;
please note that due to the fact that ρ=mV and v=Vm the specific
volume is equal to 1ρ
•
absolute temperature, denoted T measured in K
•
heat, denoted Q and measured in J; specific heat (normalized to
mass), denoted q and measured in J kg−1
•
work, denoted W and measured in J; specific work (normalized
to mass), denoted w and measured in J kg−1
•
enthalpy, denoted H and measured in J; specific enthalpy
(normalized to mass), denoted h and measured in J kg−1
•
entropy, denoted S and measured in J K−1; specific entropy
(normalized to mass), denoted s and measured in J K−1 kg−1
These variables are classified as either being intensive, that means
they do not scale with the amount of substance contained in the
system (temperature being a typical example), or extensive that
means they scale with the amount of substance contained in the
system (volume being a typical example). Some of these variables
exist as specific variables which means they are normalized to the
mass. These variables are usually denoted by lower case
letters, e.g., h for specific enthalpy, s for specific entropy, or v for
specific volume. Furthermore, variables may sometimes be
normalized to a specific time, especially if dynamic processes are to
be considered. These variables are then superscripted with a dot:
•
mass flow (mass per time), denoted m˙=dmdt and measured in
kg s−1
•
heat flow (heat per time), denoted Q˙=dQdt and measured in J
s−1; specific heat flow (heat flow normalized to mass),
denoted q˙=dqdt and measured in J kg−1 s−1
•
work flow (work per time), denoted W˙=dWdt and measured in J
s−1; specific work flow (work flow normalized to mass),
denoted w˙=dwdt and measured in J kg−1 s−1
•
enthalpy flow (enthalpy per time), denoted H˙=dHdt and
measured in J s−1; specific enthalpy flow (enthalpy flow
normalized to mass), denoted h˙=dhdt and measured in J kg−1 s−1
•
entropy flow (entropy per time), denoted S˙=dSdt and measured
in J K−1 s−1; specific entropy flow (entropy flow normalized to
mass) denoted s˙=dsdt and measured in J kg−1 s−1
 1.1 Temperature and Thermal
Equilibrium
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Define temperature and describe it qualitatively

 Explain thermal equilibrium
 Explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics

Heat is familiar to all of us. We can feel heat entering our bodies from the summer Sun or from
hot coffee or tea after a winter stroll. We can also feel heat leaving our bodies as we feel the chill
of night or the cooling effect of sweat after exercise.

What is heat? How do we define it and how is it related to temperature? What are the effects of
heat and how does it flow from place to place? We will find that, in spite of the richness of the
phenomena, a small set of underlying physical principles unites these subjects and ties them to
other fields. We start by examining temperature and how to define and measure it.

Temperature
The concept of temperature has evolved from the common concepts of hot and cold. The
scientific definition of temperature explains more than our senses of hot and cold. As you may
have already learned, many physical quantities are defined solely in terms of how they are
observed or measured, that is, they are defined operationally. Temperature is operationally
defined as the quantity of what we measure with a thermometer. As we will see in detail in a
later chapter on the kinetic theory of gases, temperature is proportional to the average kinetic
energy of translation, a fact that provides a more physical definition. Differences in temperature
maintain the transfer of heat, or heat transfer, throughout the universe. Heat transfer is the
movement of energy from one place or material to another as a result of a difference in
temperature. (You will learn more about heat transfer later in this chapter.)

Thermal Equilibrium
 An important concept related to temperature is thermal equilibrium. Two objects are in thermal
equilibrium if they are in close contact that allows either to gain energy from the other, but
nevertheless, no net energy is transferred between them. Even when not in contact, they are in
thermal equilibrium if, when they are placed in contact, no net energy is transferred between
them. If two objects remain in contact for a long time, they typically come to equilibrium. In
other words, two objects in thermal equilibrium do not exchange energy.

Experimentally, if object A is in equilibrium with object B, and object B is in equilibrium with

object C, then (as you may have already guessed) object A is in equilibrium with object C. That
statement of transitivity is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics. (The number “zeroth” was
suggested by British physicist Ralph Fowler in the 1930s. The first, second, and third laws of
thermodynamics were already named and numbered then. The zeroth law had seldom been
stated, but it needs to be discussed before the others, so Fowler gave it a smaller number.)
Consider the case where A is a thermometer. The zeroth law tells us that if A reads a certain
temperature when in equilibrium with B, and it is then placed in contact with C, it will not
exchange energy with C; therefore, its temperature reading will remain the same (Figure 1.2). In
other words, if two objects are in thermal equilibrium, they have the same temperature.

Figure 1.2 If
thermometer A is in thermal equilibrium with object B, and B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then A is
in thermal equilibrium with C. Therefore, the reading on A stays the same when A is moved over to
make contact with C.

A thermometer measures its own temperature. It is through the concepts of thermal equilibrium
and the zeroth law of thermodynamics that we can say that a thermometer measures the
temperature of something else, and to make sense of the statement that two objects are at the
same temperature.
In the rest of this chapter, we will often refer to “systems” instead of “objects.” As in the chapter
on linear momentum and collisions, a system consists of one or more objects—but in
thermodynamics, we require a system to be macroscopic, that is, to consist of a huge number
(such as 10231023) of molecules. Then we can say that a system is in thermal equilibrium with
itself if all parts of it are at the same temperature. (We will return to the definition of a
thermodynamic system in the chapter on the first law of thermodynamics.)
Summary
 Temperature is operationally defined as the quantity measured by a thermometer. It is
proportional to the average kinetic energy of atoms and molecules in a system.
 Thermal equilibrium occurs when two bodies are in contact with each other and can freely
exchange energy. Systems are in thermal equilibrium when they have the same temperature.
  The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems, A and B, are in thermal
equilibrium with each other, and B is in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A is
also in thermal equilibrium with C.

Conceptual Questions
What does it mean to say that two systems are in thermal equilibrium?
Show Solution

Give an example in which A has some kind of non-thermal equilibrium relationship with B,

and B has the same relationship with C, but A does not have that relationship with C.

Glossary
heat transfer
movement of energy from one place or material to another as a result of a difference in
temperature
temperature
quantity measured by a thermometer, which reflects the mechanical energy of molecules in a
system
thermal equilibrium
condition in which heat no longer flows between two objects that are in contact; the two objects
have the same temperature
zeroth law of thermodynamics
law that states that if two objects are in thermal equilibrium, and a third object is in thermal
equilibrium with one of those objects, it is also in thermal equilibrium with the other object
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Thermodynamic cycle refers to any closed system that undergoes various changes due to

temperature, pressure, and volume, however, its final and initial state are equal.[1] This cycle is
important as it allows for the continuous process of a moving piston seen in heat engines and the
expansion/compression of the working fluid in refrigerators, for example. Without the cyclical
process, a car wouldn't be able to continuously move when fuel is added, or a refrigerator would
not be able to stay cold.
Visually, any thermodynamic cycle will appear as a closed loop on a pressure volume diagram.
The following are examples of thermodynamic cycles:

Brayton cycle
main page
This a thermodynamic cycle used in some heat engines. Notably, it is used for gas turbine
engines and some jet engines. The cycle consists of compressing ambient air, mixing the air with
fuel, then igniting the mixture, which expands, doing work. In many Brayton cycle engines, the
hot air can then be recycled, heating the fresh air coming through.

Figure 1. A Brayton cycle with reheating and regeneration. Although it's not on a pressure
volume diagram, this exemplifies the concept of the continuous loop, where the final and initial
states are the same.[2]
Otto Cycle
main page
This cycle describes how heat engines turn gasoline into motion. Like other thermodynamic
cycles, this cycle turns chemical energy into thermal energy and then into motion. The Otto cycle
describes how internal combustion engines (that use gasoline) work, like automobiles and lawn
mowers. Without the cycle, the vehicle would suddenly stop, and wouldn't be able to provide
continuous motion.
Figure 2. The pressure-volume diagram of an ideal Otto Cycle process. As a thermodynamic cycle
there is a loop which the working fluid undergoes. This allows the continuous motion of a four-
stroke engine[3]

Rankine cycle
main page
This process is widely used by power plants such as coal-fired power plants or nuclear reactors.
In this mechanism, a fuel is used to produce heat within a boiler,
converting water into steam which then expands through a turbine producing useful work. The
schematic diagram shows there is no 'break' between the steps in a Rankine cycle, and
exemplifies the process is a continuous loop.

Figure 3. A simple schematic with components for the Rankine Cycle.[4]

For Further Reading
 Thermodynamics
 Pressure volume diagram
 System and surrounding
 Ideal gas law
 Or explore a random page

References
1. ↑ A. Atkins and M. Escudier, A dictionary of mechanical engineering.
2. ↑ Wiley.com, 2018. [Online].
Available: https://www.wiley.com/college/moran/CL_0471465704_S/user/tutorials/
tutorial9/tut9n_content.html. [Accessed: 31- Jul- 2018].
3. ↑ Wikimedia Commons [Online],
Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_cycle#/media/File:P-V_Otto_cycle.svg
4. ↑ Made internally be a member of the Energy Education team, adapted from Energy
Systems Engineering by F. Vanek, L. Albright and L. Angenent

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