Driving Safety for First Responders

Distracted Driving Definition

Distracted driving includes anything that diverts attention from driving—including texting
or talking on the phone, eating or drinking, even talking with passengers in your
vehicle, adjusting the stereo, entertainment, or navigation system. It entails anything
that takes your attention away from the task of driving safely.

At any given time throughout the day, roughly 660,000 drivers are attempting to use
their phones while behind the wheel of an automobile. Smartphones have always made
it far too easy for us to stay connected, but they can pose a substantial safety risk if
one takes their eyes off the road to check text messages, directions, emails, or
anything else on their phone while driving.

 The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) defines a distraction-

affected crash as “any crash in which a driver was identified as distracted at the time of
the crash.”

Statistics of Distracted Driving

Today, distracted driving accounts for roughly 25% of all motor vehicle crash fatalities.
According to the Department of Motor Vehicles, 9 people in the U.S. are killed every
day due to crashes involving distracted drivers.

A recent study analyzed the final six seconds of data recorded before 1,700 accidents.
They found that distracted driving was the cause in 58% of teen crashes overall. This
included 89% of road-departure accidents and 76% of rear-end incidents. Analysis also
found that when a teen driver is involved in an accident, they had their eyes off the
road for approximately 4.1 seconds. Other auto-industry studies have found that
drivers should not have their eyes off the road for more than 2-3 seconds. On average,
replying to a text takes 5 seconds of your attention. If you’re traveling at 55 mph, that's
enough time to travel the length of a football field.

The National Safety Council has found that cell phone use while driving leads to 1.6
million crashes each year. They have also found that 1 out of every 4 car accidents in
the United States is caused by texting and driving. Texting while driving is 6 times
more likely to cause an accident than driving drunk.

Statistics of Distracted Driving

On a positive note, the U.S. Department of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration announced that 2017 highway fatality numbers are down
following two consecutive years of large increases. In addition, preliminary estimates
for the first 6 months of 2018 appear to show that this downward trend is continuing.
In 2017, 37,133 people died in motor vehicle crashes, a decrease of almost 2 percent
from 2016. Pedestrian fatalities also declined about 2 percent, which is the first decline
since 2013.  Unfortunately, combination trucks were involved in fatal crashes, which is
an increase of 5.8%.

Types of Distracted Driving

There are three main types of distraction:

 Visual: taking your eyes off the road

 Manual: taking your hands off the wheel
 Cognitive: taking your mind off driving

Manual distractions occur when you take one or both hands off the wheel while driving.
If your schedule is busy or rushed, you may find yourself eating in the car, applying
makeup, adjusting the radio, or checking traffic reports on your phone. While this can
seem like a minor interruption, small interruptions can often lead to larger accidents
and even fatalities.

Visual distractions happen when the driver is looking at anything other than the road
ahead. Cell phones are the primary cause for looking away from the road but can also
include looking at passengers, reaching for something in the back seat, or looking in the
rear view mirror for too long.

Cognitive distractions occur when a driver takes their mind off the task of driving. When
we become too angry or emotional, begin to think about upcoming tasks, or “zone out,”
the brain becomes distracted and focuses on that topic instead of being an alert driver.
While music and news can help make a drive more tolerable, if it becomes too
distracting and takes your mind off the task of driving you are at risk of causing an
accident.

Distractions First Responders Encounter

Visual distractions for first responders consists of monitoring the on-board computer for
information, monitoring the radar, checking and ensuring that the in-car camera system
is operating, and looking for suspects.

Police officers are not exempt from manual distractions. In fact, officers can fall into
this category more than civilian motorists. For officers, a car becomes their office; in a
standard office, employees have computers, printers, copiers, and telephones. All these
devices are necessary and vital to their jobs. Since a patrol vehicle is essentially the
police officer’s work space, they also need these important devices. Radios, on-board
computers, radars, sirens, lights, and cell phones are some of the devices are
commonly found in an officer’s vehicle. Of these devices, cell phones and on-board
computers are often the most used manual devices in police vehicles. 
They are used not only to communicate with friends and family, but they are often used
as a back-up for the radio. This is because officers sometimes have to relay or receive
sensitive or confidential information that does not need to be broadcasted over the
radio. This holds true, but not to the same degree, for firefighters and EMS as they
typically operate a vehicle with a partner or in the case of firefighters potentially several
officers.

Can Technology Reduce Distractions?

As technology advances, the equipment in patrol cars can also be updated, including
some newer vehicles that are equipped with hands-free technology. Hands-free
technology will allow you to read, reply, and send a text message without taking your
eyes off the road; it can also allow you to accept and make phone calls and even
change the radio station or form of entertainment, simply by using your voice.

The commonly held belief is that one must answer the phone when it sends an alert. In
fact, drivers never have to take their hands off the steering wheel to do any of these
things. Many newer vehicles and even some smartphones have a safety feature that
will not allow you to watch videos or manually send text messages while the vehicle is
in motion. Even though these features are becoming standard features on civilian
vehicles, many police vehicles are not equipped with these features. However, many
departments are seeing the need and the value of having these features in law
enforcement vehicles.

Multi-tasking is a normal part of a first responder’s job. The electronic devices in their
vehicles require a certain amount of physical, visual, and mental attention, all of which
relate to distracted driving.

Lesson 1 Summary
Distracted driving is an epidemic. Drivers, pedestrians, and first responders alike are all
greatly affected. In this lesson, we discussed the frequency and impact that distracted
drivers can have, as well as the different ways drivers can be distracted. In the next
lesson, we will explore advanced defensive driving in adverse conditions.

Lesson 2: Advanced Defensive Driving Tactics

In lesson two we will cover advanced defensive driving in adverse conditions and the
compounding effects that distracted driving can have. Many of these conditions, such as
heavy rains high winds and snow coupled with the three distraction types make for a
dangerous mix.

Hydroplaning Effects on Emergency Vehicles

After a heavy rainfall, the first few minutes are critical. Regarding hydroplaning, be aware that:
 1. The first ten minutes after rainfall begins are the most dangerous to drive. The
rain mixes with oil from motor vehicles and oil from new asphalt and makes
roads slippery. After it has rained for a significant amount of time, the rain
washes the oil away and the slippery conditions diminish.
2. If it rains heavily, there can be moving water on the roadway, even after it stops
raining. This creates a situation where hydroplaning is possible. When a vehicle
hydroplanes, the tires lose contact with the road and have little or no
traction.This means that you may have difficulty or not be able to steer or to
brake. Hydroplaning can happen at speeds as low as 30 mph if there is a lot of
water.
3. In severe rain, a driver should reduce his or her speed by half.

Avoiding Hydroplaning
One the best ways to avoid hydroplaning is to be aware of the risk factors that can lead
to hydroplaning. Tires that do not have the proper tread depth or are inflated
improperly must be attended to prior to hitting the roadway. Hydroplaning typically
happens when your tires encounter more water than they can disperse, thus losing
contact with the road and skidding along the water’s surface. The water pressure in
front of the tire forces the tire up onto the water surface, reducing friction and causing
the driver to lose control of the vehicle. Although it can be a scary experience the most
important thing to remember is to stay calm.

You should never drive through puddles or standing water if it all possible. These spots
are where you’re most likely to hydroplane. Puddles typically form along the sides of
the road, so if it all possible you should try to stay in the center of the lane. If there is a
car in front of you, maintain the proper traveling distance, and try to drive within the
tracks that the car in front of you. Doing so decreases the chance that the water will
build up in front of your tires causing you to lose control.

In heavy rains, it is always important to make sure that your windshield wipers are
working properly and are in good operating condition. Poor visibility during heavy
rainfall prohibits you from seeing the roadways in a clear manner and being able to
react appropriately to driving conditions.

Hazards of Driving in Inclement Weather

Anyone that’s been on the job for any length of time can certainly tell you that law
enforcement, firefighters, and EMS have no other alternative but to drive in conditions
that would deter civilian drivers. Conditions may reduce the driver’s vision or the
amount of traction provided by the road surface; the fact is that first responders must
often operate in unfavorable conditions. It is not uncommon for state or local agencies
to limit access of roadways to the public during inclement weather. However, because
of the nature of the services they deliver, police, EMS, and fire services are often
unable to heed their own advice. In fact, there is often an uptick in the volume of calls
first responders have to respond to. Police often see an increase in domestic incidents
when people have been shut in for long periods of time under difficult conditions. 
Similarly, fire services are often called to task as well during inclement weather
situations. In snowy or heavy rain conditions vehicles often find themselves off the road
and in need of assistance due to hydroplaning. Lightning strikes and trees falling on
utility lines are also a concern and lead to fire services being called in those adverse
conditions as well.

Common inclement weather conditions that emergency service personnel may need to
drive in, (depending on their geographic locations) include fog, wind, rain, ice, and
snow. The hazards associated with these conditions include:

 Reduced visibility
 Reduced steering control
 Reduced speed and frequent braking
 Civilian drivers who are not driving cautiously

Defensive Driving
Defensive driving is driving proactively to ensure the safety of yourself and others. The
basic elements of defensive driving often seem like common sense: maintaining safe
speeds, wearing your seat belt, keeping your eyes on the road, and maintaining your
calm behind the wheel. The basic elements of defensive driving require that you make
good decisions. However, some circumstances such as law enforcement personnel,
firefighters and paramedics require drivers to have additional knowledge and training to
inform their decisions.

Advanced defensive driving means being prepared to drive safely in unexpected

circumstances and challenging environments. Advanced defensive driving requires
being fully informed about potential hazards and knowing the proper techniques for
handling them.

Obviously, the financial costs of unsafe or even less-than-defensive driving are great.
The human costs are even greater. You owe it to yourself, your employer, and your
community to do everything you can so that you do not become a statistic. Even the
smallest fender-bender can result in lingering financial costs for all parties involved.
Defensive driving is the simplest way to ensure that you are protecting yourself and
others when you drive.

Now that you had have concluded lesson two, you should have a better understanding
of how to operate a vehicle utilizing advanced defensive driving techniques in adverse
conditions. You should also be able to articulate the compounding effects that distracted
driving may add in heavy rains and snowy roadway conditions.

Lesson 3: Navigating Traffic Safely

As first responders, there are distractions, such as negative rights-of-way, that we can
encounter when responding to a scene. In this lesson, we will discuss the perils of
excessive speed and bring to light the importance of an advanced dispatch system.

Intersections and Collisions

Intersections are the most common place where vehicles of all emergency disciplines
can be involved in a collision with another vehicle. 

 Civilian collisions: Drivers who fail to yield to emergency vehicles are the most
common cause for an emergency vehicle and civilian vehicle collision.
Inter¬section collisions can also result from the driver of the emergency vehicle
disregarding safe practice and laws dictating the way you are supposed to
traverse an intersection, especially in a negative right-of-way situation. 
 First responder collisions: On occasion, two emergency vehicles can collide with each
other in an intersection. In some cases, the emergency vehicles are responding
to the same incident, and in other cases, they are responding to separate
incidents.

Right of Way in Emergency Situations

When responding to a call, emergency vehicles are given the option of proceeding
through a red traffic signal or stop sign (after coming to a complete stop) because of
the perceived urgency of the event. Too often, emergency vehicles proceed through
negative rights-of-way without stopping and, in some cases, barely slowing down. Yet,
many calls do not require an urgent response. 

The differences between slowing the vehicle and rolling through an intersection versus
coming to a complete stop at an intersection will probably only extend the response
time by two to three seconds per intersection in fire apparatus and ambulances. This figure
may even be less in police vehicles, as they tend to have quicker stopping and
acceleration capabilities than do larger apparatus. 

Navigating Through an Intersection

SOPs and training must reinforce safe procedures for getting through intersections.
Police and fire departments must have established policies for negotiating intersections,
and all drivers must be thoroughly trained in these procedures. In the fire service, this
is a requirement of NFPA 1500 (Objective 6.2.7). Negotiating intersections for
ambulances is covered in the Emergency Vehicle Operator Course (EVOC) for
Ambulances through NHTSA. Most lo¬cal law enforcement agencies have similar
policies.

When the vehicle has two members riding in the front, such as with two police officers,
two EMTs/paramedics or a fire apparatus driver/operator and a company officer, both
the occupants must work together to ensure safe passage through intersections.
When approaching an intersection, the driver should slow the vehicle to a speed that
allows a stop at the intersection if necessary. Even if faced with a green signal light or
no signal at all, slow the vehicle to a speed that would allow for an expedient stop.
Situations where an expedient stop may be required include obstructions, such as
buildings or trucks, that block the driver’s view of the intersection, or when the driver
cannot ensure that all other vehicles have stopped to give the vehicle the right-of-way.

At busy intersections, prepare to stop by placing your foot on the brake pedal; that way
there will be no delay if a stop is necessary. This technique is often referred to as
“covering the brake pedal,” and it is widely taught in both the fire and law enforcement
communities. Depending on the speed at which the vehicle is moving at the time, this
technique can save anywhere from 30 to 60 feet of travel/stopping distance and may
be the difference between being involved in a collision and not.

Standard Operating Procedures

All employers have an obligation to provide the safest working conditions possible.
However, once emergency personnel leaves the station and go on the streets, they are
exposed to a considerable array of hazards. That said, significant reductions in hazards
could be made if there is a commitment from both the organization and the individuals
serving within it. One of the primary means by which agencies establish consistent
operations and manage risk is through the adoption and enforcement of Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs), sometimes referred to as standard operating guidelines
(SOGs). SOPs allow agencies and their personnel to operate in a predictable and
efficient manner. 

Developing and enforcing SOPs related to emergency vehicle response procedures and
roadway incident scene operations are particularly important due to the hazards these
operations pose for responders. The agency administration is responsible for developing
the SOPs, but it is strongly recommended that members from all levels of the
organization, including organized labor organizations, be involved in the development
and periodic review and revision of the SOPs.

When developing SOPs for emergency vehicle responses and roadway incidents, it is
important to ensure that they conform to applicable laws and standards. These include
state and federal laws, national consensus standards, state and federal requirements,
and the DOT’s MUTCD. SOPs that conflict with these regulations can place a significant
amount of liability and risk on the agency and its members.

Developing, maintaining, and revising SOPs is only half the equation. If the agency fails
to educate the members and/or consistently enforce these procedures, the best SOPs in
the world are worthless. Agencies must hold members accountable for following the
SOPs. Lacking accountability, SOPs often are disregarded, leading to unsafe behaviors,
unnecessary damage, injuries, and deaths.

Dispatch as a Priority
The use of warning lights and sirens on emergency vehicles is a basic component of
emergency response and patient transport in the U.S. It is expected by not only
emergency responders but also by the public. Without question, emergency personnel
are most vulnerable when they are responding to a reported emergency or transporting
a patient with lights and siren activated.

If we are going to make significant reductions in the number of injuries and deaths to
personnel of all emergency disciplines, a major cultural shift is required. One of these
shifts is the realization that using an honest risk-benefit analysis; many calls do not
really justify a light and siren response.

Sound priority dispatching relies on trained dispatchers and preset, algorithmic

questions. There are commercial programs with preset questions available for all the
emergency disciplines. Many departments have also developed their own preset
questions.

Traffic Control Devices

Traffic control devices are not a substitute for using proper defensive driving techniques
when approaching and traveling through an intersection. Understand that of two
emergency vehicles equipped with signal control devices approach the same traffic
signal from different directions only the vehicle whose sensor affects the signal first will
get a green light. The secondary vehicle approaching gets a red signal; it is imperative
that you come to a complete stop if you are presented with a red light at the
intersection.

Note: Not all municipalities have traffic control devices in place for this reason, so you
need to be mindful of the possibility of encountering other emergency vehicles in
intersections when responding to an emergency.

Excessive Speed
In reviewing the records and reports on police vehicle and fire apparatus crashes that
have occurred over the years, a large percentage of these reports cite excessive speed of
the vehicle as one of the primary contributing factors to the cause of the crash.
Although EMS data is limited, it would seem logical that excessive speed would also be
a factor in many ambulance crashes since they respond in the same way as fire and
police units. 

The old sports adage, “speed kills” certainly seems to be the case when applied to
emergency vehicle crashes. There is a direct correlation between increased speed and
decreased safety when operating any vehicle, and emergency vehicles are not exempt.
The problems associated with excessive speed manifest themselves in several ways: 

 The vehicle is unable to negotiate a curve in the road.

 The vehicle is unable to stop before hitting another vehicle or object.
 The vehicle is unable to stop before entering an intersection or railroad crossing.
  A weight shift occurs when the vehicle is slowed, causing it to skid or overturn.
 Control of the vehicle is lost after hitting a pothole, speed bump or similar defect
in the driving surface.
 Control of the vehicle is lost because of swaying outside the lane of travel and
striking a median or curb, or the tires on one side of the vehicle (usually the
right side) leaving the road surface.
 Tire traction is lost on wet, icy, snowy or unpaved road surfaces.

Emergency disciplines must develop and enforce policies that establish maximum speed
criteria for all types of vehicles, conditions, and situations. Drivers must be familiar with
these policies and understand that they are maximums. The policy must contain a
provision that allows a riding company officer or superior to demand that drivers slow
down, but never gives them the right to force the driver to go faster than the driver’s
comfort level allows.

The potential for any of these scenarios to occur may be increased by road surfaces
that are wet, icy, unpaved, contain loose materials, or are banked in one direction or
the other. Drivers must recognize these dangerous conditions and adjust for them
accordingly. The vehicle must always be driven at a speed that allows control on the
roadway and the ability to stop within a reasonable distance. Speed needs to be
reduced if the road is wet, icy or unpaved.

Law enforcement agencies tend to have less restrictive policies on vehicle response
speeds than the fire service and EMS agencies. This is most likely due to the wider
range of emergencies to which police officers respond. Individual officers operating in
the field have much more discretion on speed. On every response, the officer must
make a risk versus gain judgment on whether there exists a need to make a high-speed
response. If officers are honest with themselves, they will determine that many of the
calls that they have rushed to in the past ended up not being time-crucial and did not
justify the higher rate of speed.

Many law enforcement driving instructors liken the judgment on whether to use a more
rapid response to that of determining the need to apply use-of-force. Each case
requires an evaluation of the situation and then the application of appropriate techniques.

Regardless of the agency or vehicle being driven, the faster a vehicle is driven, the
more likely the driver is to lose control of it for a multitude of reasons. The loss of
control may be due to an issue with the driving surface, driver distraction, people or
vehicles entering the travel path, vehicle malfunction, and any number of other
reasons. Increased speed reduces the reaction time to adjust for these situations: the
faster the speed, the longer the stopping distance.

As a rule of thumb, doubling the speed of a vehicle quadruples the distance it takes to stop on a dry
surface. This distance is further increased on wet, snowy or icy roads. An increased
stopping distance increases the likelihood of running into some other object before the
vehicle can be brought to a stop. Excessive speed is the true culprit in many of the
other issues discussed in this section of the course. The importance of speed
management cannot be overstated when discussing the reduction of vehicle response-
related incidents.

Alternative Response Policies for Law Enforcement

Officers
The need to review emergency response policies is just as critical for law enforcement
agencies as it is for fire and EMS. Although the percentage of calls that police officers
historically have responded to using lights and siren is significantly less than with fire
and EMS, there still are many calls in which the risk-benefit analysis does not justify an
emergency response.

Much attention is often paid to incidents where police officers are injured or killed
during a vehicle pursuit. This is typically because of the high-profile media attention
focused on these events. The reality is that on average, only about 5 percent of all
vehicle-related officer fatalities occur during pursuits. A review of case histories of
automobile crashes indicates that the majority of crashes occurred (driving with or
without lights and siren) at a high rate of speed.

Officials who study these issues, and who assist law enforcement agencies in
developing driving policies, typically look at this issue from the same risk-benefit
perspective as discussed above in the fire department and EMS sections. Certainly, the
vast majority of police vehicle crashes occur during routine driving situations, and they
tend to be low in severity. Although the number of crashes that occur during pursuits is
relatively low, they can often be quite severe. Crashes that occur during emergency
responses happen much more frequently than pursuit crashes and tend to be
significantly more serious than those that occur during routine driving.

Alternative Response Policies for First Responders

As in the fire and EMS services, there exists no national standard or regulations for
police agencies about when or when not to respond to calls using emergency driving
procedures. While there may be some direction from applicable state motor vehicle
codes, most policies that exist on this topic are agency-developed and highly dependent
on the culture of each individual department. In many cases, the policies that are in
place are not highly specific on when and when not to drive in an emergency response
mode. This is because of the perception that every call is a different situation and certain
variables may or may not justify an emergency response.

In reality, all law enforcement agencies should have relatively firm policies on what
justifies an emergency response and what does not. However, there must be some
flexibility in these policies to account for conditions such as inclement weather, heavy
traffic conditions, and other factors that may influence the response time. In
establishing these policies, law enforcement agencies should use a risk versus
benefit perspective to determine when emergency driving is appropriate.
One of the critical factors to consider when developing this type of policy is whether
there is any likelihood that a slightly faster arrival on the scene of call is likely to make
a difference in the outcome of that incident. Many, if not most, incidents that police
officers respond to are actually over before the caller even talks to the 911 dispatcher.
In those incidents, an emergency response versus a non-emergency response will make
little or no difference in the outcome.