College of Teachers Education

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023

MODULAR LEARNING

I. COURSE TITLE: Ethics

A. No. of Units: 3
B. Schedule: ___________

II. COURSE OVERVIEW

A. Course Description
Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of the person, society,
and in interaction with the environment and other shared resources. Morality pertains to the standards
of right and wrong that an individual originally picks up from the community. The course discusses the
context and principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of individual, society, and
interaction with the environment and other shared resources. The course also teaches students to
make moral decisions by using dominant moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral
reasoning model to analyze and solve moral dilemmas.

B. Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1. Differentiate between moral and non-moral problems.
2. Describe what a moral experience is as it happens in different levels of human existence.
3. Explain the influence of Filipino culture on the way the students look at moral experiences and
solve moral dilemmas.
4. Describe the elements of moral development and moral experience.
5. Use ethical frameworks or principles to analyze moral experiences.
6. Make sound ethical judgments based on principles, facts, and the stakeholders affected.
7. Develop sensitivity to the common good.
8. Understand and internalize the principles of ethical behavior in modern society at the level of
the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared sources.

C. Module Topics
These are the topics to be covered for the whole course:
1. Moral vs. Non-moral standards
2. Moral Dilemmas
3. Foundation and Requirement for Morality
4. Culture in Moral Behavior
5. Developing Virtue as Habit
6. Module 6. Feelings and Moral Decision Making
7. Moral Courage
8. Aristotle: Telos/End; Virtue as Habit; Happiness as Virtue
9. St. Thomas Aquinas: Natural Law and Its Tenets; Happiness as Constitutive of Moral Virtues
and Cardinal Virtues
10. Kant and Rights Theorists
11. Utilitarianism
12. Justice and Fairness: Promoting the Good
Deontological Ethics: Immanuel Kant
13. Ethics Through Thick and Thin
Globalization
Social Media Ethics
Social Media Ethics: Fake News

III. STUDY GUIDE/LEARNING INSTRUCTIONS

● Welcome, and wish everyone is feeling good!
● You are reminded to prepare yourselves by observing the following:
✔ Manage your time well.
 ✔ Focus your attention.
✔ Give your best.
✔ Submit requirements on time.
✔ Be patient.
✔ Work independently and answer confidently.
✔ Motivate yourself.
✔ Contact me.
● Be oriented on your category for the mode of delivery. We have classified only three namely:
Category A – All Online (for students with gadgets and with good Wi-Fi connectivity)
Category B – Mix Online and Print Materials (for students with gadgets but with weak Wi-Fi
connectivity)
Category C – All Print Materials (for students with no smart phones and no Wi-Fi connectivity)

IV. REFERENCES
● Palean E. D., Nazario M. D., Descartin I. L., Mendoza B. S., Valero, J.G., “Ethics: Exploring
Moral Philosophy”, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2019
● Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
● Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral
Valuation”, 1st edition, REX Book Store, 2018
● Ramos, Carmela, “Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person”, (1st edition), REX
Book Store, 2016
● Palma-Angeles, Antonette, “Cultural Drivers of Corruption in Business and Governance.” In
Business Ethics in Asia: Issues and Cases, edited by Oscar G. Bulaong, Jr., Ike Danita Dewey,
and J. Sedfrey Santiago, 20-36. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 2015.
● Golder, Ben, “Beyond Redemption? Problematizing the Critique of Human Rights in
Contemporary
● International Legal Thought.” London Review of International Law (2015) 2 (1):77-114
● Rawls, John, “A Theory of Justice.” In Reason at Work: Introductory Readings in Philosophy.
Edited by Stephen M. Cahn and George Sher, 262-76, (2015)

Moral vs. Non-moral Standards

http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/moral-vs.-non-moral-standards. (Accessed August 11, 2020.)

Moral Reasoning
http://plato.standford.edu/moral-reasoning. (Accessed August 11, 2020.)

Moral Reasoning
https://www.researchgate.net>2678/2016/06/14/moral-reasoning. (Accessed August 11, 2020)

A Brief Timeline of Euthanasia

https://venngage.net/p/212725/a-brief-timeline-of-euthanasia. (Accessed August 18, 2020.)

What are Moral Dilemmas?

https://philonotes.com>2018/06/10/what-are-moral-dilemmas. (Accessed August 18, 2020.)

The Nature of Morality

https://www.pearsonhighered.com>the-nature-of-morality. (Accessed August 20, 2020)

What is Morality?
https://www.slideshare.net/what-is-morality. (Accessed August 21, 2020)

What is Ethical Relativism?

https://philonotes.com/what-is-ethical-relativism. (Accessed August 23, 2020.)
 Binalonan, Pangasinan
College of Teachers Education
1st
Semester | A.Y. 2022-2023
Module 1
Moral vs. Non-moral Standards

Course Title: Ethics

Course Code: GE 8

Name:Johnriel Gabayno Mariñas

Course and Year: BSED/ 1st Year
Date and Time Allotment:

Week 1: Orientation

Introduction
This module entitled Moral vs. Non-moral Standards is all about the fundamental notions and basic
concepts of what ethics is, give a guided tour of the most important and relevant topics needed to guide the students’
quest for understanding certain standards, and the need to study ethics to distinguish different cultures and traditions,
and know the importance of moral reasoning.

I. Objectives:
In this module, you will:
1. Be able to understand the basic concepts of ethics;
2. Be able to differentiate between moral and non-moral standards; and
3. Be able to learn and explain the seven-step moral reasoning model.
4. define the terms and ethics and moral and discuss the philosophical uses of these terms
5. Lecture and Discussions of the lesson

A. What is Ethics?
● The term “ethics” comes from the Greek word “ethos”, which means custom, a characteristics, or habitual
way of doing things, or action that is properly derived from one’s character. The Latin word mos or moris
(and its plural mores) from which the adjective moral is derived is equivalent to ethos.
✔ From a purely etymological point of view, ethical and moral are, therefore, synonymous. Also,
restricted to such rootword considerations, ethics and morality may only be a “simple description of
the mores or ways of behaving, whether of the human person in general or of a particular population.” It
seems then that as a field of study, ethics need not to be “normative” in guiding human action and it is
even seemingly imperative to preserve an attitude of neutrality that excludes all judgments of value.
Etymologically, ethics is but a survey of patterns of behavior that is done by the human being in
general or a society in particular.
✔ Ethics has something to do with realizing the fullest potential as free persons acting in the world and
doing right for others. It is not about being efficient or achieving goals. It is about realizing what people
intuit to be the good.

● Referring to the philosophical concept of morality endeavors to understand moral concepts and justify moral
principles. It analyzes concepts such as right and wrong, and seeks to establish principles of right behavior
that may serve as guides to action for people to follow (Pojman, 1992).
● Ethics for Filipino students is philosophy of human action that allows them to learn the art of living. It is an
art that enables them to be reconciled with their freedom and that which is expected of them (by others and
themselves). Thus, ethics is a way for them to find happiness.
● Ethics also considers that which is worthy of a human being.
✔ Means that living rightly is not only about searching for happiness but living as one ought to live as a
human being. In living rightly, one receives contentment and approval both from others and
himself/herself, and in living wrongly, he/she deserves blame (from others and from himself/herself).

B. Gawa and Gawi Habituation

 In Filipino, the words gawi and gawa can give a sense of what philosophers mean by ethical action. Filipinos
distinguish between thoughtless, instinctive mannerisms and reflexes from gawa (action) and gawi (inclination). In
reflecting on how Filipinos use these words, one can understand that human actions are different from mere bodily
movements.
Freedom figures closely into action and inclination. Freedom here means not only the ability to act free
from outside influences or the independence from the impediments to one’s wishes.
Freedom – Is the willful act and decision that give form and shape to the actions and inclinations of people.
This freedom is oriented toward the wherefore, the what for, and the whom for of the doings of the people.
✔ These are the common aspects of human actions that Filipinos understand as action and inclination:
that free human acts are governed by reflection and are freely decided such that they are not
determined by internal or external forces.
However, gawi and gawa are not identical. Gawi for the Filipino is different from gawa, Aristotle differentiates
between human actions that are “praxis” and “to poiein.” What is important for the human agent who engages in
“to poiein,” gawa for Aristotle, is to successfully complete a particular work be it artistic or technical. The human
person himself/herself is significant only in considering the result in matters of “to poiein” or gawa. Ethics, on the
other hand, not only has such “normative” considerations as to the end products of the actions.
Ethics, as concerned with “praxis” for Aristotle, properly focuses on the human agent that is revealed
through his/her actions. Ethics is normative with regard to its being a practical science. It does not only limit itself to
the description of human actions but also aims to guide them.

Gawa (“to poiein”) – Refers to the free action that is oriented toward a particular end.
● For example, a worker uses his/her free imagination and will to bring about services and products that
contribute to the well-being of society.
✔ As one governed by free decision making, the creative worker embraces all the information he/she can
gather to effectively realize his purpose. A process of discernment accompanies the creative work.
● The carpenter, for instance, must learn many details about wood: its feel, its hardness and pliability, as well
as its strength. He/she should know about the qualities that will help him/her accomplish the task at hand
very well. Part of this knowledge is the knowledge about the body’s movement in accomplishing this work.
The carpenter should study how heavy or light the hand should move over certain kinds of wood, what tools
to apply so that the wood yields the best piece: a stool, a table, or the wheel of a cart.

Gawi (“praxis”) – Refers to the free kind of work and to the kind of acts that people are used to
accomplishing.
✔ Gawi does not only refer to particular acts of person. A person’s kagawian or habitual action reveals
truth about himself/herself.
● The beautiful table and the intricately designed chair are products of a carpenter that has gotten used to
being one, in his kagawian, he reveals himself/herself as a good or a bad person.
● A worker who produces for the society is judged skilled or unskilled.
● A person is judged good or evil, right or wrong based on kagawian, or habituation.

*Kagawian is the Filipino equivalent of ethos in Greek and mos or moris in Latin.

C. Moral Standards vs. Non-moral Standards

*Why do we need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
1. Some values do have moral implications, while others don’t.

For example, the wearing of However, in many parts of the world, especially in
hijab. For sure, in traditional Western societies, most people don’t mind if women
Muslim communities, the barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact, the
wearing of hijab is the most Hollywood canon of beauty glorifies a sexy and slim
appropriate act that women body and the wearing of extremely daring dress.
have to do in terms of dressing
up. In fact, for some Muslims,
showing parts of the woman’s
body, such as the face and
legs is despicable.

*The point here is that people in the West may have pitied the Muslim women who wear hijab, while some Muslims
may find women who dress up daringly despicable.
 2. Different cultures have different moral standards.
● What is a matter of moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste in
one culture may be a matter of moral significance in another.

The danger is that one culture may impose its own cultural standard on
others, which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs. When
this happens, violence and crime may ensue, such as religious violence
and ethnic cleansing.
How can we address this cultural conundrum?
People have to understand the difference between moral standards and
non-moral ones, to identify fundamental ethical values that may guide
actions. Indeed, once we know that particular values and beliefs are non-
moral, we will be able to avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of
cultural reductionism (that is, taking complex cultural issues as simple and homogenous ones) and the
unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural standards on others.

NON-MORAL STANDARDS MORAL STANDARDS

We have NO RIGHT We have the right to force to impose on others
others to act accordingly

Moral Standards
In making moral decisions, what standards are we supposed to follow? Who made these standards? Will
following these standards make us all ethically moral? These are but a few questions that need to be answered as
we are compelled to abide by ethical principles daily.
● Are those ethical principles that we live by and believe, these are important blueprints of our behavior, which
we abide daily, and are influenced by our society, or by certain ethical universals.
● It serves as our guide to the rightness of our behavior, serve as our compass, a sort of light in our path,
keeping us on our toes, thus, allowing us to check if our actions behooves ethical and moral ideals.
● Are norms that individuals or groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong,
as well as the values placed on what we believed to be morally good or morally bad.
✔ It normally promote “the good” that is, the welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals, and
the environment.
✔ Moral standards, therefore, prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights and obligations.

According to some scholars, moral standards are the sum combined norms and values. In other words,
norms + values = moral standards.
Norms – are understood as general rules about our actions or behaviors.
● For example, we may say “We are always under the obligation to fulfill our promises” or “it is always
believed that killing innocent people is absolutely wrong.”
Values – Are understood as enduring beliefs or statements about what is good and desirable or not.
● For example, we may say “Helping the poor people is good” or “Cheating during exams is bad.”

Characteristics of Moral Standards

1. Moral standards deals with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and the
environment such as child abuse, rape, and murder.
2. Moral standards are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or bodies.
3. Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other standards and considerations especially
self-interest.
4. Moral standards are fair and just.
5. Moral standards are associated with special emotions such as guilt and shame, and vocabulary such as right,
wrong, good, and bad.

Non-moral Standards
● Are those unwanted principles, which are in opposition to everything that we are expected to be and do, and
it is influenced by largely by the construct prescribed in our society.
● Refers to standards by which we judge what is good or bad, right or wrong in a non-moral way.
● Matters of taste or preference
Examples:
● standards of etiquette by which we judge manners as good or bad
● standards we call the law by which we judge something as legal or illegal
● standards of aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish
*Therefore, as a way of distinguishing moral standards from non-moral ones, if a moral standards says “Do not harm
innocent people” or “Don’t’ steal”, a non-moral standards says “Don’t text while driving” or “Don’t talk when your
mouth is full”.

D. The Philosophical Importance of Moral Reasoning

What is Moral Reasoning?
● Is a type of reasoning directed towards deciding what to do that involves forming judgments about what one
ought, morally, to do.

Brucciarelli, et al., 2008

“Any systematic mental process that constructs or evaluates implications from premises of some sort”, and moral
reasoning as reasoning that involves “deontic propositions” as premises, which are propositions that “concern what
you may, should, and should not do or else leave undone.”

For Brucciarelli et al., moral reasoning can be either an intentional and conscious process or a non-
intentional and nonconscious process so long as the process (conscious or nonconscious) is systematic in the
right kind of way; a clear departure from the view that moral reasoning is always a conscious process.

Haidt (2001)
“Conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral
judgment.”

According to him, moral reasoning is “intentional, effortful, and controllable, and that the reasoner is
aware that it is going on.” Moral reasoning on his view, also heavily relies on nonconscious psychological
processes, in particular, the emotions.

Paxton & Greene (2010)

“Conscious mental activity through which one evaluates a moral judgment for its (in)consistency with other moral
commitments, where these commitments are to one or moral principles and (in some cases) particular moral
judgments.”

Greene takes a different approach, and defines moral reasoning (or “cognition” in his terminology)
behaviorally, by contrasting the behavioral effects of emotions. On his view, cognitive representations are
inherently neutral representations, ones that do not automatically trigger particular behavioral responses or
dispositions, while emotional representations do have such automatic effects, and are therefore behaviorally
valenced.
Greene further elaborates that cognition is for “reasoning, planning, manipulating information in working
memory, controlling impulses, and ‘higher executive functions’ more generally”, whereas emotions are
“subserved by processes that in addition to be valenced, are quick and automatic, though not necessarily
conscious.

Some Empirical Challenges to Moral Reasoning

1. Our thinking, including our moral thinking is often not explicit. We could say that we reason tacitly, thinking
in much the same way as during explicit reasoning, but without any explicit attempt to reach well-supported
answers.

2. Our feelings/emotions. Feelings without reason are blind. Reasons sets the course for making ethical and
impartial decisions especially in moral situations although it is not the sole determining factor in coming up with
such decisions.
For example, a person is in a state of rage towards a perceived enemy or competitor is likely unable to
process the possible consequences of his/her actions done impulsively. Feelings seek immediate fulfillment, and it is
our reason that tempers these compulsions. When feelings such as anger, jealousy, and shame are out of control,
hence without the proper guidance of reason, one’s moral capacities become short-sighted and limited.

3. Our circumstances/situations. In others, it might even be a mistake to reason tacitly, specifically, when we
face emergency that needs immediate response. “Sometimes we should not deliberate about what to do, and
just drive” (Arpaly & Schroeder, 2014).

4. Prejudice. Morality involves impartiality because it ensures that all interests are accounted for, weighed
rationally, and assessed without prejudice.
For example, if a jeepney driver thinks it is only right for him to get as many passengers as he can in order
to address the needs of his family of by breaking a few traffic rules that to his mind harms nobody (he does not run
anyone over or he does not bump other vehicles on the road), his reasoning may be construed as narrow and selfish.
The inconvenience and stress he causes other drivers by picking up and dropping off passengers anywhere and
anytime he pleases actually harms others than he thinks. Some people may come late for work and get fired because
of this habit. Some drivers may feel too much stress which endangers their lives and this has an effect on the people
that depend on them. In other words, if one’s reasoning does not consider the interests of people that are affected by
his/her actions, then he/she is actually being prejudicial to his/her own interests.

One way of ensuring the rationality and impartiality of moral decisions is to follow these steps as a guide in
making choices of moral import.

E. Seven-Step Moral Reasoning Model

1. Stop and Think. Before making any decisions, it is best to take a moment to think about the situation itself, your
place in it, and other surrounding factors which merit considerations, such as the people involved and the
potential effects of your decisions on them. This involves a step-back from the situation to make sure that you
do not act out of impulse.

2. Clarify goals. It is also necessary to clarify your short-term and long-term aims. One often decides on the
basis of what he/she wants to accomplish. Sometimes, in the heat of the moment, short-term wants eclipse long-
term goals. Thus, you must determine if you are willing to sacrifice more important life goals to achieve your
short-term goals.
o For example, if you are seeking retribution for harm caused by another person, you have to think about
the long-term consequences of revenge on your character in the long run.

3. Determine facts. Make sure you gather enough information before you make a choice. An intelligent choice is
one that is supported by verified facts. You must first make sure that what you know is enough to merit action.
Without verifying facts, you may regret your choice in the future once various aspects of the situation come to
light. Never make a choice on the basis of hearsay. Make sure your sources are credible and have integrity.

4. Develop options. Once you are clear in terms of your goals and facts, try to come up with alternative options
to exhaust all possible courses of action. Most of the time, the pressure of a situation may make you feel have
less options than you think. Clear your mind and try to think of other creative ways of clarifying your motives
and implementing your actions with the least ethical compromise.

5. Consider consequences. Filter your choices and separate the ethical from the unethical choices bearing
in mind both your motives and the potential consequences of your actions. Think of long-term consequences
and act in accordance with the principles of justice and fairness. Consequences are historical realities that bear
upon the lives of others. A decision turns something in your mind into reality. Make sure you do not regret the
decision you have conferred reality upon.

6. Choose. Make a decision. If the choice is hard to make, try consulting others who may have knowledge or
experience of your situation. Find people with a virtuous character and compare your reasoning with your moral
analysis. Once you make up your mind, summon the will to do the right thing even if it is hard and seemingly
counter-intuitive.

7. Monitor and modify. Monitor what happens after your decision and have enough humility to modify your action
or behavior as necessary. Pride may get in the way of admitting that you might have not thought out a decision
well enough. As you become more aware of the consequences of your actions, especially on the lives of others,
summon the strength and determination to make changes to rectify any shortcomings. Do not hesitate
to revise your decisions in light of new developments in the situation.

These seven steps can help you ensure that you do not take moral decisions lightly. They shed light on
the various aspects of moral situations that you have to consider before making a decision. An important element,
though, is your will to commit to an action based on moral principles. You must have the necessary resolve to put
your choice in motion after a long process of deliberation. Goodwill, though sufficient as a ground for morality
according to some philosophers such as Immanuel Kant, must nevertheless be enacted and applied to make a
difference in the world of practical moral affairs.
While feelings and reason set up the theoretical basis for moral action, it is the will which implements your
decision and projects your motives into reality. It is not enough to do good, you must actually do it not only for your
sake but for the benefit of those that may bear the consequences of your decision. To a great extent, you owe it to
others to do the right thing. It shows how much you much respect them that you cannot allow yourself to not do
something that may benefit them. It is only by habituating yourself to doing good that your will becomes used to
propelling your decisions into actions. The will is like a muscle that you must constantly exercise in order to develop
and strengthen.
 Summary
Our attempt to act based on our moral standards, our moral reasoning will not be met with praise at all
times. It will constantly be faced with challenges and criticisms. Since not all people hold the same moral and ethical
principles, cultures and traditions, we will eventually face cultural conundrum. Nonetheless, it will always be
reasonable to act on moral issues based on our instinctive rationality, in consideration of the learning that we had
from our previous experiences, and the values that we deeply uphold. Still and all, we have our autonomy to decide
on our own, despite of the conflicting interests of the world forced on us. May it ever be that we firmly stand in
accordance to what is morally true, pure and honest in our daily decision makings.

Study Questions:
1. What is Ethics? How do you understand the meaning?
2. How does Aristotle differentiate gawi from gawa?
3. What does it mean by moral reasoning according to Paxton & Greene, 2010?
4. What are the five characteristics of Moral Standards?
5. How can you apply the Seven-Step Moral Reasoning Model in your moral decision making?

III. Application/Activity
Activity 1. Directions:
You need to observe the following direction in answering your activity as herein attached in your module:
a) Please go over the questions carefully. You may have a draft first before you answer the questions on
the worksheet provided for you.
b) There is no specific number of words but answer the questions completely and concisely. Go straight to
the point.
c) Your answers will be evaluated in terms of: a) responsiveness; b) clarity and conciseness; c)
organization; and d) HONESTY.
d) Timely submission of your activity is deemed imperative to avoid deduction of your score.
e) Date of submission: On or before __________________

Questions:
1. When do we say then that an act is moral or non-moral? (10 points)
2. Do you feel free in making moral decisions? Explain. What is the significance of freedom in moral
decisions? (10 points)

II. Assessment
Quiz 1. Directions:
a) Please go over the questions carefully. You may have a draft first before you answer the question on
the answer sheet provided for you.
b) There is no specific number of words but answer the questions completely and concisely. Go straight to
the point.
c) Your answers will be evaluated in terms of: a) responsiveness; b) clarity and conciseness; c)
organization; and d) HONESTY.
d) Timely submission of your activity is deemed imperative to avoid deduction of your score.
e) Date of submission: On or before _______________________

Question:
1. Enumerate the Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model. Explain these steps briefly and relate it to your real
life experiences in making moral decisions. (20 points)

III. Other References:

1. Palean E. D., Nazario M. D., Descartin I. L., Mendoza B. S., Valero, J.G., “Ethics: Exploring Moral
Philosophy”, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2019
2. Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
3. Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral
Valuation”, 1st edition, REX Book Store, 2018
4. http://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/05/13/moral-vs-non-moral-standards.
5. http://plato.standford.edu/moral-reasoning.
6. https://www.researchgate.net>2678/2016/06/14/moral-reasoning.
Name: ______________________________ Course/Year/Block: ___________________

WORKSHEET 1.1

Questions:

1. When do we say then that an act is moral or non-moral? (10 points)

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2. Do you feel free in making moral decisions? Explain. What is the significance of freedom in moral
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Name: ______________________________ Course/Year/Block: ___________________

QUIZ 1

Question:

1. Enumerate the Seven-step Moral Reasoning Model. Explain these steps briefly and relate it to your real life
experiences in making moral decisions. (20 points)

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College of Teacher Education

First Semester, A.Y. 2022-2023

MODULE 2
Moral Dilemmas

A. Types of Moral Dilemmas

B. Euthanasia
C. Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

Introduction
This module entitled Moral Dilemmas is will discuss the two crucial features of moral dilemmas; the
three conditions; its different types and examples; the three levels of moral dilemmas; and ways on how to
resolve moral dilemmas. These are the topics needed in this module in order for the students to further
their knowledge on how to deal with moral conflicts, enhance their critical thinking skills, and develop their
moral decision making.

Date and Time allotment

____________________

I. Objectives

At the end of the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
1. Be able to detect moral dilemma;
2. Be able to identify the levels of moral dilemma; and
3. Be able to recall a moral experience.

II. Lecture

A. What are Moral Dilemmas?

Moral Dilemmas – are situations where persons who are called “moral agents” in ethics are forced to choose
between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner.

Two crucial features of Moral Dilemmas:

1. The agent is required to do each of the two (or more) actions; the agent can do each of the actions; but the
agent cannot do both (or all) of the actions.
2. The agent, thus seems condemned to moral failure; no matter what she does, she will do something wrong or
fail to do something that she ought to do.

Three conditions that must be present in Moral Dilemma according to Karen Allen:
1. The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make a decision about which course of action is best.
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from.
3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always compromised.

Types of Moral Dilemmas:

1. Epistemic and Ontological Dilemmas;
2. Self-imposed and World-imposed Dilemmas;
3. Obligation Dilemmas and Prohibition Dilemmas; and
4. Single Agent and Multi-person Dilemmas.

B. Euthanasia – Defined as exists to at least help a patient die a good death.

● Also called as assisted suicide.

Types of Euthanasia (Ezra, 2006)

1. Voluntary Active Euthanasia (Mercy Death)
2. Non-Voluntary Active Euthanasia

C. Three Levels of Moral Dilemma

1. Individual
2. Organizational
3. Systemic

How to resolve moral dilemmas?

1. Be reasonable, not emotional.
2. Choose the greater good or the lesser evil.
3. Is there an alternative?
4. What are the consequences?
5. What would a good person do?

Summary
We build our characters through how we make choices in different situations we face in our lives. Indealing
with moral dilemmas we develop a certain way of being rational person as Aristotle once said that, “Man is born by
nature, a political animal.” As we become more conscious of the moral issues and dilemma of people in our
community, the more that we ought to live by the moral principles that we believe are helpful and beneficial to the
society.

Study Questions
1. What are moral dilemmas?
2. What are the two crucial features of moral dilemmas?
3. What are the three conditions that must be present in moral dilemma according to Karen Allen?
4. What are the three levels of moral dilemma?
5. How do you understand the concept of euthanasia?

III. Application/Activity
● Activity 2: Essay
1. What are the moral dilemmas that college students like you usually encounter? (10 points)
2. In the concept of euthanasia, is it morally right to end the life of a patient with incurable disease with or
without his/her consent? Explain. (15 points)

IV. Assessment
● Essay: Moral Decision Making
 1. In our discussion about the different types of moral dilemmas, William Styron’s famous Sophie’s
Choice was cited as example in world-imposed moral dilemma. With this, consider yourself as
Sophie in that scenario. What will you do? Are you going to make a choice between your two
children or not? Why?

V. Other References
1. Palean E. D., Nazario M. D., Descartin I. L., Mendoza B. S., Valero, J.G., “Ethics: Exploring Moral
Philosophy”, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2019
2. Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
3. Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral Valuation”, 1 st
edition, REX Book Store, 2018
4. https://venngage.net/p/212725/a-brief-timeline-of-euthanasia. (Accessed August 18, 2020.)
5. https://philonotes.com>2018/06/10/what-are-moral-dilemmas. (Accessed August 18, 2020.)

Binalonan, Pangasinan
College Teachers Education
1st Semester | A.Y. 2022-2023
Module 3
Foundation and Requirement for Morality

Course Title: Ethics

Course Code: GE 8

Name: _________________________________
Course and Year: ________________________
Date and Time Allotment: __________________

Introduction
This module entitled Foundation and Requirement for Morality is about to discuss the difference between
morality and ethics, the role of freedom as foundation of morality, and the significance of reason and impartiality as
requirement for morality. In this module, you will be acquainted with contrasting philosophical ideas that are, in
varying degrees, instrument to assessing the moral dimensions of an act, and eventually to man’s moral and ethical
development.

I. Objectives
In this module, you will:
1. Be able to distinguish the difference between ethics and morality;
2. Be able to outline the significance of freedom as foundation of morality;
3. Be able to establish the role of reason and impartiality, and sentiment in moral decision-
making.

II. Lecture and Discussions of the Lesson/s

Introduction
The question of what is morally right and wrong has hounded man throughout the history. We allowed
ourselves to be judged by standards that we have imposed upon ourselves. In our attempt to perfect our actions, and
live in peace with our fellows, and with nature, we deemed it necessary to create ethical standards that will surmise
whether our actions are good, and of the greatest virtue, or if we have been outrightly missing the mark.

A. What is Morality?
● The effort to guide one’s conduct by reason, that is, to do what are the best reasons for doing while giving equal
weight to the interests of each individual who will be affected by what one does.
● Refers to the system of beliefs and values that ensures that individuals will keep their obligations to others in the
society and behave in ways that do not interfere with the rights and interests of others (Gerrig & Zimbardo,
2002).
● Morality is influenced by culture, religion and education. For one to learn it, it has to be taught directly or
indirectly, it has to be observed in words and in practice, better yet, it has to be experienced in one’s interaction
with other people.
● Morality has to do with the way we live our lives and helps us to judge the difference between right and wrong.
Once we knew the difference between the two, we can do what is right and avoid what is wrong.

1) Morality is defined into two kinds:

a. Descriptive
● Refers to a certain codes of conduct put forward by a society or a group (such as religion), or accepted by
an individual for her own behavior.
● Refers to personal or cultural values, codes of conduct or social mores. It does not connote objective claims
of right or wrong, but only refers to that which is considered right or wrong.
b. Normative
● Refers to a code of conduct that given specified conditions, would be put forward by all rational persons.
● Refers to whatever (if anything) is actually right or wrong, which may be independent of the values or mores
held by any particular people or cultures. Normative ethics is the branch of philosophy which studies
morality in this sense.
●

2) Five Levels of Understanding Morality

a. As Law
● Something that we have to follow and if you do not follow, then there is a violation. For example, The
Ten Commandments.
● Talks about norms and standards
b. As Inner Conviction
● Something that has to do with one’s understanding of his/her beliefs
c. As Love
● Morality is something that is relational.
● Loving the other, God and self
● This understanding of morality is an approximation of how we Christians understand morality.
d. As personal Growth
● Something that has to do with one’s personhood
e. As Social Transformation
● Morality as bringing about changes in society
● Something that has to do with social conditions

3) Where does our Morality come from?

a. Home and Family
● The home and family play an important part in influencing our moral outlook.
● Our parents were the first people to teach us the difference between right and wrong.
For example: As children we learned that it is good to share our toys, to always tell the truth and
not hit other children.
b. Friends and Peers
● As grow older we begin to be influenced by others outside the home.
● Going to school, making friends and mixing with other children our own age meant we encountered
different types of values.
● Therefore, it can be said that our friends and peers also play an important role in influencing our moral
outlook.
c. Religion and Church
● People’s moral outlook is strongly influenced by the religion in which they have been brought up.
● Many young people go to schools with religious ethos where they are educated in their faith.
● Therefore, the values that they received at home are reinforced by the teachings and practices of their
religion.
d. Society and State
 ● The State plays an important role in deciding our moral outlook.
● The State passes the laws of the country.
● Society also plays an important role in influencing our moral outlook as it can decide what is accepted
as good or bad.
● Usually when the majority of the society behave in a certain way then that behaviour can become
acceptable.
e. Emotions
● We can be influenced by our emotions to behave in certain ways.
● This can be a positive impact on us in situations where we are moved by sympathy or compassion to
help somebody in need.
● Emotions can also provide us with negative outcomes when we are driven by anger or hatred when
responding to certain situations.

B. Difference between Ethics and Morality

ETHICS MORALITY
Greek: Ethos Latin: Mos (Mores, plural form)
“customary behavior”. ”customary behavior”
“Theory” of right action and the greater good. “Practice”, rightness or wrongness of human action.
✔ “systematic study” of the underlying principles of ✔ “prescriptive”
morality o tells us what to do
o exhorts us to follow the right way
Generally, refers to the systematic study of the rightness Generally, understood as the rightness or wrongness
and wrongness of a human action of a human action
The science of “morals” The practice of basic principles of “ethics”
Provide systems of moral principles and the reasons why Refers to principles of right and wrong behavior or
these principles are valid. rightness and wrongness of human actions.
Basic Ethical Principles: *In determining the morality of human actions, the
1) Respects for persons moral agent is guided by the broader rules or
2) Truthfulness and Confidentiality principles of ethics.
3) Autonomy and Informed Consent
4) Beneficence
5) Non-maleficence
6) Justice
Ethics says that, killing is wrong because it violates the Morality says that, “Do not kill” because it is wrong.
basic ethical principles of “Respect for persons” or “Non-
maleficence.”

C. FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION OF MORALITY

1) What is Freedom?
● Is the willful act and decision that give form and shape to the actions and inclinations of people. This freedom is
oriented toward the wherefore, the what for, and the whom for of the doings of the people.

For Immanuel Kant:

● He runs to human autonomy (freedom) as the principal foundation of morality.
● Comes from obeying the law for the right reasons.
Kant pointed out that moral rightness and wrongness apply only to free agents who have the capacity to
regulate their behavior and have it in their power, at the time of their actions, either to act rightly or not. Hence, when
we make choices, we must act “under the idea of freedom” (Morality as Freedom, n.d.). Freedom then becomes the
foundation of our moral act.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2016:

● Literally means giving the law to oneself, and our understanding provides laws that constitute the a priori
framework of our experience.
o a priori – means “prior to,” or independent of, experience, but more importantly, identical for all human
beings and not subject to change (Louden, 1992).

D. Morality in Today’s Generation

In a globalized world:
● Poushter (2014) asked the question: “What’s morally acceptable?” specifically in the issues of extramarital
affairs, gambling, homosexuality, abortion, premarital sex, alcohol use, divorce, and contraception use. The
answer from the poll was: “It depends on where in the world you live.”

3rd world country:

● Belief in God is essential to be a moral person according to Pew’s survey in 2014 though this is only limited to
the poorer countries.
● In the Philippines, 93% believe that belief in God is necessary to have morality.

E. REQUIREMENT FOR MORALITY

Reason and Impartiality
“Impartiality is not neutrality. It is partiality for justice.”
- Stanislaw Jerzy Lec

In deciding on important matters, no approach is more appropriate than a moral one. Morality, after all, is
first and foremost a matter of consulting reason (Rachels, 2003).Given that feelings sometimes get the better of
people when choosing where to stand on issues, sound moral reasoning must play even more critical role.

1) What is Reason?
● The foundation of what is ethical.
● The sole ground for determining the good.
● Functions as the very effort to think through moral principles and apply what he/she knows to get to the right
thing to do.
● The power of comprehending, inferring, or thinking especially in orderly rational ways

2) What is Impartiality?
● Simply states that no one is above or beneath any standard when making moral valuations.
● Distracts from moral personal whims when doling out judgments. From a moral standpoint, people should not be
treated differently if there are no truly good justifications to do so.

For example:
1. The Antebellum era, the period in the South America leading up to the Civil War when racism (i.e. the
enslavement of black people) was not only a norm but also a lucrative industry, is one historical example of
when moral impartiality was not properly observed.
2. The Philippines under Spanish colonial rule is another, a time when the natives (called “indios”) were
discriminated against mainly due to their inferior physical appearance and their perceived laziness (a claim
without evidence).
3. Suppose a man owns an apartment building and it only has one available unit left. Suddenly, a couple came in to
inquire, and they seem eager to rent. After the man’s brief explanation on the monthly rate, the couple took out
some cash for the initial deposit. A tenancy deal is about to be struck. A smile crossed the man’s face. Business
is good.
But see, there is one thing bothering the man the entire time he was interacting with the couple: the fact that
the couple are of the same sex. As he is near to closing the deal, the man saw a heterosexual couple walking
towards the buildings, bags in hand. Without saying anything, he returned the first couple’s money and instead
handed the keys to the second couple. When pressed by the same-sex couple to explain why the man gave the unit
to the second couple when they were the first to inquire, he replied plainly: “It is nothing personal. I merely abided by
my religious beliefs.”
✔ Was the man able to ground his valuation on impartiality and reason? From the looks of it, the answer is a
resounding no. Why? First, the fact that the same-sex couple came in first is good enough a reason for the
man to hand them the unit, money also is not an issue, as they were more than ready to pay in cash. But
prejudice, not sound reasoning, took the better of him.
⮚ Prejudice
✔ preconceived judgment or opinion
✔ It is an intrinsic flaw in human thought (i.e. bias)

F. Reason and Impartiality in the First Amendment Defense Act

The so-called First Amendment Defense Act (FADA) was introduced in the United States Congress in June
10, 2015 by Senator Mike Lee of Utah and House Representative Raul Labrador of Ohio. This controversial bill, if
passed into law, will protect people who will take actions against others “on the basis that they acted in accordance
with a religious belief or moral conviction” from being penalized by the federal government. Its scope will cover
acts of discrimination committed against the third sex that are premised on the idea that:
1. Marriage is or should be recognized as the union of one man and woman, or
2. Sexual relations are properly reserved to such a marriage.

G. The Foundation of Moral Life

1. God – perfectly good
2. Man – Who is man? What is man?
a) Man is rational animal – Aristotle and the scholastics
b) Msgr. Futlon Sheen compares man into three-level structure 1st level is his body, the 2nd level is his soul, and
the 3rd level is his spirit.
c) Man is a phenomenon, “a very special phenomenon” – Teilhard de Chardin

H. The Determinants of Morality

a) The act in itself
b) The motive of the act
c) Circumstances of the act
- Who, what, where, with whom, why, how, and when.

I. Human Acts
Characteristics of Human Act:
● It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he is doing of its consequences.
● It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is, by his own violation and powers.
● It must be performed by an agent who decides willingly to perform the act.

1) Kinds of Human Act

1. Elicited Acts – voluntary uses of understanding and will
2. Commanded Acts – Are perfected by the action of mental and bodily power under the control of the will, or so to
spread under orders from the will.

2) Classifications of Human Acts

1. Moral – Refers to the actions which are on conformity with the norm of morality.
● A moral person knows the difference between right and wrong and chooses to do what is right.
2. Immoral – Refers to the actions which are not in conformity with the norm of morality.
● An immoral person knows the difference between right and wrong but still chooses to do what is wrong.
3. Amoral – Refers to the actions which stand neutral in relation to the norm of morality.
● An amoral person has no regard for any standards of right or wrong and just do what he/she likes.

3) The Human Act vs. the Acts of Human

● An act carries with it moral consequences when the agent exercises his intellect and will in performing
the act. These are human acts.
● An act is not moral (amoral) when it is accomplished without knowledge or deliberation. These are the
acts of a human.

J. Issues Concerning Man’s Morality

● Abortion
● Contraception
● Divorce
● Euthanasia
● Homosexuality
● Pornography
● Sexuality
● Cloning

“Morality which depends upon the helplessness of a man or woman has not much to recommend it. Morality is rooted
in the purity of our hearts.”
- Mahatma Gandhi

Summary
Morality should not be limited in our words or thoughts alone but may it overflow to our actions, behavior,
and treatment to other people regardless of race, gender, belief, age, education, or socio-economic status. Morality
defined at home is the same morality developed in school, church, community, and media. In this module, the
important role of freedom (as postulated by Immanuel Kant) as foundation of morality was discussed, and so were
those of reason and impartiality as requirement for morality.

Study Questions
 1. What is morality? How do you understand the meaning?
2. What are the five levels of understanding morality?
3. What is the difference between ethics and morality?
4. What is freedom according to Immanuel Kant?
5. Define what is reason and impartiality?

III. Application/Activity
Activity 3. Directions:
You need to observe the following direction in answering your activity as herein attached in your
module:
f) Please go over the questions carefully. You may have a draft first before you answer the questions on
the worksheet provided for you.
g) There is no specific number of words but answer the questions completely and concisely. Go straight to
the point.
h) Your answers will be evaluated in terms of: a) responsiveness; b) clarity and conciseness; c)
organization; and d) HONESTY.
i) Timely submission of your activity is deemed imperative to avoid deduction of your score.
j) Date of submission: On or before ________________

Questions:
1. Think of a character that you have read about in a book, seen on television, or in a film or video
game, who fits the description: (10 points)
o A moral person
o An immoral person
o An amoral person

2. Explain briefly why you have placed these characters in these particular categories. (5 points)

IV. Assessment
Quiz 2. Directions:
a) Please go over the questions carefully. You may have a draft first before you answer the question
on the answer sheet provided for you.
b) There is no specific number of words but answer the questions completely and concisely. Go
straight to the point.
c) Your answers will be evaluated in terms of: a) responsiveness; b) clarity and conciseness; c)
organization; and d) HONESTY.
d) Timely submission of your activity is deemed imperative to avoid deduction of your score.
e) Date of submission: On or before_________________

Question
1. Distinguish the difference between ethics and morality. Elaborate your answer. (20 points)

V. Other References
7. Palean E. D., Nazario M. D., Descartin I. L., Mendoza B. S., Valero, J.G., “Ethics: Exploring Moral
Philosophy”, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2019
8. Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
9. Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral
Valuation”, 1st edition, REX Book Store, 2018
10. https://www.pearsonhighered.com>the-nature-of-morality. (Accessed August 20, 2020)
11. https://www.slideshare.net/what-is-morality. (Accessed August 21, 2020)

Name: ______________________________ Course/Year/Block: ___________________

WORKSHEET 1.3

Questions:
 1. Think of a character that you have read about in a book, seen on television, or in a film or video game,
who fits the description: (10 points)
o A moral person;
o An immoral person;
o An amoral person.

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3. Explain briefly why you have placed these characters in these particular categories. (5 points)
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Name: ______________________________ Course/Year/Block: ___________________

QUIZ 2

Question:

1. Distinguish the difference between ethics and morality. Elaborate your answer. (10 points)

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Binalonan, Pangasinan
College Teachers Education
1st Semester | A.Y. 2022-2023
Module 4
Culture in Moral Behavior

Course Title: Ethics

Course Code: GE 8

Name: ___________________________________
Course and Year: __________________________
Date and Time Allotment: ____________________

Introduction
This module entitled Culture in Moral Behavior will discuss and scrutinize the enormous significance of
culture in understanding the moral actions of people. We will look at the contextual difference of societies and how
these affect the moral behavior of individuals inclusive therein. In the process, we will look at the concept of cultural
 relativism, ultimately examining, and evaluating both its strengths and weaknesses as more and more people invoke
it as their final arbiter in making moral judgments.

IV. Objectives:
In this module, you will:
1. Be able to articulate what culture means;
2. Be able to recognize and appreciate differences in moral behavior of different cultures; and;
3. Be able to define cultural relativism and evaluate its strengths and weakness in making moral decision;

V. Lecture and Discussions of the lesson/s

Introduction
Have you ever visited a place you find so strange that you feel like the actions of the people there are wrong
if not downright offensive? Did you ask any of them why they do what they do? If you just walked away from that
situation without trying to understand their decisions, then most probably, you ended up becoming judgmental of
them instead of trying to understand where they are coming from, their norms, and their values included.

A. What is Culture?
● Is defined as that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, moral, law, customs, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Burke, 2008).
● The totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior (Schaefer,
2013).
● The distinctive way of life of a people, whatever that might be.

B. Functions of Culture
Here are some of the functions of culture which are significant in understanding our moral behavior:
1. Culture provides identity to the people in the society. This is what separates communal groups from each
other. They are known by their distinct traditions and beliefs that they hold dear.
2. Culture mirrors the laws of the land. Laws in one society is born out of the norms which are the socially
acceptable behavioral patterns in the community. These norms are held with supreme importance, and so the
people make sure that they are systematized and followed by all. Going against these laws are punishable in
most, if not all cases.
3. Culture unifies people in many ways that only those who belong in that society understands. It is always
what the communal group invokes in matters of decisions, practices, and traditions.
4. Culture influences our concept of morality. Culture provides the rules of the games in the society through our
cultural norms. It is very much prescriptive of what is morally right or wrong, what is respectful and not, affecting
our patterns of behavior. It is the culture that molds, if not dictates, the values that should be adhered to the
people.

C. Cultural Relativism
● Is the view that moral beliefs and practices vary with and depend on the human needs and social conditions of
particular cultures (Holmes, 2007).
This definition is entirely based on the premise that there can be no “universal oughts”, and that there is no
culture that can be the basis of all that is good and true. It is important to recognize the vitality of cultural differences
since ethical judgments are relative to cultural contexts (Fiala & Mackinnon, 2013).

● Cultural relativism then should be understood as a celebration and appreciation of cultural diversity
(Kellenberger, 2011).
This diversity could be manifested in the way we dress, the way we talk to the elderly, and even in
our beliefs in the supernatural. It is important to underscore as well the important historical role of
cultural relativism in encouraging cross-cultural understanding and contributing to an expansion of
human freedom (Brown, 2008).
 Everything
Nothing covered but
covered, what there eyes,
a cruel male- what a cruel
dominated male-
culture! dominated
culture!

Cultural Relativism

D. Ethical Relativism
● Ethical relativism or moral relativism maintains that different societies (and ages) hold distinct systems of
morality and that there are no objective, and transcultural criteria for judging between these systems (Herder as
cited in Sikka, 2011).
● Ethical or moral values and beliefs are relative to the various individuals or societies that hold them. There is no
objective right and wrong.

1) Two Forms of Ethical Relativism

a. Personal or Individual Ethical Relativism
● Ethical judgments and beliefs are the expressions of the moral outlook and attitudes of individual persons.
● There is no objective standard of right and wrong inasmuch as the individual person is the basis of moral
judgment.
● Any person has no right to say that others are correct or incorrect.

*An ethical relativist may say “I have my own view and you have yours, neither my view nor yours is better or more
correct.”

Example: Senicide or Geronticide – abandonment to death or killing of the elderly

● During famines or other extremely difficult situations, the Inuit or the indigenous people of Northern America
would leave their elderly on the ice to die.

*The individual relativist would say that, “no one especially the outsider of this culture has the right to say that the
Inuit are wrong because the morality of such action depends entirely on the individual Inuit beliefs.

b. Social or Cultural Ethical Relativism

● Ethical values and beliefs vary from society to society; the basis of moral judgment lies in these social or
cultural views.
● No society’s view is better than any other in a transcultural sense.
● No society has the right to say that particular culture of a certain society is wrong.

Example: The ancient Indian practice of Sati or Suttee – a practice of burning the wife alive in the funeral pyre of
her deceased husband.

2) Three possible reasons that support Ethical Relativism:

1. Diversity of moral values. Presence of disagreement on many ethical issues or even on basic moral values.
2. Moral uncertainty. There is great difficulty in knowing what is the morally right thing to do or believe.
3. Situational differences. Situations and life of different people vary so much.

Point: We cannot attain objective truth. Hence, what is right or wrong for one may not be necessarily right or wrong
for another.

E. Cultural Relativism: Its Strength and Weaknesses

Cultural relativism although advantageous at some points could also be detrimental. It empowers cultural
tolerance while at the same time rejects moral absolutes. Below are the strengths and the dangers of cultural
relativism:
 Strengths
1. What is considered morally right and wrong
should be judged based on cultural contexts. The
culture of people becomes the final arbiter of the
morality of an individual act. The idea of “to each his
own” exemplifies this concept.
2. Cultural Relativism is an answer to cultural
annihilation. If one culture is to be the final basis of
morality, then it would stimulate if not encourage the
annihilation of all other cultures which are considered
inferior to it.
3. Cultural relativism promotes multi-culturalism. It
fosters diversity of cultures and keeps individuals from
being ethnocentric. The distinctiveness of culture is
supposed to be celebrated and not looked down by
people. Thus, cultural relativism dismisses
discrimination and finds everyone in the world as our
co-equals
Weaknesses
1. Cultural relativism might fall prey into the idea that
universal standards do not exist. There are certain
universal oughts that cannot be culturally compromised.
Human rights precede societal practices, particularly
those that impede our growth as individuals, and as
human beings as whole. Cultural relativism is not tenable
in ethics since ethical values invoke universal absolutes
which it categorically dismisses.
2. If universal standards do not exist, so thus
morality. The concept of what is morally right and wrong
fades into the background of cultural relativism. As such,
people who invoke cultural relativism are free to do
whatever they want.
3. Cultural relativism gives birth to ethical relativism,
which veers away from the idea that there are
objective moral standards. With this, people are
ethically wrong by all standards except by their culture,
can invoke cultural relativism to justify their act. If we
invoke cultural relativism, then we refrain ourselves from
criticizing other cultures, no matter how evil some of their
practices might be, the same way that we overlook our
own culture. (Rachels, 2003).

F. Cultural Tolerance
● Cultural relativism should result to cultural tolerance in order to preserve the distinctiveness of people
regardless of whichever context they come from.
● Though cultural tolerance is highly encouraged, it would not mean that we are to compromise human life and all
the universal rights associated with it. A particular culture cannot invoke cultural relativism at all times.
● Cultural sensitivity is the key to cultural tolerance. It is being aware that cultural differences and similarities
between people exist without assigning them a value – positive or negative, better or worse, right or wrong
(Dabbah, 2014).

TIPS FOR IMPROVING YOUR CULTURAL SENSITIVITY

1. Exposure. The truth is no matter where you live, you are exposed to other cultures. Look for local festivals and
events focused on other cultures.
2. Education. Understanding the cultural practices of others can make or break an interaction. We show respect by
observing those practices, so knowing what not to do is crucial. Learn about other cultures by reading online
magazines, journals, or blogs.
3. Curiosity. Being culturally curious doesn’t mean you have to sell everything and become a backpacker. You can
start small by going to a local restaurant to try a new food. Ask questions like “Is this how this dish is traditionally
served in your country.
4. Self-Awareness. Knowing more about your own culture is the most important part of developing cultural
sensitivity. You can’t expect to truly understand someone else until you know yourself. Start by answering a simple
question what makes you and your culture unique?
Tips for Improving Cultural Sensitivity (Carlie, n.d.)

Summary
Although diversity of cultures is heavily encouraged, this should be exclusive of customs and traditions
which disrupt normal human functioning. There still are moral absolutes which precedes cultural norms. On the other
hand, as we become aware of moral standards, we need to carefully examine ourselves as well. Since we are all a
product of our own culture, our societal norms have always been the basis of our everyday decisions. However, we
must be very cautious that our norms do not clash with universal values that cater to championing human life and
dignity. Hence, it is crucial that we be reminded that cultural relativism should not, in any way, be used as an excuse
to continue cultural practices which categorically impede, if not violate, human rights.

Study Questions
1. What is Culture?
2. What are the Functions of Culture?
3. What is Cultural Relativism?
 4. What is Ethical Relativism?
5. What are the three possible reasons that support Ethical Relativism?

VI. Application/Activity
● Activity 4. Directions:
You need to observe the following direction in answering your activity as herein attached in your module:
k) Please go over the questions carefully. You may have a draft first before you answer the questions
on the worksheet provided for you.
l) There is no specific number of words but answer the questions completely and concisely. Go straight to
the point.
m) Your answers will be evaluated in terms of: a) responsiveness; b) clarity and conciseness; c)
organization; and d) HONESTY.
n) Timely submission of your activity is deemed imperative to avoid deduction of your score.
o) Date of submission: On or before ________________

Cultural Bucket List: List at least five (5) countries which are included in your bucket list. Research on the
following cultural practices and contrast how these are exercised in the Philippines. Complete the table
below:
Table
Cultural Practice/Country Greetings Dating Circumcision Burial
Manners
1.Philippines
2.
3.
4.
5.

VII. Assessment
● Cultural Relativism. Direction: Answer the following questions briefly. Go straight to the point. You may use
the answer sheet provided for you.
1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Cultural Relativism?
2. What are the two forms of Ethical Relativism?
3. Enumerate the Four (4) Tips on How to Improve your Cultural Sensitivity.

VIII. Other References

1. Palean E. D., Nazario M. D., Descartin I. L., Mendoza B. S., Valero, J.G., “Ethics: Exploring Moral
Philosophy”, Books Atbp. Publishing Corp., 2019
2. Pasco M. O., Suàrez V. F., Rodriguez A. G., “Ethics” C&E Publishing, Inc., 2018
3. Bulaong O., Calano M., Lagliva A., Mariano M., Principe J., “Ethics: Foundation of Moral
Valuation”, 1st edition, REX Book Store, 2018
4. https://philonotes.com/what-is-ethical-relativism. (_______________)

Name: ______________________________ Course/Year/Block: ___________________

WORKSHEET 1.4

1. Cultural Bucket List: List at least five (5) countries which are included in your bucket list. Research on
the following cultural practices and contrast how these are exercised in the Philippines. Complete the
table below:

Cultural Table
Greetings Dating Circumcision Burial
Practice/Country Manners

1. Philippines
 2.

3.

4.

5.

Name: ______________________________ Course/Year/Block: ___________________

Cultural Relativism

Enumerate the following:

1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of Cultural Relativism?

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2. What are the two forms of Ethical Relativism?

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3. Enumerate the Four (4) Tips on How to Improve your Cultural Sensitivity.
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Prepared by:

ZORAYDA LOPEZ GILLE, Ed.D

Faculty, CTE