PAC, Magalang, Pampanga

ANIMAL PRODUCTION
(POULTRY-CHICKEN) NC II

PSAU TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION AND TRAINING CENTER
ANIMAL PRODUCTION (POULTRY-CHICKEN) NC II QUALIFICATION

The ANIMAL PRODUCTION (POULTRY-CHICKEN) NC II Qualification consists of

competencies that a person must achieve to maintain poultry housing, brood and grow
chicks, perform pre-lay and lay activities and trim beak. These functions are required for
individual who will work in a poultry (broiler and layers).

This Qualification is packaged from the competency map of the Agri-Fishery Sector as
shown in Annex A.

The units of competency comprising this qualification include the following:

Code BASIC COMPETENCIES

500311105 Participate in workplace communication
500311106 Work in a team environment
500311107 Practice career professionalism
500311108 Practice occupational health and safety procedures

Code COMMON COMPETENCIES

AFF321201 Apply safety measures in farm operations
AFF321202 Use farm tools and equipment
AFF321203 Perform estimation and calculations
AFF321205 Process farm wastes

Code CORE COMPETENCIES

AFF622101 Maintain poultry house
AFF622102 Brood and grow chicks
AFF622103 Perform pre-lay and lay activities
AFF622104 Trim beak

ELECTIVE COMPETENCY
AFF622105 Breed chicken

A person who has achieved this Qualification is competent to be:

 Poultry farmer  Broiler raiser

 Poultry farm worker  Layer raiser
 Poultry farm assistant  Poultry breeder
 Poultry farm caretaker  Flock man
 Poultry service crew

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 POULTRY-CHICKEN (Gallus domesticus) PRODUCTION

Poultry-Chicken Terminologies

1. Poultry - species of birds (class aves) man has domesticated for meat and eggs, ornament,
and other economic purposes
2. Cock/Cockerel – mature male
3. Hen – mature female that has already lay eggs.
4. Pullet – mature female that has not yet laid eggs.
5. Chick – young / offspring of chicken
6. Flock – group of chicken
7. Down feathers - refers to feathers of newly hatched fowl
8. Plumage – mature feathers of fowl
9. Pullet chicks – sexed chicks, all female
10. Straight-run-chick - group of male and female chicks; unsexed
11. Capon – fattened male, testicles removed at 2-3 months old
12. Poulard - ovariectomized pullet; synonym of capon in male
13. Oviposition - laying of fully developed eggs
14. Fertile eggs - eggs from mated flock
15. Table eggs - eggs for cuisine purposes; came from unmated female
16. Candling – test of fertility by holding pre-incubated eggs infront of beam of light in darkened
room.
17. Dubbing – removal of comb and wattles
18. Dewattling – removal of wattles
19. Preen gland/uropygial gland – oil gland located on top of the rump; used for water-proofing
of feathers
20. Molting – natural loss of feather, usually after 8 -12 mos. of laying
21. Gastrocnemius muscle – roosting muscle, birds can sleep on trees without falling
22. Clavicle – wish bone
23. Sternum – breast or keel bone (pitso)

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 POULTRY HOUSE

The importance of proper housing in poultry cannot be underestimated since the health,
safety and normal growth of the animals largely depends on the convenience provided by housing
structures. Since commercial poultry production is essentially raising poultry in captivity, animals
must be kept in good and comfortable confinement or housing to protect them from predators,
inclement weather conditions and other elements of nature. A proper farm layout is necessary for
purposes of efficiency in farm operation and sanitation. Housing design is also important to
provide comfort to animals of different ages and purposes.

Farm Location and Design

Poultry farm should ideally be located at a well isolated site away from other farms. It should be
located away from water bodies that can be source of water for wild birds, which can potentially
become source of infection. Ideally it should be located at least 1-2 km away from other
commercial facilities.

1. The perimeter of the farm must be secured with boundary wall and other measures.
2. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) of biosecurity must be displayed in regional and local
languages at every different species unit.
3. Sign boards indicating “Biosecurity area: visitors are not allowed” are to be displayed.
4. The farm should be designed in such a way that it has sufficient ventilation and should
have access to sunlight. This will be necessary for reducing the build-up of infectious
agents in poultry house apart from reducing the stress of accumulated gases.
5. Orientation: If the farm is located in hot and humid condition then it should be East-West,
if the farm is located in region with very high temperature in summer months, then long
axis should be South-East.
6. Overhanging branches of trees over run-area of poultry should be pruned/ removed to
avoid falling of droppings of feral birds. Ideally no dense foliage and trees should be there.
7. Ensure bird-proofing nets in all units to prevent entry of small feral birds into sheds.
8. Cover any open drains to avoid attraction of wild animals.
9. There should be no roosting site for wild birds.
10. There should be proper drainage facility and water should not stagnate.
11. Houses should be provided with concrete floor for easy and proper cleaning.
12. Foot dips of uniform size must be provided at the entry of all the poultry sheds and
preferably use 50% lime powder + 50% bleaching powder.
13. Ideally, lay out of the farm should be such that at farm entry point brooder shed should be
followed by shed for growers and lastly for adult birds.
14. Similar pattern should be followed for drainage system also from brooding to adult shed.
15. From biosecurity point of view, distance between two different sheds of same type should
be 30 ft. and of different type should be 100ft.
16. Roads should be of concrete material so that transport of organisms with shoes and tires
can be reduced.
17. Facility for post-mortem examination near to the incinerators and separate laboratory with
suitable facilities and manpower are also required for regular monitoring and surveillance
of diseases at the farm level.
18. There should be single window system for sale of all poultry and poultry products with sale
counter at gate. Client and their vehicle should not be allowed in any case to visit farm.
19. The Sale Counter for the sale of poultry & hatchery products should be arranged at the
entrance gate to avoid entry of commercial vehicle in the campus.

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 20. Farmers' Hostel/ training room etc. which is located near farm shed must be shifted away
21. One demonstration shed may be constructed near the laboratory side for demonstration
regarding poultry and other avian species to the poultry farmers and other trainees.

Recommended size and dimensions of poultry house under Philippine condition

1. Width – 7.3 – 9.0 m
2. Space in between houses - 13.7 m
3. Floor height (slatted) – 1.8 m
4. Space in between slats – 2.5 – 3.8 cm
5. Slats width – 2.5 cm
6. Plastic nets hole – 2.5 cm
7. Height from the floor to ceiling – 2.4 m
8. Concrete post diameter – 20.3 cm

Parts of Poultry House

1. Frame – wooden/steel
2. Walls – mesh wire/screen
3. Roof types – shed, gable, combination, semi monitor, monitor, A type
4. Flear - concrete floor in litter prevents coccidiosis
5. Insulation

Types of Poultry House

1. Controlled environment house – temperate countries; tunnel ventilated houses
2. Open sided poultry house – conventional

Systems of Poultry Housing

1. Litter floor – rice hull, rice straw, saw dust, peanut hay
2. Slat and litter floor combination – breeder
3. All-slatted house – broiler
4. Cages – flat deck, stair-step (Californian); compact, pyramid, tier battery cages

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Equipment
1. Feeder – straight feeder (trough) and round feeders
2. Waterer – trough; cups, round waterer, nipple
3. Nest – individual, colony nest
4. Manure handling equipment
5. Lighting – bulb or tube light 1 watt/square meter (3-4 watt/square meter)

Floor space requirements

Egg type Age Rate Bird/m2

1-3 wks 0.3 sq.ft./bird 35
3-8 wks 0.5 sq.ft/bird 21
8-12 wks 1.0 sq.ft./bird 10
Meat type
1-2 wks 0.3 35
2 to market 1.0 10
After 12 wks
Litter floor 2-2.5 sq.ft./bird 4-5
Slat 1.5 – 2 sq/ft./bird 4-7
Cages 0.75 – 1.0 sq.ft./bird 10-14

Feeder (Linear) Per bird Waterer

Day-old – 2 wks 2.5 cm 0.5 cm (1gal/100 doc)
2-6 wks 4.5 cm 1.0 cm
6-10 wks 7.5 cm 2.0 cm
11-20 wks 7.5 cm 2.0 cm
20 wks or more 8.0 cm 2.5 cm
Layer 10 cm 3.0 cm

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 SANITATION, DISINFECTION AND RAT CONTROL PROGRAM

THE THREE R’S: In Waste Management

The logic behind it is simple to understand – it there is less waste, then there is less to recycle or
reuse. The process of reducing begins with an examination of what you are using, and what it is
used for.

Example: reduce feed wastage, mortality rate, etc.

The Second ‘R’ – Reuse

Learning to reuse items, or re purpose them for a use different then what they are intended for is
essential waste hierarchy.

The Third ‘R’- Recycling

The last stage of the waste hierarchy is to recycle. To recycle something means that it will be
transformed again into raw material that can be shaped into a new item.

Example: chicken manure, feed wastes, etc.

THE FIVE S

What is 5S; Seiri, Seiton, Sesio, Seiketsu, Shitsuke

What is 5S:

5S is a simple tool for organizing your workplace in a clean, efficient and safe manner to enhance
your productivity, visual management and to ensure the introduction of standardize working.

The Concepts of 5S:

5S is a methodical way to organize your workplace and your work practices as well as begin an
overall philosophy and way of working is split into 5 phases, each named after a different Japanese
term beginning with the letter “S”. (Seiri, Seiton, Sesio, Seiketsu, Shitsuke) hence the name 5S.

These five distinct phases are with English descriptions:

5S Seiri : sort, clearing, classify

5S Seiton : Straighten, simplify, set in order configure
5S Sesio : Sweep, Shine, Scrub, clean and check
5S Seiketsu : Standardize, Stabilize, Conformity
5S Shitsuke : Sustain, self-discipline, custom and practices.

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 CLEANING AND DISINFECTING TECHNIQUES

1. Dry clean to remove the dirt, dust and debris from your building
2. Wash down facilities using a good detergent and rinse thoroughly.
3. Apply / spray disinfectant.
4. Allow to dry thoroughly before putting in new litter.

HYGIENIC PRACTICES

The following are some hygienic practices to maintain cleanliness and sanitation of the farm
house:
 Do not burn dried grasses in the farm vicinity because smoke irritates the ocular and
respiratory organs of the chicken
 It is very important to cut tall grasses and plants in the farm because tall grasses will become
ideal refuge site for prey animals such as snakes, monitor lizard, and rats that will attack the
flock and the cause problem.
 Control rodents, earthworms, flies, roaches, ants, beetles, and other arthropods in the pig
farm. They serve as vectors and transmitters of disease-causing microorganisms and
parasites.
 Disinfecting solutions should be replaced everyday because organic matter decreases the
antiseptic capacity of most disinfectants.
 In large farms, vehicle dip and sprays should be constructed at the main entrance to the
farm.
 Disinfect thoroughly all buildings, equipment, utensils, and other utilities immediately after
each use. Sun dry all feeders and water troughs whenever possible.

Effective Disinfectant Procedures

Some recommended procedures for effective disinfection are as follows:
 Remove all dirt, litter, and manure from the area to be disinfected. Use hot water with soap
or detergent to remove all organic materials
 Use disinfectants in proper concentration as recommended by manufacturers. Dilute with
warm water if possible.
 Apply disinfectants liberally with a spray pump or scrub brush depending to the size of the
area. Give special attention to the waters and feeders where molds accumulate in corners,
cracks , and crevices.
 Allow disinfectant enough time to act. Remove all residues of disinfectant by liberally rinsing
with water before repopulating the pig pens or quarters. Boiling water is also an effective
disinfectant.
 Burn or dispose all contaminated and unnecessary materials whenever practicable.

Properties of Ideal Disinfectants

An ideal disinfectant should have the following characteristics:
Good antibacterial action/broad spectrum activity
High stability and permeability
Nontoxic to animals

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 Nonirritating to skin
Non-corrosive odor
Non-corrosive to metals
Non-offensive odor
Does not cause pollution or disturb the ecology
Does not interfere with normal healing process of wounds and other lesions
Readily available at reasonable cost

Commonly Used Disinfectants

 Cresylic compounds. These compounds are effective against all microorganisms, expect the
spore-forming ones. However, they have slow action and also impart undesirable odor to
the material being disinfected.
 Lye. This is one of the best cleaning and disinfecting agents. However , it is very irritating to
the skin and also highly corrosive to materials.
 Hypochlorite. This is one of the most useful disinfecting agents . However , it is very
irritating to the skin and also highly corrosive to materials.
 Quaternary ammonium compounds. These are non-crossive, nonirritating preparations, and
less effected by organic materials than hypo chlorites. However, they are slower in action.
Concentration of ppm are used for disinfecting the sow’s udder and utensils.
 Lodophores. These are effective, non-corrosive to materials, and nonirritating to the skin.
These are frequently used on wounds and utensils, but only to a limited extent on large
surfaces.

STERILIZATION, DISINFECTION, AND DECONTAMINATION

 The ideal downtime for poultry should be 10 to 14 days

The environmental Protection Agency recognizes the following categories of chemical

germicides (a germicide is an agent that kills pathogenic organisms.)
Sterilizer or Sterilant: an agent intended to destroy all microorganism an d their spores on
inanimate surfaces.
Disinfectant: An agent intended to destroy or irreversibly inactive specific viruses, bacteria,
or pathogenic fungi, but not necessarily their spores, on inanimate surfaces. Most
disinfectants are not effective sterilizers.
Antiseptic: A chemical germicide formulated for use on skin or tissue. Antiseptics should not
be used as disinfectant.
Decontamination: a procedure that eliminates or reduces a microbial contamination to a
safe level with respect to the transmission of infection. Sterilization and disinfection
procedures are be used for decontamination.

 Water should be incorporated with chlorinator to control microbial infection in the

digestive system.

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WHAT ARE THE POULTY PESTS?

What is pest? It is an unwanted organism in your environment. It may be unwanted

becaiuse is spreads disease, reduce productivity of the birds, waste feed, destroys the
building, is an nuisance to neighbor or any number of other reasons.
The major pest associated with poultry facilities are; beetles, flies (house fly & mosquito),
lice, mites, wild birds and rodents.
The fowl mites which include northern fowl mite, (red) mites, scalyleg mite and depluming
mite.
The chicken lice include chicken body louse, chicken head louse, chicken feather louse and
turkey lice. We also have bed bugs, chiggers, sticktight flea, and flow tick to think about.
In confined poultry houses a variety of insects and mites will be founded in the manure and
litter which come under the heading of habitat pests. These include Darkling beetles, Fleas,
and of course Flies.
There are many types of flies to be controlled, including House flies, the little house fly,
soldier flies, the black garbage fly, fruit fly, blow flies, flesh flies and the small dung fly.
There are many species of wild birds that become pests, depending upon where your
poultry operation is located. Some of the common bird pets are sparrows, finches, barn
swallows, and waterfowl and pigeons.
These include rats and mice. Three common species are the Norway rat, Roof rat, and the
House mouse.

Diseases brought about by pests in poultry

 Mosquitos – avian material,

 Rats – necrotic enteritis, salmonellosis
 Mites – Skin Problems

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 FEEDS AND WATER MANAGEMENT

On the first day, feeds should be placed evenly on the newspaper mating enclosed by
brooder guards. Feeding should be done frequently with the right amount to minimize feeds
wastage. After twelve hours until the second day, chick feeders should be gradually introduced to
replace newspaper matting used as feeders. On the third day, all feeds should be placed in the chick
feeders. The feeding space requirement up to fourteen days of age should be 2.54 linear cm per
broiler. A standard 91.44 cm –chick feeder could accommodate seventy-two chicks (fourteen chick
feeders per 1000 chicks).
Bigger tube feeders should be introduced starting on the eighth day, gradually replacing the
chick feeders. A feeding scoop should be used to avoid spillage. The tube feeder should be hanged
such that the rim is aligned to the back level of the broilers.

Drinking Water
One hour before the arrival of chicks, the drinkers should be prepared. Clean water should
be mixed with dextrose powder at a dose of 20 grams per gallon at 2 gallons per 1000 birds. The
temperature of the drinking water should be about 20 to 22 ᵒC.
A gallon-sized drinker could serve the requirements of fifty broiler chicks from day-old up to
twenty-one days of age. Plastic basins could be used as additional drinkers starting on the
eighteenth day until the broilers are harvested. The drinkers should be accessible and chicks should
not travel more than 1.5 meters just to reach the drinker.
Automatic watering systems, although expensive, are used by some commercial broiler
raisers to improve water allocation to the chicks. These watering systems have positive effects on
production in terms of weight gain, livability, maintenance of dry litter, and lower ammonia levels.

Water consumption guide per 1000 broilers

Ambient temperature (ᵒC) Age (Weeks) Liters
24 1 32
32 38
24 2 48
32 57
24 3 64
32 76
24 4 83
32 99
24 5 109
32 129
24 6 134
32 160

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Feeding broilers
Proper nutrition plays a vital role in broiler performance. The genetic potential of broiler
chickens can be expressed only if proper nutrition and management are provided to them.
Feed Types and Forms
As practiced, broilers are fed ad libitum from start to market. They should be encouraged to
eat as much as possible. Recent observations indicate that high feed consumption in broiler
chickens is positively correlated with growth rate and feed conversion efficiency.
The three type of feeds commonly offered to broiler chickens are the following:
a. Pre-starter or chick booster – given to chicks from day-old to 2 weeks.
b. Broiler starter – given to chicks from 2 weeks old to 4 weeks old.
c. Broiler finisher – given to chicks from 4 weeks old until desired market weight and age are
achieved.
The three forms of broiler feeds are:
Mash – a mixture of ground and powdered from the feedstuffs.
Pellets – compressed mash feed. Feeds are compressed through pelleting machine. Pellets vary in
size.
Crumbles – coarsely ground pellets.

Mash is recommended for use only during the first 2 weeks as alternative to crumbles.
However, under local conditions, mash feeds is commonly used for the entire growing period. Mash
feed is easier to prepare and cheaper than crumbles or pellets. However, when pellets and
crumbles are available they are preferred over mash. Broilers may be fed with crumble during the
entire growing period. When chicks are 2-3 weeks of age, broiler prefer starter pellets to mash or
crumbles. At about 4 weeks of age, broiler finisher pellets, which are larger in particle size, is
commonly recommended. Based on total feed consumption, pre starter feed accounts for 15%,
while starter and finisher feeds account for 35% and 50%, respectively.

Feeding System
Unless otherwise recommended by the supplier, feed must be available to the chickens at
all times. Birds must be provided with artificial light to enable them to eat at night. When open
trough feeders are used, refill the troughs as frequently as possible. Fresh feed must be mixed with
the remaining feed in the trough during feeding time.
In most commercial broiler farms, tube feeders are commonly used to ensure continuous
supply of feds to the chickens and make feeding convenient to the caretaker. Occasionally check
the tube feeders to ensure the flow of feed from the tube to the pan. Hang the tube feeder at a
height where the brim of the pan is leveled with the back of the chickens. This will make the
chickens eat more conveniently and at the same time reduced feed wastage.
To avoid overcrowding during feeding, allow 2.54cm (1 in) of feeder space for each chick for
the first 2 weeks, 5.08cm (2 in) up to 4 weeks, and 10.16cm (4 in) up to slaughter age (6 weeks). For
every 100 chicks, use three tube feeders.

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Feed efficiency (Feed Conversion Ratio FCR) = Feed efficiency per kg egg mass. This takes into
consideration of the feed intake, egg weight and egg production. It is the ratio between the feed
consumed and the egg mass.

Kg of feed consumed
FCR (per kg egg mass) = -----------------------------------
Kg of egg produced

FCR = 735 = 2.2

330
A value of 2.2 or less is advantageous to the farm.

Feed efficiency per dozen eggs

This takes into consideration of the feed intake and egg production. It is the ratio between the feed
consumed and the number of eggs produced.

__Kg of feed consumed____

FCR (per dozen eggs) = Total eggs produced x 12

_1260_ = 1.666
FCR = 63*12

A value of 1.5 or less is advantageous to the farm.

Net Feed Efficiency Index (NFE):

Where:
EM = Mean egg mass in g during a specific period
BW = Mean body weight gain or loss in g during a particular period
FC = Mean Feed consumption/hen in g during a particular period

(EM + BW) x 100

NFEI = FC s

65 + 1.3 x 100 __6630__

NFEI = 105 = 105 = 63.14

NFEI value of 45 and above is desirable.

Egg: Feed Price Ration (EFPR)

It is used to find out the ratio between the receipts from egg and expenditure on feed.

Total value of egg produced

EFPR = Total value of feed consumed
__150__
EFPR = 122.50 = 1.224

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Unique biological characteristics of fowl

1. Body temperature – 105-109oF

2. Pulse rate – 300 beats per minute (rest)
3. Respiration rate – 14-22 per minute (rest)
4. Food passage – 2.5 hours to pass from mouth to anus
5. Fusion of bones to provide rigidity for flight
6. Adaptation of forelimbs into wings
7. Senses of sight and hearing – well developed in fowl
8. Senses of taste and smell – poorly developed
9. Syrinx – voice box of bird located where the trachea divided into bronchi
10. Heart of chicken – has greater percentage of body weight in chicken compared to
mammalian heart (4-8% bird vs. 1.5-1.7% mammals)
11. Crop (ingluvies) – stones and softens food
12. Proventriculus – true stomach with gastric juices and enzyme
13. Gizzard or ventriculus – muscular stomach
14. Ceca – junction of small and large intestines; site of undigestible materials
15. Cloaca – common cavity for entrance of genital, urinary and digestible tracts

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 POULTRY BIOLOGY

Biological different between poultry and other Mammals;

Poultry Other Mammals

Feathers Hair
Wings Arms
No sweat glands has sweat glands
Non expandable lungs with air sacs expandable lungs
No teeth (Gizzard) has teeth

Common characteristics with reptiles;

1. Lays eggs
2. Has scales on their shanks.

ANIMAL GROWTH
Two Ways that growth occurs;
1. Hyperplasia – which is the increase in the number of cell.
2. Hypertrophy – which is the increase in the size of cells.

BONES – bone growth is dependent upon the proper level of calcium, phosphorus, other minerals,
vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, growth hormone, & steroids.
- by cell multiplication or hyperplasia.

Tibial dyschondroplasia or leg weakness – a problem with rapid growing birds. It occurs as a
result of an over abundance of chondrocytes, cartilage cells, and not enough
osteocytes(bone cells) due to possible surge in growth hormone.
Medullary Bone – specialized female bone which is used as a storage area for calcium for
egg formation.
- It is formed about 10 days prior to the formation of the first egg and results an about a 10
percent increase in skeletal weight.
- It is found in the tibia, femur, pubic bone, sternum, ribs, ulna, toes, and scapula.

Pneumatic bones – bones connected to the respiratory system through the air sacs, they
include the skull, humerus, clavicle, keel and the lumabar and sacral vertebrae.
 The air pressure makes the pneumatic bones light and rigid and can make poultry fly.

INTEGUMENT – a system comprises of the comb, wattles, feathers, the preen gland, and skin.
Comb and wattles – are used in identification among birds and as an area for dissipation of
excess body heat.
Feathers – covers almost completely the body of the bird and this makes them different
from other vertebrates. It comprises 4 to 8% of liveweight.

Types of feather;
1. Down feather – this is the first feather of the chicks.
2. Contour feather – it is the true feather which comprises the following;

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – the system for converting feeds into nutrients needed by the body.

Beak – it is the mandible of the chicken. The upper is attached to the skull while the lower is
hinged.

Hard Palate – (roof of the mouth) is divided by a long, narrow slit in the center that allows
air flow to the nasal passages.
 Drinking water is aided by gravity which is why it raises its head every time it drinks water.
 Saliva, with the enzyme amylase lubricates food passing down the esophagus to the crop.

Crop – an enlargement of the esophagus, and acts as a storage place for food before it is
sent down to the proventriculus.

Proventriculus – True stomach which contains hydrochloric acid and enzymes such as
pepsin are added to the food to aid in the digestive process.

Gizzard/ Ventriculus – food is mixed with acid and enzyme from the proventriculus and
ground it into smaller particles.

Small Intestine – food is mixed with secretions from the liver and the pancreas. It is also
where absorption of the nutrients from the intestine to the blood stream takes place.

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 BROOD AND GROW CHICKS

Good Quality Chicks

Quality chicks look active and have dry and fluffy feathers, bright eyes, and well-healed
navels. The size of the DOCs, as long as they come from the same flock, has no bearing on their
subsequent performance. However, chicks of similar sizes are always preferred.

Selection of Stocks
Different broiler genetic stocks respond according to different environments. Therefore,
selection of stock needs careful consideration.
Currently, numerous commercial broiler strains are available in the local market. In general,
however, not one of these strains can be best under Philippine conditions because performance
record varies under different sets of conditions. Some farmers frequently change the strains of
broiler they raise, in an attempt to find the particular strain that will perform better in their
particular condition.

The following are some parameters used in selecting a strain of broiler to be raised:

1. Performance – the performance of broilers is determined by their genetic make-up as well as the
environmental conditions provided to them. The primary consideration in the broiler business is the
consistent production of more meat at the least possible given the available inputs.

2. Adaptability and availability of stocks – a broiler strains that is adapted to local conditions
perform efficiently. For beginners, choose the strain that is popularly raised in the community as it
more or less indicates that the strain is satisfactorily performing under existing farm conditions. The
choice for better strains can be fine-turned as one gains experience.

3. Reliability of suppliers – purchase day-old broiler chicks from a reputable and dependable
supplier or chick dealer.

The delivery of quality chicks during the cooler part of the day (e.g., early morning or evening) is
crucial to achieving success in broiler production.
The following is a list of major sources of commercial broiler day-old-chicks as of August 2005:

Strain Suppliers
1. Ross San Miguel Foods, Inc.
Tyson Agro-Ventures Inc.
2. Cobb Cobb Vantress Phils.
Phil-Malay
San Miguel Foods, Inc.
3. Hybro Swift Foods, Inc.
Tyson Agro-Ventures
4. Avian Swift Foods, Inc.
5. Hubbard Universal Robina Corp.
Mat Agro
6. Starbro Universal Robina Corp.

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Classification of Poultry and other breeds
Meat type
1. Indian river
2. Arbor acres
3. Ross
4. Cobb
5. Hubbard

Egg type
1. Babcock
2. Dekalb
3. H & N
4. Hi-sex white
5. Shaver
6. Lohmann LSL
7. ISA White
8. Hy-line
9. Novogen

Abnormalities in chicks
1. Underweight chicks
2. Steely and dirty down
3. Blind or one-eyed chicks
4. Twisted neck chicks
5. Misaligned and twisted beaks
6. Abnormal legs and toes
7. Abnormal wings
8. Severely unhealed navel
9. Weak chicks
10. Paralyzed chicks
11. Chicks with red hocks

Proper Temperature
Maintain proper temperature inside the brooding house to make chicks feel comfortable.
The range of temperature ideal at various ages of broiler chicks is as follows:
Age of Chicks (days) Temperature (°C)
1-7 32.2-34.0
8-14 29.4-32.2
14-21 26.7-29.4
Beyond 21 days Provide heat only when necessary

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A thermometer could be used to measure actual temperature inside the brooder compartment.
However, the behavior of the broiler chicks in the brooder can be used as a practical guide in
determining adequate brooder temperature.
When chicks are uniformly distributed inside the brooder and doing varied activities such as
feeding drinking, sleeping, and playing, then the brooding temperature could be presumed
adequate.
If the temperature inside the brooder is lower than what is required by the chicks, the
huddle to each other or stay together near the source of heat and produce an unusual chirping
sound. If the brooder temperature is critically low, chicks tend to huddle and pile on the top of one
another causing high incidence of mortality due to suffocation.
If the temperature, on the other hand, is higher than what the chicks need, they tend to
move away from the source of heat. Chicks spread their wings, pant, and drink a lot of water.
Extremely high temperature inside the brooder may cause death to the chicks due to heat stroke.
The presence of draft inside the brooder is evident if the chicks from the a wedge-like
pattern.

When Hatchlings Arrive

 The first thing that the birds will need when they arrive is water. Dip the beaks of the birds
into the water source to teach them where the water is.

 Fill the feeders to overflowing for the first two days after the hatchlings arrive. To prevent
feed waste, reduce the level of feed as the birds get older.

 To give the birds time to find feeders and waterers, provide hatchlings with light around the
clock for the first week after their arrival. After the first week, provide the number of hours
of light per day that is appropriate for the type of bird you are raising. A 15-watt light bulb
should be sufficient for each 200 sq. ft. of floor area.

Temperature Management
• Litter temperature; 320C with 30-50% RH
• Preheat and stabilized litter temperature 24 hours before placement
• A comfortable chick will breathe through its nostrils and lose 1-2 g of moisture in the first 24
hours

19
Behaviour of Chicks in Response to Temperature
Changes during the brooding period

AS 105 – Poultry Production 5/12/2015 50

20
Requirements for brooding and rearing

1. good stock
2. temperature – 60-95oF
3. Ventilation – CO2, ammonia, CO
4. Humidity – low RH – dustiness (below 30%)
high RH – wet litter (above 75%)
5. Space – floor space, hover, feeder and waterer

Common management problems in brooding

1. starve outs – mortalities due to lack of water and feed intake
2. Piling – caused by insufficient heat and fright
3. Feed wastage – feeder design, filling too full
4. cannibalism – caused by stresses like high brooder temp, over crowding, too high light intensity
5. wet litter – result of poor ventilation

Management practices in brooding and rearing

1. lighting – light intensity during brooding
- never increase day length during growing period
2. debeaking – measure against cannibalism
– the age of the first beak trim of chicks is 7days old.
– re-debeaking to correct faults at 12-14 weeks of age.
3. vaccination – marek’s disease, avian pest, bursal disease, fowl pox
4. installation of roosting bars

Lighting Program in Laying chicken

Age in weeks Lighting duration in hours

1 24/24
2 14
3 10

 Growing birds (6 weeks to 15 weeks) – 13 hours/d

 Laying birds – 16-18 hours/d
 Peak of production to culling standard light length – 16 hours
Weighing of flock – weekly; 2-4% of population with minimum number of 50 birds per house;
uniformity
Sexing mistakes – 2%

21
Adequate Space Allowance
Adequate floor, feeding and drinking space allowances should be provided to the broilers
during the brooding period. Broilers should be provided with wider floor space allocation by
widening the area enclosed by the brooder guard. Sheets of old, but clean newspaper or similar
materials may be used as floor matting during the first few days to serve as temporary feeders and
help conserve the heat inside the brooder compartment, more units of regular feeder and drinker
should be provided, as broiler chicks grow bigger.
During the brooding stage, the recommended floor space allowance is 1m 2 (10.8ft2) per 75-
150 chicks under the heat source and at least 1m 2 per 25-50 chicks within the chick guard. For the
feeding space, each chick should be given 2.5—8 cm (1-3.1 in) linear space.
Depending on the weather, growing broiler chickens should be provided with 0.07-0.11 m2
(0.8-1.2ft2) of floor space per bird. Linear space allowances for feeders and waterers should be
10.16 cm (4 in) and 2.03 cm (0.8 in) per bird, respectively.
In large flocks, automatic watering system is usually installed. In a float-controlled drinking
trough, 2 cm (0.8 in) linear space per bird is considered sufficient. On hanging fountain would be
enough for 80-100 birds, while a smaller cup can accommodate 50 birds, and one nipple would be
adequate for 10-12 birds.

Proper Ventilation
A good air movement without draft is necessary inside the brooder house. The chicks need a
fresh supply of oxygen, while carbon dioxide, ammonia, and excess moisture that have
accumulated inside the brooder compartment have to be removed. The effect of draft can be
avoided by providing burlap curtains along the walls of the brooder house. The curtain can be made
of empty feedbags, jute cloth, or similar materials.

Adequate Lighting Facilities

Adequate lighting facilities have to be provided within the brooder compartment. Proper
lighting in brooder pens encourages the chicks to keep close to the sources of heat and help them
locate the feed and water. If the source of heat is an incandescent bulb, then the lighting of the
brooder pen is accomplished at the same time. However, if other sources of heat are used, light
from a 5-to 10-watt bulb would be needed to enable the broiler chicks to locate the feed and
water. If natural light is sufficient during daytime, artificial light may only be provided at night.
Broilers need sufficient light in order to maximize their growth potential. Broilers tend to
consume more feed during the night when the temperature is cooler. They also tend to digest and
assimilate feed better when given the chance to sleep for an hour or two during the night. Lighting
for broilers is particularly important during warm and humid months of the year. Light intensity
must be about 0.5 to 1 watt per square meter of floor area. This is equivalent to about 93 watts per
1000 head of broilers. Proper lighting has been shown to improve feed efficiency.

Proper Sanitation
Hygiene and sanitation is one of the critical factors that determine successful brooding of
broiler chicks. Brooding pens need to be kept clean and dry at all times to minimize if not prevent
contamination and growth of parasites and other disease-causing organisms.

22
Protection from Predators
The brooder must be constructed to provide sufficient protection from rats, dogs, cats,
snakes, and other animals that could unduly disturb or kill young chicks. Enclose the brooder house
with materials that are sturdy enough to prevent the entry of these predators.

Sources of Heat for Brooding

Any cheap source of heat could adequately provide the required brooding temperature may
be used. While the mother hen’s body provides best brooding temperature, this is not practical for
commercial broiler production. Electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or fuels such a s charcoal
and rice hulls may be used depending on their costs availability, and convenience.

Electricity
Electricity is a popular source of heat, particularly for backyard operations. Incandescent
bulb, infrared lamp, and hover-type heaters with resistant coils are examples of electric heat
sources. In some cases, thermostats are provided to automatically regulate the temperature inside
the brooder temperature.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

LPG-fueled heaters are popularly used in large-scale poultry farms. These are found to
effectively and efficiently provide heat for larger number of chicks at a relatively lower cost. This
type of heat source is common used in areas where electricity is either not available or expensive. A
50-kg LPG cylinder is adequate to provide sufficient heat for 1,000 broiler chicks for 18 days.

Vermin Control
Vermin - a group of insects or small animals such as flies, mosquitoes, cockroaches, fleas, lice,
bedbugs, mice and rats which are vectors of diseases.
 Spaces where food and drinks are stored and prepared and served shall be so constructed
and maintained to exclude vermin.
 All opening which connects spaces to the outer air shall be effectively protected with screen
of non-corrosive wire 16-mesh or finer. Door screens shall be tight-fitting.
 A vermin abatement program shall be maintained in the establishments by their owners,
operators, or administrators. If they fail, neglect or refuse to maintain a vermin abatement
programs, the local health agency will undertake the work at their expense.
 During deratting or disinfecting operations, all equipment shall be covered to protect them
from the chemicals substances
 Vermin control in public place shall be the responsibility of the provincial, city or municipal
government which have jurisdiction over them.
 The procedure and frequency of vermin abatement program shall be determined and
approved by the local health authority.
PD no. 856 Dec. 23, 1975; Code on Sanitation

23
 PERFORM PRE-LAY AND LAY ACTIVITIES

 The ideal body weight of the layer strain at pre-lay is 1.2-1.4 kg.,
 Transferring of layers to the layer’s cages - hens are given multi-vitamins to reduce stress
 Ready to lay-pullets (before 16 weeks old) are selected for transfer to laying house.
 At the day of transferring the chickens, give them 24 hours of light for them to adapt to
their new house, feeders and waterer.
 The ideal light intensity is 5 to 10 lux and ideal day length is 16 hours per day in layers.
 The physical attributes to check or inspect if the layer is productive or not are;

a.) Comb must be super red in color

b.) The periphery of anal must be moistened and devoid feathers
 Collecting of eggs is 4-5x/day.
 Prolapse may occur to layers because of internal parasitism, over sized eggs and too much
exposure to light.

TRIM BEAK / DEBEAKING

 Beak trimming is done to reduce cannibalism, and to avoid choosy eaters.

 The recommended length of beak trimming is not more 1/3 of the upper and lower beak
 Re-trimming is suggested when the beak goes back usually is the age of 12-14 weeks.
 Improper restraining while debeaking will lead to improper trimming of the beak, and
unnecessary injury to the chicken or to the operator.
 Alternatives for beak trimming to reduce cannibalism are; reduce light intensity, genetic
improvement, dividing the group sizes into smaller groups, proper body weight, proper
nutrition.

BREED CHICKEN

 Male female ratio; 1male:10 female, if this ration is not met it will lead to high infertility in
hatching eggs.
 Standard egg weight of breeder for incubation is 48-50 grams
 Ratio of hen and nest ; 1:4, if the ratio is not followed or there is inadequate nests it will
lead to having floor eggs.

 Standard peak of production of layer breeder is 94-96%

 Standard feeds of broiler hens at peak of production is 165 to 170 g/bird/day while for layer
breeder it is 110-114 g/bird/day

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REPRODUCTION IN FEMALE

SECTION TIME EGG SPENDS LENGTH FUNCTION

Funnel/infudibulum 15 minutes 9 cm Engulfing of yolk, site
of fertilization
Magnum 3 hours 33 cm Secretion of thick
white (albumen)
Isthmus 1 ¼ hours 10 cm Shell membranes
Uterus 20-21 hours 12 cm Thin albumen, shell
and pigment
ooporphyrin
Vagina - 12 cm Passage of egg

Birds lack an external penis but small papilla. Sex in day old chicks and poult can be determined by
examining their everted rudimentary organs

Uric acid - pasty white urine of chicken

Major Hormones in Chicken

Follicle stimulating hormone – growth and maturation of ovarian follicles (egg yolks); influence by
photoperiod
LH – ovulation, influenced by dark-light or diurnal sequence
Oxytocin – stimulates laying of egg
Prolactin – stimulates female to go broody
Thyroxine – metabolism, pigmentation, structure and molting of feathers.
Parathyroid – calcium levels of blood

FACTORS AFFECTING FERTILIZATION AND HATCHABILITY

Fertilization Hatchability
1. Condition of sperms 1. Heredity
2. Nutrition 2. Nutrition
3. Temperature 3. Rate of lay
4. Age 4. Age
5. Preferential mating 5. Temperature
6. Breeding

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF EGGS

Size of eggs Weight
Jumbo 70 g and above
XL 65-70 g
Large 60-65 g
Medium 55-60 g
Small 50-55 g
Pullets 45-50 g
Peewee 40-45 g
First egg Below 40 g
25
Shape of egg – ovoid, oblong, round
Blood spots – caused by hemorrhage in oviduct
Meat spots in egg – tissue in ovary
Body-checked eggs – eggs with ridge at the middle of egg
Pimpled egg – egg with calcareous deposits
Storage temperature for eggs – 50-65oF with RH of 70-80%

Cholesterol in eggs and others

CHOLESTEROL, mg per 100 gram

Domestic chicken 548

Clutch – a number of successive days that a hen lays eggs, 3-4 days/week
Double yolk – two ova are ovulated at the same time
Chalazae – two twisted cords holding yolk at the center
Air cell – location where space between the inner and outer shell membrane; formed after egg is
laid
Pores of egg – ranging from 2000-13,000 pores/egg an average of 7,500 pores, found mostly on
blunt end of egg
Flat sided eggs – egg shell is fattened due to bronchitis and abnormal pressure
Soft shelled eggs or shell-less eggs – due to calcium deficiency bronchitis or stress
Misshapen eggs – ribbed, grooved, elongated, round egg due to oviduct malfunction or bronchitis

Composition of eggs and egg number per year

Egg components (% of total egg weight)

EGG NO. IN
SPECIES EGG NET (g) ALBUMEN YOLK SHELL
ONE YEAR
Chicken-layer 57 63.8 27.2 9 310
Broiler 61 59.4 29.1 11.5 160

Nutrient composition of eggs

EGG WT IN WATER PROTEIN LIPID CHO MINERALS

SPECIES
GMS (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Chicken 57 74.6 12.1 11.1 1.2 1.0

Xanthophyll – pigment in yellow color of yolk

Ovomucin – protein in albumen
Lysozyme – enzyme in albumen which protect egg from bacteria
Haugh units – unit for albumen height connected fro egg weight
Calcium carbonate – component of egg shell
Egg mass output – calculated from the number of eggs produced by a flock multiplied by the
average egg weight

26
Factors That Stop Egg Laying
1. Photo refractoriness – loss of photostimulation in birds due to decrease day length
2. Broodiness – time when female bird incubates her egg and brooding her young
3. Moulting – shedding of feathers; rest from egg production

Hatchery practices Standard in Hatchery

Grading and traying
Hatching eggs 1000 eggs/person/hours
Grading, counting and placing
Chicks in boxes 1200 chicks/person/hour
Sexing chicks 1000 chicks/person/hour
Debeaking chicks 600 chicks/person/hour
Marek’s vaccination
of chicks 600 chicks/person/hour
Dewinging chicks 600 chicks/person/hour

Qualitative traits in poultry

1. Comb type – single comb, rose, walnut, pea
2. Feather color – white, brown
3. Skin and shank color – yellowpigmentation and green colored shank
4. sex linkage – barred plumage, rate of feathering, silver and gold plumage

QUANTITATIVE TRAITS IN POULTRY

High heritability (above 40%) Moderate (15-40%) Low (below 15%)

Mature body weight Age at sexual maturity Fertility
Egg weight Egg production Hatchability
Shell color Growth rate Disease resistance
Conformation Albumen quality
Shell thickness

Traits affecting egg production

1. Sexual maturity- pullet is mature when she lays her first egg; influenced by
a. selection
b. feeding program
c. lighting program
d. disease
2. rate of lay (intensity) – peak egg production
3. length of lay – 12-14 months, 85-90%
4. livability – 10% mortality per year
brooding mortality – 5%
growing mortality – 3%
culling percentage – 2%
(sexing mistakes)
5. body size – 1.3-1.5 at laying time
6. Egg size – large, medium
a. rate of lay – as rate of lay increases, egg sze decreases
b. sexual maturity – as age of sexual maturity increases, egg size increases
27
Traits affecting meat production
1. rate of growth
2. body comformation – breast angle by caliper

Dressing % of meat – carcass/live weight

Cattle, sheep, goats – 45-50%
Pig, poultry – 65-70%

Composition Of Chicken Carcass

BODYWEIGHT EVISCERATED EDIBLE OTHER EDIBLE

(kg) CARCASS (%) MEAT PARTS
Broiler 1.8 73.7 42.7 16.0
Layer chicken 1.7 66.5 37.1 16.7

BASIC POULTRY RECORDS

1. Daily flock report – egg collected, % egg production, feed intake, mortality
Weekly report – total weekly records of egg, feed, average egg wt., grit, oyster shell
Periodic report (4 wks) – total eggs, average body weight of hens
2. Receipt and expense records
3. Flock history – drug administration, vaccination
– first grading of flock at 6 weeks of age
4. cash flow – cash needs of poultry
5. Periodic performance summaries
- % egg production
- feed intake
- feed conversion per dozen egg
- feed conversion = kg feed
---------
kg eggs

1 kg egg = 12-16 pcs.

Protein requirements of feeds

1. Egg type chicken CP (%)
Starter chicks 0-8 weeks 20-22
Grower 9-20 wks 14-16
Layer diet 16-18

Feedstuff for poultry

1. Cereals – wheat, maize, barley, rice
2. Cereal by products – wheat feed (pollard), rice bran, corn gluten meal, corn germ meal
3. Protein concentrates – soybean meal, peanut meal, fish meal, meat and bone
4. Oil and fats – soybean oil, rapeseed oil, fish oil, tallow (beef fat)
5. Minerals and vitamins – limestone, dicalcium phosphate, salt

28
Feed Ration
Layers
• Chick mash should be used for chicks of 0 to 8 weeks of age.
• Growers’ mash should be used for pullets up to 16 weeks of age.
• Layers’ mash should be used for birds of 16 weeks to 76 weeks of age.

Disease prevention
1. Prevention of contact between host and disease organism
a. isolate building and units
b. bird segregation by age, species and source
c. control traffic of birds, human and vectors
d. purchase healthy stock
e. cleanliness and disinfection
f. dead birds disposed by burning or burying

2. Strengthen host
a. select for disease resistance
b. reduce stress – overcrowding, culling, poor ventilation, social competition, inadequate
feeding and watering space
c. proper nutrition
d. use medication properly
e. follow recommended vaccination program
methods – drinking water, dust, intranasal, intraocular, wing-web stab,
feather follicle, subcutaneous and intramuscular injections

Broiler Health Program

AGE VACCINE METHOD

st
1 day Marek’s disease, Avian pest Drop in eye or intranasal or
(Hitcher B1) IBD spray or Subcutaneous
8th day IBD (mild or intermediate) Eye drop r subutaneous
10th day IBD (intermediate Drinking water
12th day Avian pest Drinking water or aerosol spray
14th day Infectious bronchitis Drinking water
21st day IBD Drinking water

Layer Health Program

OTHER
AGE VACCINE METHODS
PREPARATIONS
Before chick arrival Mareks (in hatchery) Intramuscular Washing &
disinfection
1st day Hitcher B1 + Bursal Drop in eye or Pre-starter feed
vaccine intranasal
18th day Mixed hitcher & Water Debeaking
bursal vac.
6th wks Avian La Sota Water Coccidiostat
7th week Infectious coryza Intramuscular
10th week Infectious coryza
29
12th week La Sota Water Coccidiostat
13th week Worming
14th week Fowl pox Wing web
15th week Egg drop syndrome Intramuscular
18th week La Sota Water Redebeaking
Intramuscular
injection

Poultry diseases of current concern

1. Marek’s disease
2. Avian influenza/Avian flu
3. Coccidiosis
4. Fowl cholera
5. Respiratory complex – CRD, PPLO
6. New Castle (NCD)
7. Leg weakness
8. Infectious bursal disease
9. Avian flu/influenza (infects human as well)
10. Egg drop syndrome
11. Infectious laryngotracheitis

Diseases prevented by immunization (Vaccine/Bacterin)

1. Newcastle disease (NCD)
2. Infectious bronchitis (IB) 6. Marek’s disease
3. Fowl pox 7. Coccidiosis
4. Laryngotracheitis 8. Egg drop syndrome (EDS)
5. Epidemic tremor 9. E. coli

Disease caused by poor management

1. ammonia blindness (keratoconjunctivitis – ventilation
2. bumble foot – equipment
– dead bird disposal
4. nutritional deficiencies
5. breast blisters

Disease that have adverse effect on man

1. new castle
2. salmonella
3. ornithosis
4. erysipelas
5. avian flu – H5N1, strain
Hemaglutinnin nutrasaminase strain

Disease affecting product quality

1. egg quality – NCD, bronchitis
2. meat – chiggers, breast blisters, chronic respiratory disease (CRD)

30
Major parasites
1. internal – roundworms, cecal worms, tapeworms
2. external – lice, mites, chiggers, flies

Production management: trouble shooting

1. Cannibalism – habit of bird picking the feathers, comb, toes or vent of another bird
- prevented by debeaking
broiler – day-old debeaking
egg type – 7 days or 4-5 weeks
turkeys – 2-4 weeks
- removal of combs (dubbing)
2. Flight prevention – clip flight feathers; wing notch
3. toe clipping – turkey and ducks
4. force molting
5. light management
6. feeding to reduce cost
a. on-farm mixing
b. purchase methods
c. reduce feed wastage – feeder design, filling feeders too full, inadequate rodent control,
carelessness
d. least cost formulation and proper formulation

Specialized poultry enterprises

1. Hatching egg production – duck
2. Growing ready to lay pullet – P150-170 each
3. Duck production for balut and meat – 3-35 kg at 7-9 wks.
4. Good production – 5-6 months of age weighing
5-7 kg; weeders; lay 25-40 egg per hen
5. Heavy broilers/roosters – 12-18 wks at 2.5-3.0 kg
6. Capon production – sunshine chicken
3-5 week of age – caponizing age
4-5 month raising to reach 4-6 kg
FCE = 3.5-4:1 kg bodyweight

7. Game bird production – pheasants, quail, bantam chicken, pigeons, fighting cocks/game fowl
(Texas)
Egg production/season
Wild quail – 60-80 eggs
Chukar – 50-80 eggs
Pheasant – 75-90 eggs
Wild turkey – 60-70 egg

Poultry Processing Procedures

1. Stunning – electric shock
2. Killing/bleeding – outside cut
- sticking through mouth
3. Scalding – dragging birds in hot water
< 130oF temp.
31
4. Feather removal method
a. wet – rubber finger
b. dry
c. wax – for ducks and geese
5. evisceration – removal of head, feet, entrails and other parts (lungs, intestines, etc.)
6. Chilling – prevent bacterial growth and aging of muscle below 40oF for 1 hour
7. Further processing/preparations – packed in whole, half, quartered or cut into parts as rolls
roasts, steak or ground meat
8. Preservation procedures
a. Fresh chilled – ice pack or chill-pack
b. fresh frozen – blast freezing or liquid freezing
c. Packaging – plastic shrinkage bags
- stored for 6 months
d. other methods – canning, smoking and freeze drying

POULTRY DISEASES ITS PREVENTION AND CONTROL

Disease – is any deviation from the normal functioning / condition of the body of animal. It
prevents the animal from functioning properly.
A disease could be;
1. Infectious – bacteria, virus, protozoa, fungi
2. Non-infectious – nutritional defects, injuries, poisoning etc.
3. Contagious – bacteria =, viruses

Causes of disease:
a) Nutritional defects – an imbalance of required food nutrients in the ration is the cause of
nutritional defects. Animals receiving inadequate amounts of vitamins, minerals, fats,
carbohydrates, and or protein cannot produce efficiently.
b) Physiological defects – these defects cause an improper functioning of glands, organs, or
body systems. The relationship between the diet and the proper functioning of body parts is
directly related.
c) Morphological defects (physical defects) – an accident or negligence is responsible for
physical defects, cuts, scrapes, scratches, bruises, and broken bones are examples of
morphological defects.
d) Pathogenic organisms – organisms of this type produce a toxin or poison which upsets the
normal metabolic activity of the animal and causes disease. Viruses and bacteria are the
most common disease. Viruses and bacteria are the most common disease-causing
pathogens.

d.1. Viruses are the most difficult to control, because they closely resemble the chemical
compounds that make-up a cell. Another problem in controlling them is that the chemicals capable
of killing them also kill or destroy the host cell. Preventive vaccinations have been the most
successful method of controlling virus diseases.
d.2. Bacteria – are microscopic in size, produce powerful toxins, and multiply rapidly. Many
bacteria are capable of forming spores, a resistant form of bacterial cell able to withstand severe
environmental conditions. Antibiotics have been used successfully to control bacteria.

32
 d.3. Fungal diseases are caused by small organisms called fungi. Many disease producing
fungi live in the soil. It is often difficult to determine the cause of fungal disease, because bacteria
cause a secondary infection, and the bacteria are often erroneously identified a fungi.
d.4. Protozoans or protozoa have one cell and are the simplest form of animal life. Some
protozoa cannot move on their own accord and must be transported by some other means. Others
move by making whip-like lashes or vibrating projections.
The three principal reasons most often cited for the spread of disease;
1. Poor sanitation
2. Poor management
3. The introduction of new animals into a herd

Mechanisms by which Pathogens are introduced into poultry farms:

1. Biological transmission – occurs when the pathogens multiplies in the infected host which
transmits the agent when placed in contact with susceptible bird.
2. Mechanical transmission – involves transfer of a pathogen from an infected source or
reservoir host to a susceptible flock by contaminated personnel, equipment, insect vector,
rodents, wild bird, or dust carried by the wind.

Mechanisms of disease transmission

1. Transovarial route
Pathogens may be transmitted by the vertical route from hen to progeny via the egg.
2. Transmission on the egg shell surface
3. Direct transmission
4. Indirect contact
5. Dissemination by wind
6. Biological vectors
7. Feed
8. Vaccines

Prevention of external and internal parasites

Acaricides
Agents that destroy external parasites in poultry.

Insecticides
Substances that is used to kill insects.

Anthelmintics
Agents that kill or eliminate internal worms.

Parasite control program

1. To reduce to an acceptable minimum the parasite burden of an animal.
2. To increase the natural resistance of the host.

Considerations in parasite prevention

1. The species of parasites should be identified before treatment
2. Regular dosing of the flock at appropriate intervals
3. Regular deworming or delousing program to control the parasite in the environment.

33
Commonly used acaricides – insecticides for mites
 Carbarnates
 Organophosphates
Commonly used anthelmintics – dewormer
 Fenbendazole
 Piperazine
 Praziquantel

Administration of vaccines
1. Post-hatch spray vaccination – for mass-administration or aerosol vaccines to day old chicks.
2. Subcutaneous injection – to administer either live or inactivated emulsion vaccines.
3. Wing-web stab – to administer live vaccines directly to each bird.
4. Eye drop and intranasal routes – for hatchery administration and during brooding of chicks.
5. Aerosol administration – using knapsack or electric sprayer to deliver vaccines to flocks as a
coarse spray.

34