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 TITLE: APPLICATION OF FLUID MECHANICS 18 IN OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

CONVERSION LECTURER: ASSOC. PROF. 16 IR. TS. DR. MOHD RASHDAN BIN

SAAD GROUP MEMBERS: TING YEW FUH 2200143 MUHAMMAD NAIM HAIRY BIN

HARUN 2200009 MUHAMMAD AFIQ BIN HAZMI 2200160 FARIS AIMAN BIN HANAPI

2200169

2 Table of Contents Table of

Figures........................................................................................................ 3 TITLE:

APPLICATION OF FLUID MECHANICS IN OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION

........................................................................................................... 4 1.0 INTRODUCTION

OF OTEC ............................................................................. 4 1.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE

TECHNOLOGY .......................................................... 5 1.2 BASIC OPERATIONAL

THEORY ..................................................................... 7 1.3 ADVANTAGES AND

DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC ......................................... 8 1.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF OTEC

.......................................................................... 8 1.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC

.................................................................... 9 2.0 RELATED FLUID MECHANICS

THEORIES ..................................................... 10 2.1 Related theory 6 of Closed cycle

OTEC ............................................................ 10 2.2 Related theory of Open cycle OTEC

............................................................... 11 2.3 Related theory of Hybrid system OTEC

.......................................................... 12 2.4 Thermodynamics Process of OTEC System

................................................... 13 3.0 AVAILABLE DESIGNS & SPECIFICATIONS

PRESENTING THE DIFFERENT DESIGNS OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE WORLD AND

SPECIFICATIONS. ............. 15 4.0 CONCLUSION

................................................................................................... 22 References

.............................................................................................................. 24

3 Table of Figures Figure 1: Open-Cycle OTEC

...................................................................................... 7 Figure 2: Hybrid system OTEC

................................................................................ 12 Figure 3: Rankine Cycle

........................................................................................... 13 Figure 4: Temperature ladder

model during OTEC process as proposed by Nihous (2007)

....................................................................................................................... 14 Figure 5:

Okinawa OTEC ......................................................................................... 16 Figure 6:

Makai's OTEC ........................................................................................... 17 Figure 7:

Hainan's OTEC ......................................................................................... 19

4 TITLE: APPLICATION OF FLUID MECHANICS IN 6 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

CONVERSION 1.0 INTRODUCTION OF OTEC Ocean thermal energy conversion

(OTEC) is a type of energy conversion that uses the temperature difference between the

colder, deeper ocean waters and the warm, surface waters that are heated by solar

radiation to generate electricity in a traditional heat engine. In some oceanic regions, the

temperature differential between the surface and the bottom water layer can reach 50 °C

(90 °F) or as little as 90 meters (approximately 300 feet) of vertical space. The temperature

gradient 4 in the first 1,000 meters (approximately 3,300 feet) of depth must be at least

20 °C (36 °F) to be economically feasible. Since no commercial OTEC plants have been

built yet, the technology was still regarded as experimental in the first decade of the 21st

century. The French engineer Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval first presented the OTEC idea in

the early 1880s. His original planned for a closed-cycle system, which has been modified

for the majority of current OTEC pilot plants. A secondary working fluid (a refrigerant) like

ammonia is used in such a system. 4 Through a heat exchanger, the working fluid

vaporizes because of heat being transferred from the warm ocean's surface water. After

that, the vapor expands at modest pressures, moving a turbine that is linked to a generator

to create power. A second heat exchanger's surface is kept chilly enough for the vapor to

condense thanks to cold seawater that is brought up from the ocean's depths. The working

fluid continues to vaporize and reliquefy inside the closed system. The focus of some

researchers has been 4 on an open-cycle OTEC system that uses water vapor as the
operating fluid instead of a refrigerant. In this type of device, warm surface seawater is fed

into a nearly vacuum and partially evaporated. To generate electricity, the resulting steam

is expanded through a low-pressure steam turbogenerator. The steam is condensed using

cold saltwater, and a vacuum pump maintains the ideal system pressure. There are also

hybrid systems, which combine features of closed-cycle and open-cycle systems. In these

systems, a secondary working fluid that powers a turbine is vaporized using steam created

by warm water passing through a vacuum chamber.

5 To create a practical 8 renewable energy source, the United States, Japan, and

numerous other nations started experimenting with OTEC systems in the 1970s and

1980s. The first OTEC plant capable of producing useful amounts of electricity roughly 15

kilowatts of net power were put into operation by American researchers in 1979. A few

kilometers off the coast of Hawaii, a closed-cycle system with the name of MiniOTEC was

mounted aboard a U.S. Navy barge. Japanese businesses conducted a second

experimental closed-cycle OTEC facility in 1981–1982. This facility, which is 4 in the

Pacific Island nation of Nauru, generated 35 kilowatts of net power. Since then, scientists

have kept up their research and development efforts to enhance heat exchangers and

come up with solutions to lessen seawater's ability to corrode system components. 1.1

IMPORTANCE OF THE TECHNOLOGY Utilizing temperature variations between the

upper surface layer and deeper layers (800–1000 m) of the sea, 6 Ocean Thermal

Energy Conversion (OTEC) power generation typically operates with temperature

differences of roughly 20°C or higher. Scientists from across the world are predicting the

19 negative impacts of global warming and their implications for humanity. Nearly 21.3% of

the world's annual greenhouse gas emissions are caused by conventional fuel-fired electric

power plants. Therefore, a replacement for such Power Stations is necessary to stop

global warming. The 6 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Power Plant, a

comprehensive renewable energy power station for obtaining cleaner and greener power,

is one excellent alternative that comes to the rescue. Although the idea is straightforward
and age-old, it has recently acquired popularity because of the global hunt for clean,

sustainable energy sources to replace fossil fuels. OTEC plants can be utilized for

aquaculture, 11 seawater district cooling (SDC), and air conditioning in addition to

producing energy. Freshwater can also be produced by OTEC plants. Fresh water can be

obtained from warm saltwater that has evaporated after passing through a turbine in Open-

Cycle OTEC plants and from discharged seawater that was 4 used to condense the

vapor fluid in Hybrid-Cycle OTEC plants. Combining the creation of power and desalinated

water is an additional option. In this situation, a reverse osmosis desalination plant might

be powered by OTEC power

6 generation. According to a study by Magesh, 15 every megawatt of power produced by

a hybrid OTEC system may produce up to 2.28 million liters of desalinated water daily. For

nations where water is scarce and where water is produced through the desalination

process, the production of fresh water with the creation of power is particularly important.

Fresh water is necessary to support hotel water use in island nations with a tourism

economy. Muralidharan (2012) estimated that an OTEC plant could produce freshwater at

a cost of about USD 0.89/kilogallon based on a case study in the Bahamas.

Comparatively, the price per kilogallon for large-scale seawater desalination technology

ranges from USD 2.6 to 4.0. Given that deep seawater typically appears to lack pathogens

and contaminants while being abundant in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphates, etc.), land-

based systems could also profit from the potential use of deep seawater for parallel

applications, 12 such as cooling for buildings and infrastructure, chilled soil, or seawater

cooled greenhouses for agriculture, as well as improved aquaculture, among other

synergistic uses. In district cooling arrangements, using deep seawater to cool buildings

can offer a significant and effective way to reduce the amount of power used overall in

coastal locations, balancing both peak electricity demand and overall energy demand.

7 1.2 BASIC OPERATIONAL THEORY The Rankine cycle, which employs a low-pressure
turbine, is the most employed heat cycle for OTEC to date. The working fluid of open-cycle

engines is vapor from seawater. Open-cycle OTEC generates electricity directly from warm

surface water. The heated seawater is initially put into a low-pressure vessel for it to boil. In

some designs, an electrical generator is linked to a low-pressure turbine powered by

expanding vapor. The vapor contains pure fresh water, which has left its salt and other

contaminants in the low-pressure container. It condenses into a liquid when exposed to the

frigid temperatures of deep ocean water. This procedure generates desalinated fresh water

that can be utilized for irrigation, aquaculture, or drinking. Rising vapor is employed in

certain plants in a gas lift technique to lift water to great heights. Depending on the

embodiment, such vapor lift pump systems can generate electricity from a hydroelectric

turbine either before or after the pump is used. In 1984, the Solar Energy Research

Institute (now known as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory) created a vertical-

spout evaporator to convert warm saltwater into low-pressure steam for open-cycle

reactors. The efficiency of converting seawater to steam has grown to 97%. (The total

amount of steam produced would only be a small percentage of the water entering the

system). 2 During a net power-producing trial in May 1993, an open-cycle OTEC plant in

Keahole Point, Hawaii, produced around 80 kW of electricity. This broke the previous

record of 40 kW set by a Japanese system in 1982. Figure 1: Open-Cycle OTEC

8 1.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC Examining OTEC's benefits and

drawbacks 14 will allow us to determine whether this form of energy production is cost-

effective. 1.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF OTEC I. 5 Renewable Energy: OTEC is one of the

many green energy sources that are gaining traction in some places throughout the world.

Oceans are completely accessible, with almost no risk of ever running out. Also,

temperature variations in ocean bodies are virtually always present. This results in the

generation of renewable ocean thermal energy. As a result, we can generate electricity for

a lifetime without depleting this source. II. Clean energy: Many countries are attempting to

go green these days, as we can see. This is true not only for tree planting but also for the
generation of electricity. Clean energy production is a long-term goal for many

governments. 2 One of the most frequent types of clean energy is ocean thermal energy.

Because the floating OTEC plants do not require coal, natural gas, or any other fossil fuels

to operate, power is generated via water. III. 5 Reliable: Even though we are tempted to

become excited about renewable energy generation, some of the production methods may

prove unreliable. Electrical generation systems such as wind or solar power can be

inaccurate due to weather variables. Because of its low variability, ocean thermal energy is

a dependable source of energy. As a result, companies that provide ocean thermal energy

do not need to look for alternative methods of generating electricity. IV. Environmentally

friendly: Ocean thermal energy plants are mostly found in the water, far from human areas.

This ensures that no interaction occurs between the dense human population on the land

and the energy plant. Furthermore, because it does not require the use of fossil fuels for

production, it promotes 6 the state of the environment, particularly the atmosphere. When

we adapt to ocean thermal energy generation, we can have cleaner air.

9 V. Low Maintenance: Many of us want to acquire something that will last a long time and

require little or no upkeep. Such characteristics can be found in ocean thermal energy

facilities. Once installed, the gear requires little maintenance. Furthermore, the researchers

aimed to create these floating OTEC plants that are mainly minor and so inexpensive. VI.

Independent of Weather: We know that 11 the ocean thermal energy power plants are

submerged. Only the top section appears to be floating on water. 8 As a result, the

weather has little effect on these plants, which are reputed to be hurricane and weather-

proof. 1.3.2 DISADVANTAGES OF OTEC Let's examine some of the drawbacks 6 of

ocean thermal energy and the potential costs associated with using this source of power. I.

The locality of Production: We are aware of numerous locations that are appropriate for

this energy harnessing, just like with other energy producing methods. Some coastal

nations or even ones that are landlocked may suffer from this. II. High Commencing Cost:

We can see that the cost of acquiring and maintaining the necessary devices for regulating
OTEC is quite significant. Since many of our nations now have high living standards, only

certain of our nations may be able to build ocean thermal energy facilities. And installing

the plant might require a large team of experts. III. 5 Interfere with navigation: The ocean

thermal plant may appear to be floating on the sea, but it is a much larger and more

substantial structure. The neighbouring floating body may make navigation challenging for

large ships. IV. Slight temperature difference: There may not be much 4 difference in

temperature between the surface and deep waters. As a result, this could produce electric

energy with a passable efficiency. Small electricity companies that depend on this method

of energy production may also find it to be quite expensive. V. Large size turbines with

expensive liquid: There may be a requirement for large-sized turbines at 11 the ocean

thermal energy facility. Due to the

10 low tension in the boiling propene, these facilities need large turbines. The drawback

appears when turbine costs may be extremely high and out of reach. VI. 5 Harmful on

Marine life: Pipes from the ocean thermal energy plant extend all the way to the ocean's

depths. Thus, we can see that these pipelines might affect marine life. Additionally, the

water's pumping action may pull small aquatic animals against their will to the pipes. 2.0

RELATED FLUID MECHANICS THEORIES 2.1 Related theory of Closed cycle OTEC

Closed cycle OTEC is the initial notion of D'Arsonval. 1 In a closed cycle system, the

temperature of the warm seawater evaporates the working fluid, which then expands via

the turbogenerator to produce electricity. To complete the cycle, expanding vapor must

pass through the condenser, be condensed by cold seawater, and finally be pressured by

the boiler feed pump. The seawater delivery system is responsible for most of the parasitic

power consumption. Ammonia, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons are some of the best working fluids for a closed cycle

OTEC system due to their low boiling points (HFCs). Due to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs

and HCFCs are being phased out of production. This narrows the list of available working

fluids to ammonia and HFCs. The qualities of the working fluid and the possibility of
biofouling of the heat exchangers are the downsides of closed cycle OTEC. Even at low

concentration, ammonia is harmful, and HFCs are greenhouse gases. To solve these

difficulties, Claude advocated employing steam generated from warm seawater as the

OTEC working fluid, thereby giving birth to the open cycle OTEC system.

11 2.2 Related theory of Open cycle OTEC Open cycle OTEC begins by rapidly

evaporating warm seawater in a partial vacuum with pressures between 1% and 3% of

atmospheric pressure. The energy is then generated by the expansion of the steam

through the turbine, following which the vapor condenses upon contact with the cool

seawater. Finally, any remaining condensate and non-condensable gas are squeezed and

released. This technique is known as open cycle OTEC because the steam is discharged

after a single pass through the cycle. The initial evacuation of the system and other

activities conducted by the vacuum compressor along with the seawater and discharge

pumps account for most of the parasitic power consumption. Direct contact condenser

(DCC) and surface condenser are the two types of condensers that may be incorporated

into the open cycle OTEC design. The DCC is responsible for dispensing cold seawater

over the water vapor and is economical and effective due to the direct contact with fluids of

different temperatures. The surface condenser is more expensive and difficult to maintain

due to its physical separation of warm and cold water, but it provides fresh water as a by-

product. One of the downsides of open cycle OTEC systems is that they are susceptible to

"air-in-leakages" and stimulate the formation of noncondensable gases when operating

under partial vacuum circumstances. Therefore, energy is required to pressurize and

eliminate these gases. In addition, the low steam density necessitates a higher volumetric

flow rate to generate one unit of energy. The calculation of flow rate of seawater (Q) can be

described by the following equation. where P is the power (kW), η is the net efficiency of

the ρ is the density of the seawater, Cp is the specific heat of the seawater and T is the

temperature difference between the warm and cold seawater.

12 2.3 Related theory of Hybrid system OTEC The benefits of both open and closed-cycle

systems are combined in hybrid cycles. The hybrid cycle generates steam from seawater

that is contained in a low-pressure tank. The 2 low boiling point fluid is then evaporated

using steam (ammonia or others). The desalination process produces fresh water when the

seawater vapor is condensed. Overall, the OTEC functions well when the sea heat energy

conversion exploits temperature differential of at least 77°F (25°C) between warm surfaces

and cold deep seas. It is possible to produce power at this bare minimal temperature. The

sun's heat is absorbed by the sea. Seawater at the surface is warmed by solar energy

more than water at the seafloor. As a result, seawater circulates 1 from the surface to the

bottom. Seawater circulation can potentially be used to power turbines and generate 7

electricity. In the operation of OTEC, pipes will be put in the ocean to absorb the sea's

heat and transport it to a heating tank to boil the working fluid. Volatile ammonia is often

employed as a working fluid. The fluid vapor will subsequently be used to drive turbines

that generate electricity. The fluid vapor is then introduced into the condenser chamber,

where it is cooled with 5°C seawater. The cooled water is then 2 discharged back into the

ocean, and the cycle will continue. The cycle phase of the OTEC system is depicted in

Figure below as the so-called Rankine cycle, in which the temperature and pressure of the

working fluid evaporate in advance to drive a turbine. Figure 2: Hybrid system OTEC

13 2.4 7 Thermodynamics Process of OTEC System The OTEC system relies on basic

relationships between pressure (P), temperature (T) and volume(V) of an ideal fluid, which

can be expressed with the following equation. 𝑃𝑉 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑅 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 In OTEC systems,

the difference in liquid temperature 6 can be used to make an increase in inlet pressure.

A pump (see Figs. 3 and 5) is used to move liquids from one place to another through a

piping media. 20 The work done by the pump can be formulated as 𝑊 = 𝑣(𝑃  − 𝑃 ) Fluid

enthalpy before pumping (h1) and after pumping (h2) where the pump efficiency is 80%

can be expressed as ℎ  = ℎ  − 𝑊 𝜂  The temperature before entering the evaporator: 𝑇   =

𝑇   + 𝑊  1 − 1 𝜂  𝐶  Figure 3: Rankine Cycle

14 Calculation of the total power 2 of cold and warm seawater pumps (Ptot) can be

formulated as 𝑃    = 1(9.8𝑄𝑓 𝐿 𝐷 𝑣  2𝑔) where P2 and P1 are pressure between cold and

warm (MPa), W is the pump work (J), V is the fluid volume (m3),  𝜂 is efficiency value in %,

Ch 1 is the specific heat of seawater, as 4.186 kJ/kg K, Q is the water flow rate (m3), f is

a friction factor, L is the pipe length, D is the pipe diameter, v is the water velocity in a pipe

(m/s), g is Earth's gravitational acceleration (m/s2), and Tw and Tc are temperature at 11

the surface and deep seawaters, respectively. Both Tc and Tw are in K. While during the

OTEC process, a standard temperature ladder is very important to get value of Tw and Tc,

17 respectively. Figure 7 shows the model of temperature ladder for calculation of

electrical power. Figure 4: Temperature ladder model during OTEC process as proposed

by Nihous (2007) From Figure above, 10 the gross electrical power Pg in OTEC process

can be written as 𝑃 = 3𝜌𝐶 𝑄 𝛾ɛ  (∆𝑇) 16(1 + 𝛾)𝑇

15 where 𝜌 is the density of seawater in kg/m3, Qcw is the cold-water flow rate in m3, γ is

the ratio between warm water and cold-water flow rate, ɛtb is the turbine generator

efficiency, ΔT is 2 the temperature difference between warm water and cold water, and

Tw is the temperature of warm surface water. Both ΔT and Tw are in K. 3.0 AVAILABLE

DESIGNS & SPECIFICATIONS PRESENTING THE DIFFERENT DESIGNS OF

TECHNOLOGY 14 IN THE WORLD AND SPECIFICATIONS. The 1 MW plant in Hawaii,

which ran from 1993 to 1998, is 2 the largest OTEC facility that is still in use today. By

2015, several 10 MW projects in various phases of development should be operational. A

few smaller projects, notably those that provide cooling, have already been created or are

in the process of doing so, such as those at the airport in Curacao and those related to

Bora Bora's resort industry. In addition to these programmes, plant ideas and prototypes

are being developed in China, Curacao, France (La Réunion), Malaysia, Oman, the

Philippines, South Korea, the United States (Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico), and Zanzibar. In

addition, areas along the African coast are being studied for future endeavours (University
of Boras, 2013). OTEC companies include Ocean Thermal Energy Cooperation, Bell Pirie

Power Corp., Bluerise Delft, DCNS France, Energy Island Ltd., Lockheed Martin, Offshore

Infrastructure Associates, Inc., SBM Offshore, and Xenesys..

16 I. 2 Okinawa OTEC Demonstration Facility, Japan Figure 5: Okinawa OTEC Before

visiting the plant, Mr. Benjamin gave a slide presentation on these facilities titled

"Introduction to Design, General Operation, and Control of the OTEC Demonstration

Facility" (due to storm and rain). The OTEC Experimental Facilities consist of: 1. Computer

Control Room, inside the ODRC Building 2. 100kw OTEC Demonstration Plant 3.

Desalination Demo Unit 4. Electrical & Manual Control Room The 100kW OTEC

demonstration plant consists of Unit A and Unit B, two double Rankine cycle units. Unit B

was constructed in 2016, whilst Unit A was erected in 2012. Each unit has its own

evaporator, condenser, and turbine and produces 50 kW. R134a, often known as

hydrofluorocarbons, is the working fluid utilised in this OTEC plant (HFCs). Although

ammonia (NH3) 2 can be used in the heat exchanger's design as the working fluid,

R134a was selected to comply with the local authority's law that restricts the use of NH3.

Specifications: i. Status: Active ii. Scale: 100kW equivalent

17 iii. Area: 63.5km2 iv. Working Fluid: R134a v. Type: Closed Cycle / Double Rankine,

Onshore vi. Seawater Source: Okinawa Prefecture Deep Seawater Research Centre (jp)

vii. Established: 2013 viii. Operation: Continuous Operation 2010-2019, Intermittent

Operation 2019 ix. Location: Kumejima, Okinawa, Japan x. Website:

http://otecokinawa.com/en/ II. Makai’s OTEC Power Plant, Hawaii With an annual capacity

of 100kW, which is enough to power 120 households in Hawaii, Makai Ocean

Engineering's Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) power plant in the US is the

largest operational facility of its sort in the world. The baseload power facility, which is

situated 2 at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA) in Kailua-Kona,

was connected to the US grid in August 2015 and can continuously produce electricity
throughout the year. Figure 6: Makai's OTEC

18 Technology The OTEC technology produces clean, renewable electricity by taking

advantage of 3 the temperature difference between the warm surface saltwater (25°C)

and the chilly water in the deep sea (5°C). The minimum temperature differential between

the surface and deep oceans needed for the technique is 20°C (36°F). To run a power

cycle and generate energy, massive amounts of both warm surface saltwater and deep

cold seawater are pushed. To power a turbine generator for electricity production, a heat

exchanger evaporator creates steam by vaporising an ammonia fluid with warm surface

saltwater. After the steam has transferred its energy, the ammonia vapour is cooled,

transformed back into a liquid, and then transported to the heat exchanger evaporator to

complete the cycle. Specifications The closed-cycle OTEC plant on Makai uses an

ammonia fluid to power the turbine-generator. In late 2014, the 100kW ammonia turbine-

generator and two new heat exchangers were delivered to the project site. Within the same

year, the turbine generator was installed atop the 40-foot-tall OTEC tower, and testing for

the two heat exchangers soon after. Either a 55in diameter intake pipeline or a 40in

diameter intake pipeline is used to access deep seawater. The pipes have a maximum

capacity of 26,000 gallons of cold saltwater per minute, which is equal to the warm surface

water pumped for the facility each minute. The two heat exchangers are between two and

eight metres tall, have a thermal duty of 2 MW each, and have a typical design seawater

flow of 0.25 m3 per second (4,000gal a minute). They are the first to use friction stir

welding, a method that lessens seawater corrosion, and were provided by Lockheed

Martin.

19 III. Hainan’s OTEC, China Type: Closed-cycle Ocean thermal energy conversion

(OTEC) pilot power plant Location: Off the coast of Hainan Island, southern China

Developers: Lockheed Martin and Reignwood Group Capacity: 10MW Start of

Construction: 2014 Details It was decided that 9 the tropical Hainan offshore would be the
best place for the OTEC facility. The facility will be set up as an OTEC closed cycle

system. The plant's turbine systems will be positioned above the water's surface, where

warm water will pass through a heat exchanger to boil ammonia to produce steam. The

underwater heat exchanger is where the steam is condensed into liquid ammonia.

Between 800 and 1,000 metres below the ocean's surface, cold water is pumped. The

system will run on a closed loop of cyclical boiling and cooling 2 of the working

fluid. Figure 7: Hainan's OTEC

20 IV. Currently known projects and ongoing updates in the world Location Power output

planned Specifics available Developer Hawaii 103 kW One of the earliest systems, closed

cycle, was put in place in 1979. NELHA Natural Energy Laboratory Hawaii 1 MW Open

cycle, in use from 1993 to 1998. A land-based plant that generates power and focuses on

using water for aquaculture. OTEC International LLC and NELHA Natural Energy

Laboratory Hawaii Hawaii 10 MW Platform with a closed cycle, close to the beach,

scheduled to operate in 2013, but shelved. 4.4 million dollars from the Naval Facility

Engineering Command were used to fund this project, which is also intended to act as a

test case for future development in remote communities and on military bases on islands.

Lockheed Martin also received USD 12.2 million prior to 2009 for preliminary OTEC design

and investigation. Lockheed Martin Naval Facility Engineering Command Japan/ Nauru

120 kW Closed cycle, used for scientific study in 1982 and 1983; 90% of energy used for

pumping and plant operation. Japan Institute for Ocean Energy Research

21 Japan, Imari 30 kW Demonstration plant: Saga University has added several more.

The 30kW multipurpose he was created in 2003. Saga University; other partners

IndiaTuticorin South India 1 MW A floating plant with an ammoniabased closed cycle that

was started in 2000 but never finished due to issues with the pipes used to pump saltwater.

Indian Government/ Indian Institute of Technology Southern China 10 MW 2 On April 13,

2013, Beijing-based Reignwood Group and Lockheed Martin announced an agreement for
the building of a 10 MW land-based OTEC installation on China's southern coast.

Lockheed Martin, Reignwood Group (Lockheed Martin, 2013) Martinique/ Bellefontaine 10

MW DCNS Consortium's floating platform has more advanced planning as of 2014 and is

scheduled to operate in 2016. Additionally, additional places are being considered, such as

Reunion. Another plant is taken into account. DCNS France South Korea 20 kW Installed

in 2013. KISOT Bahamas/ Baha Mar NA A US$103 million project to provide cooling for

Baha Mar Resort was briefly put on hold due to regulatory challenges, infrastructure

problems, ecological problems, conflicts with cables and navigation, and issues with coast

protection. 6 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Corporation Bora Bora NA Land-based,

with no power generation and only utilised for air cooling. Intercontinental Hotel Bora Bora

Tetiaroa NA Land-based, with no power generation and only utilised for air cooling. The

Brando Hotel, Tetiaroa

22 4.0 CONCLUSION Energy is very important for almost all activities of human life. To

avoid an energy crisis due to limited energy in nature, renewable energy is needed.

Renewable energy is energy derived from "sustainable natural processes" 14 , such as

solar power, wind power, biological processes, and geothermal water flows. With

renewable energy, 2 it is expected that human needs for energy sources will not be

reduced. There are three types of OTEC that can be used to generate power plants in a

specific region, namely closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid system. The closed-cycle

uses low boiling fluids (such as ammonia or fluorocarbon refrigerants) with the purpose of

achieving high efficiency, while open- cycle uses warm surface seawater 6 as a working

fluid to generate electricity, but results in low efficiency. In 2040, it is anticipated that the

globe would utilize 1 820 quadrillion Btu of energy. As our supply of fossil fuels dwindles,

more renewable energy technologies will need to be incorporated into our society to fulfill

energy demands. The conversion 6 of ocean thermal energy is one method of producing

renewable energy. The environmental impact of developing OTEC is a concern shared by

many. NOAA reports conclude 1 that the environmental impact of smaller-scale OTEC
plants is minimal, but there is insufficient evidence to estimate the magnitude of the

environmental impact of commercial OTEC facilities. Once more large-scale OTEC plants

are operational, more information regarding OTEC's environmental impact will be

uncovered. OTEC is not only a fantastic way to generate electricity, but it can also be used

to desalinate seawater, provide cold water for air conditioning and irrigation, and provide

nutrientrich water for mariculture. Several recommendations might be made to enhance

the overall performance of the system. Utilize a more advanced Rankine cycle, such as the

regenerative cycle. This would permit 4 the working fluid to go through the boiler many

times to enhance the temperature of the turbine's inlet. In conjunction with an auxiliary

energy source, a regenerative cycle will guarantee a constant high temperature at state 4.

Various working fluids, such as different refrigerants with similar qualities to ammonia, can

be investigated further.

23 The effects on the environment, 2 as well as the effects of the environment on the

system, must be considered throughout the creation of an OTEC system. The OTEC

system has the potential to have harmful effects on marine life and island populations.

Even in low amounts, ammonia is harmful to the environment. Therefore, the construction

of an OTEC system should explore safety regulations if the working fluid is released into

the ocean. In addition, the system's materials should be evaluated, as the system's

location and marine life can influence its mechanical qualities and lifespan. For instance,

algae growth on the pipes and platform may be corrosive to the specified material. To

optimize the system, locations with a greater yearly temperature variation in the ocean

water, such as Indonesia, should be studied. As the OTEC cycle is positioned on an

offshore floating platform, its longevity 2 may be affected by the local climate. Potential

OTEC locations are often found in the Tropics, where the frequency of natural disasters is

considerable; hence, operations would be expensive to maintain.

24 References 5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ocean Thermal Energy. (n.d.).

Retrieved from JavaTPoint: https://www.javatpoint.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-

ofocean-thermal-energy Aydin, H. (2013). PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A CLOSED-

CYCLE 6 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION SYSTEM WITH SOLAR

PREHEATING AND SUPERHEATING. University of Rhode Island. 2 Hainan Ocean

Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Power Plant. (14 May, 2013). Retrieved from Power

Technology: https://www.powertechnology.com/projects/hainan-ocean-thermal-energy-

conversion-otecpower-plant/ 3 Makai’s Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

Power Plant, Hawaii. (26 June, 2020). Retrieved from Power Technology:

https://www.powertechnology.com/projects/makais-ocean-thermal-energy-conversion-

otecpower-plant-hawaii/ Mero, J. L. (22 April, 2016). 6 ocean thermal energy conversion.

Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica:

https://www.britannica.com/technology/oceanthermal-energy-conversion Naroju, S. (n.d.).

12 Main 5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ocean Thermal Energy. Retrieved from

RiddleLife: https://www.riddlelife.com/advantages-anddisadvantages-of-ocean-thermal-

energy/ 6 Ocean thermal energy conversion produces energy from temperature

differences in ocean waters. (9 August, 2022). Retrieved from U.S. Energy Information

Administration: https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydropower/oceanthermal-energy-

conversion.php 2 Okinawa OTEC Demonstration Facility. (21 April, 2020). Retrieved from

OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY ASSOCIATION: http://www.ocean-thermal.org/okinawaotec-

demonstration-facility/

25 Prasanna. (17 January, 2022). AplusTopper. Retrieved from 5 Advantages and

Disadvantages of Ocean Thermal Energy | Top 6 Advantages and Disadvantages of

Ocean Thermal Energy: https://www.aplustopper.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-

oceanthermal-energy/ Ruud Kempener (IRENA), F. N. 13 (2014). OCEAN THERMAL

ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGY BRIEF. Germany: IRENA Innovation and

Technology Centre. sharda. (30 April, 2019). World’s Largest Ocean Thermal Energy

Conversion (OTEC) Power Plant To Come Up in China. Retrieved from Marineinssight:

https://www.marineinsight.com/offshore/worlds-largest-ocean-thermal-energyconversion-

otec-power-plant-to-come-up-in-china/ Takahashi, S. M. (2001). 6 OCEAN THERMAL

ENERGY CONVERSION. USA: University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI. Thermal

Gradient (OTEC). (n.d.). Retrieved from Technische Universiteit Delft:

https://www.tudelft.nl/oceanenergy/research/thermal-

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