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S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
Recommendations for the design of masonry structures in

Ireland to Eurocode 6
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S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
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S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
National Foreword
S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018 is the version of the NSAI adopted European document , Recommendations for the
design of masonry structures in Ireland to Eurocode 6, including any Corrections, Amendments etc. to .
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S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
Contents
Page
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................... 5
1 Scope ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
2 Normative references ...................................................................................................................... 6
3 Terms and definitions ..................................................................................................................... 9
3.1 General terms ..................................................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Joint type terms ............................................................................................................................... 11

3.3 Masonry joints type terms ............................................................................................................ 11
3.4 Mortar bedding terms.................................................................................................................... 11
3.5 Support types terms ....................................................................................................................... 12
3.6 Wall types terms .............................................................................................................................. 12
4 Materials and components ........................................................................................................... 13
4.1 Materials and components - General ........................................................................................ 13
4.2 Masonry units ................................................................................................................................... 13
4.3 Mortars ............................................................................................................................................... 13
4.4 Wall ties.............................................................................................................................................. 13
4.5 Ancillary components .................................................................................................................... 13
4.6 Reinforcement ................................................................................................................................. 18
4.7 Damp–proof courses ...................................................................................................................... 18
4.8 Sealants .............................................................................................................................................. 18
4.9 Airbricks, gratings and flues ........................................................................................................ 18
4.10 Sills ...................................................................................................................................................... 18
4.11 Lintels ................................................................................................................................................. 19
4.12 Copings and cappings..................................................................................................................... 19
4.13 Flashings and weatherings and insulation in cavity walls ................................................. 20
4.13.1 Flashings and weatherings ........................................................................................................... 20
4.13.2 Insulation in cavity walls .............................................................................................................. 20
5 Design ................................................................................................................................................. 21
5.1 General design considerations.................................................................................................... 21
5.1.1 Factors to be considered ............................................................................................................... 21
5.1.2 Loading ............................................................................................................................................... 22
5.1.3 Accidental loading .......................................................................................................................... 22
5.1.4 Foundations ...................................................................................................................................... 22
5.1.5 Adhesion ............................................................................................................................................ 22
5.1.6 Selection of masonry units and materials ............................................................................... 23
5.2 Design for stability .......................................................................................................................... 23
5.2.1 Masonry in general ......................................................................................................................... 23
5.2.2 Walls subjected to concentrated loads ..................................................................................... 24
5.2.3 Walls subjected to imposed lateral load only ......................................................................... 25
5.2.4 Internal walls or partitions not designed for imposed loading ........................................ 25
5.3 Structural detailing for stability ................................................................................................. 28
5.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 28
5.3.2 Floors .................................................................................................................................................. 28
5.3.3 Roofs.................................................................................................................................................... 29
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5.3.4 Support over openings .................................................................................................................. 29

5.3.5 Anchorage, dowels and fixings .................................................................................................... 38
5.3.6 Wall ties .............................................................................................................................................. 40
5.3.7 Provision for services and fittings ............................................................................................. 40
5.3.8 Chimneys............................................................................................................................................ 40
5.4 Movement in masonry ................................................................................................................... 43
5.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 43

5.4.2 Movement and materials .............................................................................................................. 43
5.4.3 Movement in joints ......................................................................................................................... 43
5.5 Exclusion of moisture .................................................................................................................... 47
5.5.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 47
5.5.2 Classification of exposure to local wind-driven rain ............................................................ 48
5.5.3 Selection of external constructions to resist rain penetration ......................................... 50
5.5.4 Damp-proof courses and cavity trays ....................................................................................... 57
5.5.5 Positioning of DPC's ........................................................................................................................ 58

5.5.6 Flashings and weatherings ........................................................................................................... 69
5.5.7 Flashings and copings .................................................................................................................... 69
5.5.8 External wall becoming an internal wall ................................................................................. 69
5.5.9 Structural frames ............................................................................................................................ 70
5.6 Durability........................................................................................................................................... 70
5.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 70
5.6.2 Sulphate attack ................................................................................................................................ 72
5.6.3 Architectural features .................................................................................................................... 72
5.6.4 Selection of masonry units and mortar for durability ......................................................... 73
5.6.5 Protection of components embedded in masonry from corrosion or degradation ....81
5.7 Mortars ............................................................................................................................................... 81
5.7.1 Types of mortar ............................................................................................................................... 81
5.7.2 Mortar admixtures .......................................................................................................................... 82
5.7.3 Selection of mortar ......................................................................................................................... 82
5.7.4 Factory made masonry mortar ................................................................................................... 82
5.8 Fire resistance to walls .................................................................................................................. 82
6 Workmanship ................................................................................................................................... 84
6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 84
6.2 Storage of materials on site .......................................................................................................... 84
6.2.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 84
6.2.2 Masonry units ................................................................................................................................... 84
6.2.3 Cement and hydrated lime ........................................................................................................... 85
6.2.4 Fine aggregate .................................................................................................................................. 85
6.2.5 Ready-to-use mortars and ready-mixed lime ......................................................................... 85
6.2.6 Flexible DPC's ................................................................................................................................... 85
6.3 Laying of masonry units ................................................................................................................ 85
6.3.1 Setting out.......................................................................................................................................... 85
6.3.2 Joint thickness .................................................................................................................................. 86
6.3.3 Achieving good adhesion .............................................................................................................. 86
6.3.4 Appearance ....................................................................................................................................... 87
6.3.5 Jointing ............................................................................................................................................... 87
6.3.6 Pointing .............................................................................................................................................. 87
6.3.7 Bricklaying ........................................................................................................................................ 88
6.3.8 Block laying ....................................................................................................................................... 88
6.3.9 Reinforced block lintels ................................................................................................................ 88
6.3.10 DPC's, cavity trays and flashings ................................................................................................ 88
6.3.11 Cavity walls ....................................................................................................................................... 89
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6.3.12 Slips ..................................................................................................................................................... 90

6.4 Masonry bonds and other constructional details ................................................................. 91
6.4.1 Masonry bonds ................................................................................................................................. 91
6.4.2 Architectural features.................................................................................................................... 92
6.4.3 Arches ................................................................................................................................................. 93
6.4.4 Jointing and pointing ..................................................................................................................... 94
6.4.5 Corbelling .......................................................................................................................................... 94

6.4.6 Provision for services and fittings ............................................................................................. 94
6.4.7 Chases and holes ............................................................................................................................. 94
6.4.8 Ducts across cavities cavity walls............................................................................................... 95
6.4.9 Constructional details .................................................................................................................... 95
6.5 Provision of services, including fixings and chases .............................................................. 99
6.6 Protection against damage during construction ................................................................... 99
6.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 99
6.6.2 Protection against rain .................................................................................................................. 99

6.6.3 Work in cold conditions ................................................................................................................ 99
6.7 Supervision .................................................................................................................................... 100
Annex A (informative) Masonry bonds and joint finishes ............................................................ 101
Brick masonry bonds .................................................................................................................. 101
A.1.1 English bond .................................................................................................................................. 101
A.1.2 Flemish bond ................................................................................................................................. 101
A.1.3 English garden-wall bond .......................................................................................................... 101
A.1.4 Flemish garden-wall bond ......................................................................................................... 101
A.1.5 Header bond .................................................................................................................................. 101
A.1.6 Quetta bond ................................................................................................................................... 101
A.1.7 Rat-trap bond ................................................................................................................................ 101
Block masonry bonds .................................................................................................................. 101
A.2.1 Running or stretcher bonds ...................................................................................................... 101
A.2.2 Thin stretcher bond..................................................................................................................... 102
A.2.3 Off-centre running bond ............................................................................................................ 102
Joint finishes .................................................................................................................................. 102
Annex B (informative) Use of replacement wall ties ..................................................................... 105
Use of replacement wall ties ..................................................................................................... 105
Installation of replacement wall ties...................................................................................... 105
Types of replacement wall tie .................................................................................................. 105
Advantages and disadvantages affixing methods .............................................................. 106
Choice of replacement wall tie ................................................................................................. 106
Characteristics of replacement wall ties ............................................................................... 107
Accommodation of relative movement ................................................................................. 107
Spacing of replacement ties ...................................................................................................... 108
Annex C !(informative) Masonry units I.S. EN 771-1 to 6.............................................................. 109
General ............................................................................................................................................ 109
Dimensions .................................................................................................................................... 109
Dimensional tolerances ............................................................................................................. 110
C.3.1 Aggregate concrete masonry units to I.S. EN 771-3 ........................................................... 110
Compressive strength ................................................................................................................. 110
Durability ....................................................................................................................................... 111
Moisture movement .................................................................................................................... 111
Annex D !(informative) Ancillary components for masonry I.S. EN 845-1 to 3...................... 112
Ties, tension straps, hangers and brackets to I.S. EN 845-1 ............................................ 112
D.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 112
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D.1.2 Durability........................................................................................................................................ 112

D.1.3 Fire resistance ............................................................................................................................... 112
D.1.4 Mechanical strength (See I.S. EN 845-1) ................................................................................ 112
Lintels to I.S. EN 845-2 ................................................................................................................ 113
D.2.1 Mechanical performance (See I.S. EN 845-2) ....................................................................... 113
D.2.2 Durability........................................................................................................................................ 114
Bed joint reinforcement of steel meshwork to I.S. EN 845-3 .......................................... 114

D.3.1 Durability........................................................................................................................................ 114
Annex E !(informative) Specification for mortar for masonry I.S. EN 998-1 and 2 ............... 115
Rendering and plastering mortar (I.S. EN 998-1)............................................................... 115
E.1.1 Exclusion of moisture ................................................................................................................. 115
Masonry mortar (I.S. EN 998-2) ............................................................................................... 115
E.2.1 Compressive strength ................................................................................................................. 115
E.2.2 Durability........................................................................................................................................ 115

Annex F #(informative) National guidance to I.S. EN 13914-1:2016 ......................................... 116
Scope (Clause 1.0 Footnote 1) .................................................................................................. 116
Mineral Binders (5.2.1 Table 3 [Footnote a]) ...................................................................... 116
Materials for reinforcement, carrier and beads (5.4 Table 4 [Footnote a]) ............... 116
Plugs and anchors (5.5.2 [Footnote 2]) ................................................................................. 116
Choice of render type, mix, number of coats and thickness (6.2.1 [Footnote 2]) ..... 116
Strength of background (6.3.2 [Footnote 3]) ....................................................................... 117
Exposure conditions (6.6 [Footnote 4]) ................................................................................ 117
Resistance to water rising from the ground without pressure (capillary water) (6.8
[Footnote 5]) .................................................................................................................................. 117
Corrosion of metals (6.13 [Footnote 6])................................................................................ 117
Movement of the rendering (6.14.3 [Footnote 7]) ............................................................. 117
Methods of minimizing the occurrence of cracks (6.14.5.1 [Footnote 8]) .................. 117
Site made prescribed mixes (6.17.2.2 [Footnotes 9 & 10]) ............................................. 117
F.12.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 117
F.12.2 Designation I mixes ..................................................................................................................... 117
F.12.3 Designations II, III and IV mixes .............................................................................................. 118
F.12.4 Designation V mixes .................................................................................................................... 118
Recommended thicknesses for various types of multicoat systems ............................ 118
F.13.1 Factory made, semi-finished and established site mixed rendering mortars ........... 118
Renovation render (R) (6.18.6.4 [Footnote 11]) ................................................................ 120
Minimum applied coat thickness for one coat mineral renders (Table 8 [Footnote a])
............................................................................................................................................................ 120
Scaffolding (7.3 [Footnote 12]) ................................................................................................ 121
Reinforcement (7.5.2.5 [Footnote 13]) .................................................................................. 121
Lathing over timber-framed construction (7.5.2.6 [Footnote 13]) ............................... 121
Special rendering methods, using factory made renders, over thermal insulation or
backgrounds that may move (7.5.2.7 [Footnote 13]) ........................................................ 121
Volume batching (7.6.3 [Footnote 14]) ................................................................................. 121
Mixing on site (7.7 and 7.7.1 [Footnote 15]) ........................................................................ 121
Curing (7.9.2 [Footnote 15]) ..................................................................................................... 121
Thermal insulating renders (7.9.4 [Footnote 16])............................................................. 121
Example on the selection of site mixed prescribed renders mixed in accordance with
background type (Annex A (informative) [Footnote 17]) ............................................... 121
Restoration of renders on old and historic buildings (Annex B (informative)
[Footnote 18]) ............................................................................................................................... 121
Air lime based renders (B.4.6 [Footnote 19])...................................................................... 121
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Foreword
This Standard Recommendation (S.R.) is published by NSAI and was prepared by the Masonry Panel, a
subcommittee of the Concrete Standards Consultative Committee.
The Irish codes of practice for the use of masonry (I.S. 325-1 and I.S. 325-2) were superseded by the
publication of I.S. EN 1996-1-1. Much of the material in this S.R. document is taken from those parts of
I.S. 325-2 that were deemed non contradictory to the requirements of the Eurocode 6 standards.
It is intended that this Standard Recommendation will provide non-contradictory complementary

information for use in the Ireland of the following parts of the Eurocode 6 series of standards together
with their accompanying Irish National Annexes:
 I.S. EN 1996-1-1, Design of masonry structures - Part 1-1: General rules for reinforced and
unreinforced masonry structures;
 I.S. EN 1996-1-2, Design of masonry structures - Part 1-2: General rules – Structural fire design;
 I.S. EN 1996-2, Design of masonry structures - Part 2: Design considerations, selection of materials
and execution of masonry.
NSAI acknowledges the support of British Standards Institute (BSI) in the development of this Standards
Recommendation through the provision of access to the content of BS PD 6697:2010 Recommendations
for the design of masonry structures to BS EN 1996-1-1 and BS EN 1996-2.
Amendments are indicated by the TAG !"
Amendment 2 is indicated by the TAGs #$
!Annex C, D & E of this S.R. provide additional guidance on the use of masonry units (I.S. EN 771 series),
ancillary components (I.S. EN 845 series) and masonry mortars (I.S. EN 998 series), and establishes
recommended minimum performance levels of construction products intended to be used in building
works in Ireland.
As S.R. 325 (Annex C, D & E) now incorporates the information in the National Annexes to the harmonised
European standards I.S. EN 771, I.S. EN 845 and I.S. EN 998, these individual National Annexes have now
been withdrawn. "
#Annex F provides additional information on I.S. EN 13914-1:2016. $
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1 Scope
This Standard Recommendation contains non-contradictory complementary information as guidance
material for the use in Ireland of the following EN Eurocode 6 series of standards I.S. EN 1996-1-1, I.S. EN
1996-1-2 and I.S. EN 1996-2.
2 Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document. For dated
references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of the referenced
document (including any amendments) applies.
NOTE Any reference to an I.S. EN includes reference to its National Annex (NA) or Standard Recommendation
(S.R.) where they exist.
I.S. 65, Mastic asphalt for buildings
I.S. EN 1052-3, Methods of test for masonry – Part 3: Determination of initial shear strength
I.S. EN 1172, Copper and copper alloys – Sheet and strip for building purposes
I.S. EN 12588, Lead and lead alloys – Rolled lead sheet for building purposes
I.S. EN 12620, Aggregates for concrete
S.R. 16, Guidance on the use of I.S. EN 12620, Aggregates for concrete
I.S. EN 1304, Clay roofing tiles and fittings – Product definitions and specifications
I.S. EN 13139, Aggregates for mortar
S.R. 18 Guidance on the use of I.S. EN 13139, Aggregates for mortar
I.S. EN 13162, Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory made mineral wool (MW) products -
Specification
I.S. EN 13163, Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory made products of expanded polystyrene
(EPS) – Specification
I.S. EN 13164, Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory made products of extruded polystyrene
foam (XPS) – Specification
I.S. EN 13165, Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory made rigid polyurethane foam (PUR)
products – Specification
I.S. EN 13166, Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory made products of phenolic foam (PF) –
Specification
I.S. EN 13167, Thermal insulating products for buildings – Factory made cellular glass (CG) products –
Specification
I.S. EN 13279-1, Gypsum binders and gypsum plasters – Part1: Definitions and requirements
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S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
I.S. EN 13914-1, Design, preparation and application of external rendering and internal plastering – Part 1:
External rendering
I.S. EN 14411, Ceramic tiles – Definitions, classification, characterisation and marking
I.S. EN 14909, Flexible sheets for waterproofing – Plastic and rubber damp proof courses – Definitions and
characteristics
I.S. EN 14967, Flexible sheets for waterproofing – Bitumen damp proof courses – Definitions and
characteristics
I.S. EN 15287-1: Chimneys – Design, installation and commissioning of chimneys – Part 1: Chimneys for non-
room sealed appliances
I.S. EN 1652, Copper and copper alloys – Plate, sheet, strip and circles for general purposes
I.S. EN 1991-1-1, Eurocode 1: actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - densities, self-weight,
imposed loads for buildings
I.S. EN 1991-1-4, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4: General actions - wind actions
I.S. EN 1991-1-7, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-7: General actions - accidental actions
I.S. EN 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2 – Design of concrete structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings
I.S. EN 1995-1-1, Eurocode 5 – Design of timber structures – Part1-1: General – Common rules and rules for
buildings
I.S. EN 1996-1-1, Eurocode 6 – Design of masonry structures – Part 1-1: General rules for reinforced and
unreinforced masonry structures
I.S. EN 1996-1-2, Eurocode 6 – Design of masonry structures – Part 1-2: General rules – Structural fire design
I.S. EN 1996-2, Eurocode 6 – Design of masonry structures – Part 2: Design considerations, selection of
materials and execution of masonry
I.S. EN 1996-3, Eurocode 6 – Design of masonry structures – Part 3: Simplified calculation methods for
unreinforced masonry structures
I.S. EN 1997-1, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules
I.S. EN 206-1, Concrete – Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity
I.S. EN 459-1, Building lime – Part 1: Definitions, specifications and conformity criteria
I.S. EN 485-1, Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Sheet, strip and plate – Part 1:Technical conditions for
inspection and delivery
I.S. EN 485-2, Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Sheet, strip and plate – Part 2: Mechanical properties
I.S. EN 490 Concrete roofing tiles and fittings for roof covering and wall cladding – Product specifications
I.S. EN 515, Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Wrought products – Temper designations
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S.R. 325:2013+A2:2018
I.S. EN 573-3, Aluminium and aluminium alloys – Chemical composition and form of wrought products –
Part 3: Chemical composition and form of products
I.S. EN 771-1, Specification for masonry units – Part 1: Clay masonry units
I.S. EN 771-2, Specification for masonry units – Part 2: Calcium silicate masonry units
I.S. EN 771-3, Specification for masonry units – Part 3: Aggregate concrete masonry units (dense and light-
weight aggregates)
I.S. EN 771-4, Specification for masonry units – Part 4: Autoclaved aerated concrete masonry units
I.S. EN 771-5, Specification for masonry units – Part 5: Manufactured stone masonry units
I.S. EN 771-6, Specification for masonry units – Part 6: Natural stone masonry units
I.S. EN 845-1, Specification for ancillary components for masonry – Part 1: Ties, tension straps, hangers and
brackets
I.S. EN 845-2, Specification for ancillary components for masonry – Part 2: Lintels
I.S. EN 845-3, Specification for ancillary components for masonry – Part 3: Bed joint reinforcement of steel
meshwork
I.S. EN 934-3, Admixtures for concrete mortar and grout – Part 3: Admixtures for masonry mortar –
Definitions, requirements, conformity and marking and labelling
I.S. EN 988, Zinc and zinc alloys – Specification for flat rolled products for building
I.S. EN 998-1, Specification for mortar for masonry – Part 1: Rendering and plastering mortar
I.S. EN 998-2, Specification for mortar for masonry – Part 2: Masonry mortar
I.S. EN ISO 11600, Building construction – Jointing products – Classification and requirements for sealants
BS 493, Specification for air bricks and gratings for wall ventilation
BS 5080-1, Structural fixings in concrete and masonry – Part 1: Methods of test for tensile loading
BS 5080-2, Methods of test for Structural fixings in concrete and masonry – Part 2: Methods for
determination of resistance to loading in shear
BS 5440-1, Fluing and ventilation for gas appliances of rated input not exceeding 70 kW net (1st, 2nd and
3rd family gases) – Part 1: Specification for installation
BS 5617, Specification for urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam systems suitable for thermal insulation of cavity
walls with masonry or concrete inner and outer leaves
BS 5618, Code of practice for thermal insulation of cavity walls (with masonry or concrete inner and outer
leaves) by filling with urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam systems
BS 5642-1, Sills and copings – Part 1: Specification for window sills of precast concrete, cast stone, clayware,
slate and natural stone
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BS 5642-2, Sills and copings – Part 2: Specification for copings of precast concrete, cast stone, clayware,
slate and natural stone
BS 6213, Selection of construction sealants – Guide
BS 6510, Steel framed windows and glazed doors

BS 7456, Code of practice for stabilization and thermal insulation of cavity walls (with masonry or concrete
inner and outer leaves) by filling with polyurethane (PUR) foam systems
BS 7457, Specification for polyurethane (PUR) foam systems suitable for stabilization and thermal
insulation of cavity walls with masonry or concrete inner and outer leaves
BS 8000–3, Workmanship on building sites – Part 3: Code of practice for masonry

BS 8000–16, Workmanship on building sites – Part 16: Code of practice for sealing joints in buildings using
sealants
3 Terms and definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply.
3.1 General terms
capping
unit or assemblage placed at the head a wall that does not shed rainwater from the top of the wall clear
of exposed surfaces of the walling beneath
Note 1 to entry: Examples of cappings are brick-on-edge and other cappings that may be flush or overhanging
but that do not incorporate a throating or other device designed to shed rainwater clear of the walling beneath
cavity tray
component provided to divert water that has entered a cavity to the outside of the building
closer
portion of a masonry unit used to maintain masonry bond, either specially manufactured or cut (see
Figure A.1(a))
consequence Class 2a
categorisation of building type as defined in Annex A, Table A.1 of I.S. EN 1991-1-7:2006
coping
unit or assemblage placed at the head of a wall and designed to shed rainwater from top of the wall clear
of all exposed faces of the walling it is intended to protect
Note 1 to entry: Examples of copings are copings complying with BS 5642: Part 2, some types of continuous sheet
metal or extruded plastic copings and built up details, such as tile creasing.
course
layer of masonry that includes a layer of mortar as well as a layer of units
efflorescence
salts on the surface of the wall left by leaching of the salts with rainwater and the subsequent evaporation
of the water
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frog
purpose-made indentation in either or both of the bed faces of a brick
indenting
recesses formed in masonry to receive future work
jamb
part of a wall at the side of an opening
jointing
finishing of a mortar joint as the work proceeds (See A.3)
lime bloom
particular kind of efflorescence
masonry
assemblage of units jointed with mortar
masonry bond
disposition of units in masonry (See A1 and A2)
masonry unit
brick or block
panel
area of masonry with defined boundaries that may contain openings
pier
member that forms an integral part of a wall, in the form of thickened sections placed at intervals along
the wall
pointing
filling and finishing of raked-out joints
quoin
external corner
size
magnitude of a dimension in terms of a defined unit
string course
distinctive course in a wall, usually horizontal, and projecting
special unit
masonry unit whose shape is other than a rectangular prism
stretcher
masonry unit laid on its bed with its longer face parallel to the face of the wall
tolerance
difference between the permissible limits of size or between the permissible limits of position. The
tolerance is an absolute value without sign
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toothing
masonry units left projecting to bond with future work
weathering
cover applied to a structure, or the geometrical form of a part of a structure, enabling rainwater to be
shed
work size
size given with its permissible deviations, specified for manufacturing a component the actual size of
which would lie within these deviations, under reference conditions
3.2 Joint type terms
bed joint
mortar layer upon which masonry units are set
collar joint
continuous vertical joint parallel to the face of the wall. Joint, other than a bed joint, at right angles to the
face of a wall
cross joint
joint, other than a bed joint, at right angles to the face of a wall
movement joint (Control joint)

joint designed to permit relative movement of sections of a structure built in masonry to occur without
impairing the functional integrity of the structure (See Figure 10)
perpend joint
vertical cross joint
3.3 Masonry joints type terms
fixing unit
masonry unit made to facilitate the driving of nails and screws and to achieve good holding
header
masonry unit laid on its bed face with its longer face perpendicular to the face of the wall (see Figure
A.1(a))
pistol brick
brick, purpose made or sawn from whole brick on site to form an accurate sized rebated shape to fit over
and face the nibs
slip
masonry unit, either specially manufactured or cut, of the same height and length as a header or stretcher
and usually with a thickness of between 20 mm and 50 mm
3.4 Mortar bedding terms
bedding of units
mortar covering the face of units in both horizontal and vertical joints. In the case of concrete blocks laid
on face, mortar is removed from the centre of the bed to facilitate alignment and levelling of the blocks
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shell bedding
bedding consisting of two separate strips of mortar covering the outer and inner face shells of blocks in
both horizontal and vertical joints, neither strip being more than 50 mm wide
3.5 Support types terms

fixed support
support to the edge of a wall that restrains the wall against lateral movement and also substantially
against rotation (See Figures 5 and 6)
simple support
support to the edge of a wall that may permit rotation but restrains the wall against lateral movement
(see Figure 6(b))
3.6 Wall types terms
cavity wall
two parallel single-leaf walls, usually at least 50 mm apart and effectively tied together with wall ties
double-leaf (collar-jointed) wall

two parallel single-leaf walls, with a space between not exceeding 25 mm, filled solidly with mortar and
so tied together as to result in common action under load
freestanding wall
wall without top or side support that depends for stability on its mass and/or base fixity
single-leaf wall
wall of masonry units laid to overlap in one or more directions and set solidly in mortar
sleeper wall
wall, usually honeycombed, built to support a suspended ground floor
veneered wall
wall having a facing that is attached to the backing, but not so bounded as to result in common action
under load
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4 Materials and components

4.1 Materials and components - General
The following clauses contain non-contradictory complementary information relating to materials and
components for use in masonry designed in accordance with the I.S. EN 1996 series of Eurocode 6
standards.
4.2 Masonry units
!Masonry units should comply with the relevant standards as established in Table 1 and additional
guidance provided in Annex C."
Table 1 — Masonry Units

Masonry Unit Standard
Clay I.S. EN 771-1
Calcium silicate I.S. EN 771-2
Aggregate concrete (dense and lightweight aggregate) I.S. EN 771-3
Autoclaved aerated concrete I.S. EN 771-4
Manufactured stone I.S. EN 771-5
Natural stone I.S. EN 771-6
4.3 Mortars
Masonry mortar should comply with I.S. EN 998-2 !and Annex E."
Rendering and plastering mortars should comply with I.S. EN 998-1 !and Annex E."
4.4 Wall ties
!Wall ties should comply with I.S. EN 845-1 and Annex D. For guidance on selection and use of wall ties,
see 5.3.5, 5.3.6, Annex B and Annex D."
4.5 Ancillary components
Tension straps, joist hangers lintels, bed joint reinforcement, ties and brackets should conform to Table
2 in relation to material/coating specification and situation.
For guidance on selection of materials for anchorages, dowels and fixings, see 5.6.5.1. For guidance on
the assessment of structural fixings see BS 5080-1 and BS 5080-2. Typical fixings are illustrated in Figure
7.
Joist hangers required for vertical support or lateral support should comply with I.S. EN 845-1 as shown
in Figures 1 and 2. ! Recommended minimum declared values of vertical load capacity for joist hangers
for use in residential construction to support solid timber joists of certain sizes are given in Table D.2."
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Dimensions in mm
Key
a Hanger to be tight against the wall
b Details of joist hangers are shown in Figures 2 & 3
Figure 1 — Timber floor using nailed or bolted joist hangers acting as a tie
Dimensions in mm
Key
a Minimum dimensions of "tail" thickness is 3 mm, width to suit the joist width
b Holes suitable for 10 gauge nails (3,25 mm)
c Fifth hole useful in some cases
d 150 or 200 depending on depth of joist
e Joist hanger embedded in mortar
Figure 2 — Joist hanger as tie: Nailed form
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Dimensions in mm
Key
a Minimum dimensions of "tail" thickness is 3 mm, width to suit the joist width
b Holes suitable for 10 mm diameter bolts
c 150 mm or 200 mm depending on depth of joist
d Joist hanger embedded in mortar
Figure 3 — Joist hanger as tie: Bolted form
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Table 2 — Selection of ancillary components in relation to material/coating specification and situation
Situation in buildings up to three storeys in a

non-aggressive environment
(For other buildings see Notes 1 and 2)

Material/Coating Material/Coating Material/Coating Material / coating specification
reference in reference in reference in (NOTE See I.S. EN 845-1 to -3 for the full details of the In contact with or
In contact with or
accordance accordance accordance specifications. The zinc coating weights are approximate embedded in an
embedded in an
with I.S. EN 845-1 with I.S. EN 845-2 with I.S. EN 845-3 values for one surface.) outer leaf of an
internal wall or an
external cavity wall
inner leaf of an
or a single leaf
external cavity wall
external wall
T S L L+ R C T S L L+ R C
Austenitic stainless steel (molybdenum chrome nickel Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
1 R1
alloys)
3 L3 R3 Austenitic stainless steel (chrome nickel alloys) Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
4 Ferritic stainless steel X X X X X X
5,6,7 Aluminium bronze, phospor bronze, copper Y Y Y Y Y Y
8,9 Zinc coated (940 g/m²) steel wire or component Y Y Y Y Y Y
10 L10 Zinc coated (710 g/m²) steel component X Y Y Y Y X X Y Y X
11 L11 Zinc coated (460 g/m²) steel component X Y X Y Y X X X Y X
Zinc coated (460 g/m²) steel component with organic Y Y Y Y
L11.1
coating over all outer surfaces of finished component
L11.2 Y Y Y Y
12.1 L12.1 Zinc coated (300 g/m²) steel strip or sheet with organic X Y Y Y Y X X Y Y X
12.2 L12.2 coating over all outer surfaces of finished component X Y Y Y Y X X Y Y X
13 R13 Zinc coated (265 g/m²) steel wire X Y Y Y X X X X
Zinc coated (300 g/m²) steel strip or sheet with all cut X Y X Y Y X X X Y X
14 L14
edges organic coated
15 Zinc pre-coated (300 g/m²) steel strip or sheet X Y Y X X X
16.1 L16.1 Zinc coated (137 g/m²) steel strip or sheet with organic X Y X Y Y X X X Y X
16.2 L16.2 coating over all outer surfaces of finished component X Y Y Y Y X X Y Y X
Zinc pre-coated (137 g/m²) steel strip with zinc coated X Y X X X
17
edges
Zinc coated (60 g/m²) steel wire with organic coating over X X X X X X X X
18 R18
all surfaces of finished component
19 R19 Zinc coated (105 g/m²) steel wire X X X X X X X X
20 R20 Zinc coated (60 g/m²) steel wire X X X X X X X X
21 R21 Zinc pre-coated (137 g/m²) steel sheet X X Y X X X X X
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Table 2 – Selection of ancillary components in relation to material/coating specification and situation (continued)
Key to product types

T Ties and brackets conforming to I.S. EN 845-1 with this material/coating reference.
S Tension straps and hangers conforming to I.S. EN 845-1 with this material/coating reference.
Lintels conforming to I.S. EN 845-2 with this material/coating reference have integral damp-proof systems and may be used without the need to provide a separate
L
damp-proof course.
Lintels conforming to I.S. EN 845-2 with this material/coating reference may be used in these locations with a separate
L+
damp-proof course.
R Bed joint reinforcement conforming to I.S. EN 845-3 with this material/coating reference.
C Components outside the scope of I.S. EN 845-1 to 3 but meeting the specification requirements of I.S. EN 845-1 for the material/coating reference.
Key to Table
Y The use of components with this material/coating reference may be used in these locations.
(Blank) Components with this material/coating reference are not specified
X The use of components with this material/coating reference is not recommended in these locations.
NOTE 1 In contact with or embedded in an outer leaf of an external cavity wall or a single leaf external wall, in buildings exceeding three storeys in a non aggressive
environment, the material/coating specifications should be limited to austenitic stainless steels (references 1, R1, 3, L3 and R3) or aluminium bronze, phospor bronze or
copper (references 5, 6 or 7).
NOTE 2 For buildings located in an aggressive environment (e.g. coastal sites) the material coating specification for products in both leaves of an external wall should
be austenitic stainless steel (molybdenum chrome nickel alloys – references 1 or R1).
The recommendations of the Table may be used for the internal walls and inner leaves of all buildings in a non-aggressive environment.
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4.6 Reinforcement
Reinforcement for structural use should follow the requirements of I.S. EN 1996-1-1. Reinforcement for
non-structural use, e.g. crack control, should be of a type approved by the designer.
Bed joint reinforcement should conform to I.S. EN 845-3 with a material/coating reference as per Table 2.
Care should be taken to exclude the use of dissimilar metals in the same joint where electrolytic action
may result in corrosion.
4.7 Damp–proof courses
Materials for damp-proof courses (DPC's) should comply with the relevant standard as established in
Table 3. The criteria for suitability of materials for DPC's are set out in 5.5.4 and Table 13.
Table 3 — Damp-proof courses

Material Standard
Bitumen I.S. EN 14967
Mastic asphalt I.S. 65
Polyethylene I.S. EN 14909
Copper I.S. EN 1172
Lead I.S. EN 12588
4.8 Sealants
Sealants should conform to I.S. EN ISO 11600.
Sealant selection should be in accordance with the recommendations given in BS 6213.
Sealants should be installed in accordance with BS 8000-16.
For the selection of a sealant for use with a particular type of natural stone, the sealant manufacturer
should be consulted to avoid problems such as migration staining. Some silicone sealants liberate acidic
by-products during curing and are therefore unsuitable for use with calcareous stones.
Guidance on choice and application of sealants and back up materials are included in this standard.
4.9 Airbricks, gratings and flues
Airbricks and gratings should conform to BS 493. Flues should follow the recommendations of BS 5440-
1 or I.S. EN 15287-1 as appropriate.
4.10 Sills
Sills should comply with the relevant standards given in Table 4. For guidance on DPC's below sills see
5.5.5.3.
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Table 4 — Sills
Material Standard
Masonry Units I.S. EN 771-1, I.S. EN 771-2, I.S. 771-3,
I.S. EN 771-5, or I.S. EN 771-6
Cast (manufactured) stone I.S. EN 771-5
Clay tile I.S. EN 1304

Clayware BS 5642-1
Concrete I.S. EN 206-1
Natural stone I.S. EN 771-6
Slate BS 5642
Steel BS 6510
4.11 Lintels
!Lintels should comply with the relevant standards given in Table 5. For guidance on use see 5.3.4 and
Annex D.2 and for workmanship, see 6.4.9.4."
Table 5 — Lintels
Material Standard
Autoclaved aerated concrete
Cast concrete
Reinforced concrete
Pre-stressed concrete
Manufactured stone I.S. EN 845-2
Pressed steel
Rolled low carbon steel
Prefabricated reinforced masonry
Timber I.S. EN 1995-1-1
Natural stone N/A
In-situ reinforced concrete I.S. EN 1992-1-1
In-situ reinforced masonry I.S. EN 1996-1-1
Composite lintels I.S. EN 1996-1-1
4.12 Copings and cappings
Copings and cappings should comply with the relevant standards given in Table 6. For guidance on use,
see 5.5.7.
Copper may cause staining of external walls. To avoid electrolytic action between dissimilar metals
consideration should be given to the use of appropriate materials.
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Table 6 — Copings
Material Standard Recommended thickness
I.S. EN 515, I.S. EN 573-3,
Aluminium 0,6 to 0,9 a
I.S. EN 485-1 and I.S. EN 485-2
I.S. EN 771-1, I.S. EN 771-2, I.S. EN 771-3,

Masonry units -
I.S. EN 771-5, I.S. EN 771-6
Cast (manufactured) stone I.S. EN 771-5 or BS 5642-2 -

Clay tile I.S. EN 1304 or I.S. EN 14411 -
Concrete (cast) I.S. EN 206-1 -
Concrete tile I.S. EN 490 -
I.S. EN 1652,
Copper (material designation Cu-FRTP -
CW006A or Cu-DHP CW024A in the O
condition)
Lead I.S. EN 12588 ≥1,8
Natural stone I.S. EN 771-6 -
Zinc I.S. EN 988 ≥0,8 b
a Commercial or super purity quality aluminium should be used. Copings should preferable be preformed.
b Copings should preferably be preformed. In heavily polluted atmospheres, it is advisable to use a heavier
sheet, e.g. 1,0 mm thick or use another material
4.13 Flashings and weatherings and insulation in cavity walls
4.13.1 Flashings and weatherings
Flashings and weatherings should comply with the relevant standards given in Table 7. For guidance on
use, see 5.5.7.
Table 7 — Flashings and weatherings

Material Standard Recommended
thickness
I.S. EN 485-1, I.S. EN 485-2,

Aluminium alloy 0,6 to 0,9 (sheet or strip)
I.S. EN 573-3, I.S. EN 515
I.S. EN 1652,
Copper (material designation Cu-FRTP CW006A or Cu-DHP 0,4 to 0,7
CW024A in the O condition)
Lead I.S. EN 12588 ≥1,8
4.13.2 Insulation in cavity walls
Insulation in cavity walls should comply with the relevant standards given in Table 8.
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Table 8 — Insulation products

Code of practice for
Insulation product Product specification
installation
(A) For installation during construction of masonry to fill the cavity partially
Mineral wool boards (glass or rock fibre) I.S. EN 13162 —
Expanded polystyrene bead boards I.S. EN 13163 —
Extruded expanded polystyrene boards I.S. EN 13164 —
Polyurethane (PUR) boards I.S. EN 13165 —
Polyisocyanurate (PIR) boards I.S. EN 13166 —
Cellular glass boards I.S. EN 13167 —

(B) For installation by blowing or injection into cavity walling to fill the cavity fully
Loose mineral wool (glass or rock fibre) — —
Expanded polystyrene beads or granules — —
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) foam BS 5617 BS 5618
Polyurethane (PUR) foam BS 7457 BS 7456
Polyurethane (PUR) cavity stabilization foam BS 7457 BS 7456
5 Design
5.1 General design considerations
The following clauses contain complementary, non-contradictory information and recommendations for
the design of masonry carried out in accordance with the I.S. EN 1996 series of Eurocodes.
5.1.1 Factors to be considered
The designer should consider the following factors when designing masonry;
a) stability (see 5.2, 5.3),
b) materials, mortars (see Clause 4 and 5.7),
c) accommodation for movement (see 5.4),
d) adhesion (see 5.1.5),
e) resistance to moisture penetration (see 5.5),
f) durability (see 5.6),
g) fire, (see 5.8),
h) masonry bonds, provision of services and other constructional details (see 6.4),
i) the bedding of units and other aspects of workmanship.
Other factors not dealt with in detail in this S.R. may also need to be considered:
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1) whether there is an applied facing or finish to provide characteristics not inherent in the basic
construction, and compatibility of this facing or finish with masonry,
2) the effect of the weight of the wall, including finishes, on the strength of the supporting structure,
3) the effect of the thickness of the wall, including finishes, on the usable floor area,
4) speed of construction,
5) accuracy of construction.
Account should be taken of any proposal to provide for the installation of equipment, fixtures or fittings,
in, on or through the masonry where this may involve interference with the constructional adequacy of
the masonry.
Where relevant, the designer should take account of the level of construction control (see I.S. EN 1996-1-
1) proposed for adoption on site.
5.1.2 Loading
The loading requirements for masonry and the lateral wind pressures that should be allowed for in design
are given in I.S. EN 1991-1-1 and I.S. EN 1991-1-4 respectively. Masonry should also be designed to
withstand any additional loads which may arise, e.g. if materials are to be stacked or heaped against walls.
5.1.3 Accidental loading
In addition to designing the structure to support loads arising from normal use, there should be a
reasonable probability that it will not collapse catastrophically under the effect of misuse or accident. No
structure can be expected to be resistant to the excessive loads or forces that could arise due to an
extreme cause, but it should not be damaged to an extent disproportionate to the original cause. The
recommendation of I.S. EN 1991-1-7 should be adhered to.
Where the wall is likely to be subject to heavier impact loads, either the structure of the wall and the
applied finish should be sufficiently strong and stable to withstand the impact without undue damage, or
the wall should be protected, e.g. by the positioning of bollards where there is danger of damage from
motor vehicles.
5.1.4 Foundations
Masonry walls should be built on adequate foundations, see I.S. EN 1997-1 and I.S. EN 1992-1-1.
5.1.5 Adhesion
It is essential to ensure that in any masonry construction adequate adhesion exists between the masonry
units and the mortar. Where the design relies on flexural strength and there is insufficient experience or
information on the adhesion characteristics of particular masonry units and mortar designations,
preliminary tests should be carried out to establish whether adequate adhesion can be achieved.
Depending on their characteristics, masonry units may be highly porous and, particularly in warm
weather, rapidly absorb the moisture from the mortar when laid. In such cases the mortar becomes harsh
and insufficiently plastic to allow repositioning of the unit during laying and levelling and it is possible
that no adhesion between the unit and the mortar will be obtained.
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Experience has shown that adhesion will be adversely affected when masonry is allowed to dry out
rapidly in warm, dry conditions. Laying mortar beds in shorter lengths, thus limiting water loss from the
mortar before the next course is laid, is advantageous in such conditions.
Concrete masonry units should not be wetted. Instead, the consistency of the mortar should be adjusted
to suit the suction, if necessary using water-retaining admixtures.
Wetting may assist in removing dust from bricks and thus further improve adhesion. However, the bricks
should not be over wetted, as this may lead to 'floating' on the mortar bed and also to excessive
efflorescence and staining of the brick face.
In fired-clay brickwork, the suction rate of the bricks to give maximum adhesion should be advised by
the manufacturer. Where the achievement of maximum flexural strength is critical, e.g. in infill panels,
and bricks of higher suction rate are used, the consistency of the mortar should be adjusted or the bricks
should be wetted just before use.
In very dry conditions, easier laying and better adhesion of calcium silicate bricks may be achieved by
adjusting the consistency of the mortar or dipping the bricks briefly in water just before use. The bricks
should not be soaked in water.
For guidance on the characteristics of particular masonry units and appropriate wetting procedures, the
manufacturer should be consulted.
5.1.6 Selection of masonry units and materials
The selection of masonry units and associated materials should be made bearing in mind the criteria
listed in Table 9.
Table 9 —Selection of materials for masonry

Criterion Subclause reference
Durability 5.6
Strength 5.2, 5.7
Adhesion 5.1.5
Fire resistance 5.8
5.2 Design for stability
5.2.1 Masonry in general
All masonry should be designed to have adequate strength, stiffness and stability. The designer should
consider the interaction of the whole structure, of which the masonry forms part, to ensure that
connections of other elements with walls are sufficient to transmit all vertical and lateral loads safely to
the foundations. Temporary support for masonry during construction may need to be considered, e.g.
where composite action is required.
The designer responsible for the overall stability of the structure should ensure the compatibility of the
design and details of parts and components. There should be no doubt of this responsibility for overall
stability when some or all of the design and details are not made by the same designer.
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To ensure a robust and stable design it will be necessary to consider the layout of the structure on plan,
returns at the ends of walls, interaction between intersecting walls and the interaction between masonry
walls and the other parts of the structure.
Attention should be given to the following;

a) stability and robustness of masonry construction, particularly housing, relies on the use of straps and
ties. This structural interaction of walls, floors and roofs depends upon detailing,
b) robust connections should be provided between elements of the structure, particularly at floors and
roofs. For guidance, see Figure 1 to Figure 11,
c) consideration should be given to connections between elements of different materials to ensure that
any differences in their material or structural behaviour do not adversely affect the stability and/or
performance of the elements.
The bearing on walls of timber joists and joist hangers should be not less than 75 mm. Frogs of bricks
should be filled to provide an even bearing. It may be desirable to provide a wall plate in certain cases.
Figures 1 to Figure 11 illustrate connections that may be used to provide horizontal restraint in
accordance with the recommendations for Consequence class 2a buildings.
Requirements for the structural design of reinforced and unreinforced masonry are given in I.S. EN 1996-
1-1.
Depending on the type of masonry, the necessary stiffness and stability are derived from one or more of
the following:
 thickness in relation to height and length,
NOTE The useful thickness will be reduced by using recessed joints.
 self weight,
 presence of piers,
 interaction with other walls, columns, floors, roofs or structural elements.
Careful consideration should be given to the effect of introducing movement joints or slip planes.
The designer should always bear in mind the need for robust construction, including the effect of
accidental loading.
5.2.2 Walls subjected to concentrated loads
Where a concentrated load occurs in a wall, e.g. at a lintel or beam bearing, due regard should be given to
the local bearing stress and, where necessary, suitable bearing plates, spreader beams, padstones, piers
or columns should be provided.
Lintels or beams should not bear on a short length of cut block. Where possible, the masonry should be
set out to provide a full block under the bearing. Certain types of cellular, frogged or hollow unit which
are normally suitable for the construction of the wall may not provide sufficient bearing strength at points
of concentrated load and may need to be filled.
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5.2.3 Walls subjected to imposed lateral load only
5.2.3.1 Freestanding walls
Free-standing wall should be designed following the requirements of I.S. EN 1996-1-1. For guidance on
loading and minimum heights for parapets and balustrades see I.S. EN 1991-1-1.
5.2.3.2 Walls with horizontal DPC
A horizontal DPC normally cannot resist flexure and will reduce the ability of the wall to resist lateral
loads.
5.2.3.3 Support conditions
A fixed support may be assumed in a single-leaf, double-leaf or grouted-cavity wail in the cases shown in
Figure 3 or where the wall abuts, and is adequately tied to, a column capable of resisting without
excessive deflection horizontal forces applied to it.
A simple 'support may be assumed where the wall is permitted to rotate but is restrained against lateral
movement. In all cases, the wall should be adequately connected to its supports and all supports should
be sufficiently strong and rigid to carry the transmitted loads. For guidance, see Figure 5.
Any chases cut in the wall should be taken account of (see 6.4.7).
5.2.4 Internal walls or partitions not designed for imposed loading
Unless it is designed as a freestanding wall (see 5.2.3.1), an internal wall or partition should be laterally
restrained by horizontal or vertical continuous or intermittent supports. The length or height of the wall
in relation to its thickness should be within the limits given in Annex B of I.S. EN 1996-3. Consideration
should also be given to the following factors which may affect stability;
a) accommodation for movement (see subclause 5.4),
b) openings,
c) chasing,
d) the likelihood of exceptional lateral loading, arising from the nature of use of the building,
e) wind load.
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f)
(a) Examples of division of a wall into panels with intermediate supports

g)
(b) Effects of opening in a wall
(c) Gable walls
Key
1 Main supports x Maximum dimension of opening (height or length)
2 Roof Ao Permitted area of opening
3 Panel 1 a No limit
4 Panel 2 b Equivalent rectangular panel
5 Panel 3
6 Intermediate supports
Figure 4 — Walls with edge restraint
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Key
1 Anchorage or column support a Supported wall continuous past the support

b Wall without openings
c Quoin
d Intersecting wall without openings bonded to support wall
e Supported wall
Figure 5 — Fixed support conditions in solid walls
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(a) Fixed supports
(b) Simple support
Key
1 Solid mortar: resistance to rotation a Width of anchorage = T – 20 mm

2 Anchorages Thickness of anchorage ≥ 3 mm
3 Mortar Embedment of anchorage ≥ 75 mm into each component
4 Flexible joint
Figure 6 — Fixed and simple supports
5.3 Structural detailing for stability
5.3.1 General
The structural detailing for stability should allow for the details of the supports to be provided to floors
and roofs. These details should take account of the necessary tying to achieve stability.
5.3.2 Floors
Typical ways of connecting floors with walls are shown in Figure 7. Suspended timber ground floors
should be supported independently by sleeper walls. Offsets or corbels from external walls may be used.
Suspended timber floors elsewhere may be built into the walls or supported by offsets, corbels or joist
hangers. Timber wall plates should not be built into any wall.
The design should ensure that the bearing of all types of floor is not less than 75 mm, taking normal
tolerances into account. Concrete floors should normally have a bearing of not less than 90 mm; however,
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this bearing may be reduced at the discretion of the designer, taking into account relevant factors such as
loading, span, tolerances, height of support and the provision of continuity reinforcement.
Unreinforced concrete floors laid on the ground or on fill should not bear on walls, as this may give rise
to cracking due to differential movement.
5.3.3 Roofs
The design and construction should ensure that the roof structure provides adequate lateral restraint for
the wall. Typical ways of connecting roofs with walls are shown in Figure 7.
Particular care should be taken when detailing the bearings of flat roofs upon walls, to reduce the danger
of displacement of the top courses of masonry as a result of thermal movements in the roof and deflection
of the structure. Temperature variations may be reduced by providing external insulation or reflective
coatings.
Timber ceiling joists and joist hangers should have a minimum bearing of 75 mm on walls. The frogs of
bricks should be filled to provide an even bearing. It may be desirable to provide a wall plate in certain
cases.
Concrete roofs should normally have a bearing of not less than 90 mm. However, this bearing may be
reduced at the discretion of the designer, taking into account relevant factors such as loading, span,
tolerances, height of support and the provision of continuity reinforcement.
Binders or other beams giving rise to concentrated loads on the wall may need to be provided with a
padstone or spreader beam.
5.3.4 Support over openings
Masonry should not be supported on window or door frames which are not designed for the purpose.
Where lintels are used, they should have adequate bearings, commensurate with the solidity of the
support and the load for which they are designed and in any case not less than 100 mm bearing. Lintels
or beams should not bear on a short length of cut block. Where possible, the masonry should be set out
to provide a full block under the bearing.
Pressed steel lintels should have a bearing of not less than 150 mm in length and may need stiffening over
the bearing length to resist the total load. Protective measures for steel lintels, including provision of
DPC's where appropriate, should comply with I.S. EN 845-2.
Where composite lintels (e.g. solid masonry on prestressed concrete planks) are used, no chase, hole,
joist hanger or DPC should be formed in the area comprising the composite section nor should any
inclusion, such as joists,' be built into this section. Installation should follow the recommendations of the
manufacturers, but in any case a bearing length of 200 mm should be considered.
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Key
1 Foundation a Floor span
2 Ground floor b Indicates that a connection may be required. The number in the
circle refers to the detail(s) outlined in Figure 7. Where more
3 First or second floor
than one type of restraint system is given at an element
4 Roof intersection, only one of the options should be used
5 Flat roof
Figure 7 — Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs
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Detail 1 -Timber floor bearing on to wall
Key
a Strap to turn down to a minimum of 100 mm and be tight against the face of the walling inner leaf
No strap necessary, providing joists are at 1200 mm spacing or closer and bearing at least 90 mm into the wall.
Otherwise strap as shown: on top of joist with straps turned up or one side of joist with strap turned sideways
Detail 2- Timber floor spanning parallel with a wall
Key
a Strap to be turn down 100 mm and be tight against the face of the walling inner leaf
b Strap to be rebated into top of joists to allow the floorboards to lay flat
c Gap between the wall and the first joist to be filled with a timber packing at strap
d Gap between the wall and the first joist to be filled with a timber packing strap. The strap is to be carried over
at least two joists and can be secured with four fixings of which at least one is to be in the second joist.
Figure 7 — Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (continued)
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Detail 3 -Timber floor supported on standard joist hanger
Key
a Wherever possible the tongue of the hanger to be located away from the perpend joints
b Underside of joist notched to provide a flat soffit for ceiling
c Strap skew – nailed to joist
Detail 4- Concrete suspended floor bearing on to wall
Key
1 Concrete suspended floor a No straps are necessary. 90 mm minimum bearing of the concrete floor
on to the wall
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Dimensions in mm
Detail 5- Concrete suspended floor abutting wall

Key
1 Strap position. Where floor is parallel with and abuts the a Strap to turn down a minimum of 100 mm and be tight
wall, straps are necessary and are to be built into the against the face of the walling inner leaf
floor
2 Concrete suspended floor b Alternative strap securing points in the concrete floor
3 Void solidly grouted
Where floor beams span directly on to the wall, no straps Where floor spans parallel with the wall, straps are
are necessary provided there is a minimum 90 mm necessary and are to be built into the concrete floor
bearing of the concrete beams on to the wall
(a) Typical edge detail (b) Alternative edge detail
Detail 6- Precast concrete beam and block type floor abutting or spanning on to wall
Key
1 Precast concrete floor a Strap to turn down a minimum of 100 mm and be tight against the face of
the walling inner leaf
2 Strap position b Strap securing point to concrete floor using turn down of the strap which is
to be tight against precast beam face
3 Precast beam c Void solidly grouted
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Detail 7- Pitched roof: strapping at ceiling where roof spans parallel Detail 8- Pitched roof, connections at gable
with a wall (similar detail for flat roof spanning parallel with wall)
Key Key
a Strap to turn down a minimum of 100 mm and be tight against the face of a Packing piece between inner leaf and first rafter
the walling inner leaf
b Nogging to be provided and set horizontal unless the strap has a twist to line
b Packing at strap position with the roof slope
c Strap fixed to solid noggin with a minimum of four fixings of which at least c Strap bedded under a cut block to bear on a full block
one is to be in the second joist
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(a) Restraining roof against uplift by use of framing anchor and wall-plate straps
(b) Rafter strap
Detail 9-Pitched or flat roof bearing on to a wall plate

Key
a Strap to be at least 1m long and either screwed to face of masonry, or have a tail built into a masonry bed joint. If
screws are used a minimum of three screws is necessary at least one of which is to be located within 150 mm of
the bottom end of strap
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Detail 10- Section detail showing timber Detail 11- Plan detail showing timber floor on
bearing directly on hollow concrete blockwork roof abutting external hollow concrete block wall
wall
Key Key
1 Hollow concrete blockwork 1 Joists
2 Floor joist 2 Solid bridging
3 Solid masonry a Fishtailed end of anchor in masonry perpend
joint. Joint to be solidly filled with mortar.
a Bearing on course of solid masonry
b Packing to be secured at joist
c 30 x 5 galvanized anchors at 2000 mm centres
max. Anchors are not required where internal
walls at 4000 mm centres max.
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Dimensions in mm
Detail 12- Detail showing a floor board in close proximity to wall or roof
Key
1 Block a Gap between edge of floor and wall
2 Struts (herringbone)
Detail 13- Detail showing position of timber purlin in roof where board or similar rigid decking
material is not in close contact with wall
Figure 7 — Typical ways of connecting floors and roofs (concluded)
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5.3.5 Anchorage, dowels and fixings
Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings are shown in Figure 8. It is essential to select the correct materials
for these components to ensure adequate resistance to corrosion. Refer to Table 2 for more detail.
(A) Continuous support
Key
1 Wall tie a Clear gap width to accommodate expected expansion and to suit jointing
material but normally not less than 15 mm
2 Angle fixed to structure b Gap width to be maintained throughout
3 Compressible material
4 Flexible jointing material
5 Weep hole
Figure 8 — Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings
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(B) Brick to concrete fixing
(C) Dowels
Key
6 Unbonded joint c Damp Proof Membrane applied to surface

7 Polystyrene sleeving d If wall is plastered or rendered, stop beads or similar may be used. Joint should
be continued throughout finishes.
8 Dowel e Restraints to be suitably fixed or built into structural members. Ends of each
restraint to be built 100 mm into wall to allow longitudinal movement
9 Debonding coating
Figure 8 — Typical anchorages, dowels and fixings (concluded)
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5.3.6 Wall ties
The leaves of a cavity wall should be tied together with wall ties complying with I.S. EN 845-1.
All ties should be embedded to a minimum depth of 50 mm in the horizontal mortar joints at the time the
course is laid, with a minimum mortar embedment of 40 mm to the other face of the wall. The length of
the wall tie should be chosen to suit the width between the two leaves. The ties should be placed at a
frequency of not less than those given in the National Annex to I.S. EN 1996-1-1 in which case that
frequency may be used. The ties should be staggered and evenly distributed. Additional ties should be
provided within 225 mm of all openings so that there is one for each 300 mm of height of opening.
Consideration should be given to providing additional flexible ties across the cavity adjacent to
movement joints.
Selection of ties involves consideration of adequacy of both strength and flexibility. Adequacy of strength
is ensured by selecting a tie manufactured to the requirements of I.S. EN 845-1 suitable for the cavity
width. The choice of the stiffness depends upon the cavity width, the panel size and the relative movement
potential between the two leaves. !Recommended minimum declared mean load capacities for wall ties
used in buildings in Ireland as in Annex D.1.4.1.are provided in Table D.1."
5.3.7 Provision for services and fittings
In addition to the rules governing chasing in I.S. EN 1996-1-1, when making provision for services and
fittings, designers should ensure that none of the functions of the wall are impaired by fittings, chases or
holes, see sub clauses 6.4.6 and 6.4.7 Where fittings and/or mechanical or other equipment are to be fixed
to masonry, the structural effect of the loading from such sources (static and/or dynamic) should be
considered.
5.3.8 Chimneys
Where a chimney is not supported by adequate ties or otherwise made secure, its height, measured from
the level of the highest point of intersection with the roof surface, gutter or other part of the building and
including any flue pot or terminal, may be up to 3,5 times the lesser horizontal dimension of the chimney
measured at the same point of intersection. Note, this proportion is intended for general application but
is also dependent on the particular wind environment of the building, the density of the masonry
(> 1 800 kg/m3) and the height of the building. More slender chimneys may be built if they can be shown
by calculation to be stable in the particular wind environment of the building.
Typical chimney details are shown in Figure 9 (see also 5.5.5.8).
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(a) Typical coping, flashing and wall tie details
Key
1 DPC a Roof line
2 Stainless steel ties at three course intervals
3 Flue liner
4 Throating
Figure 9 — Typical chimney details
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(b) Flashing tray
(c) Plan over roof level
(d) Plan at stack level
Key
5 Party wall b 50 mm upstand tight against the flue liner
c Additional increased upstand (for dormer roofs)
d Drainage channel to be kept free of mortar to allow water to

discharge over flashing via weepholes
e Lead flashing
f ≥ 100 mm wall between flues
Figure 9 — Typical chimney details (continued)
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(e) Plan at fire ope level
Key
5 Party wall
6 Fire ope
Figure 9 — Typical chimney details (concluded)
5.4 Movement in masonry
5.4.1 General
The following clauses contain complementary and non-contradictory information relating to movement
in masonry designed in accordance with I.S. EN 1996-2.
The design should include provision for movement due to temperature, moisture, chemical action,
deflection under loads and ground movement/differential settlement.
5.4.2 Movement and materials
All materials expand and contract in response to thermal changes. In addition, clay materials undergo an
irreversible expansion after their manufacture as moisture is adsorbed from the atmosphere. Other
masonry materials shrink following manufacture to reach the equilibrium state.
5.4.3 Movement in joints
5.4.3.1 General
The empirical recommendations given here are applicable to the majority of situations.
It is not necessary to provide movement joints where the length of internal walls or the inner leaves of
cavity walls in dwellings is relatively short.
The width of the joint should be sufficient to accommodate both reversible and irreversible movements.
5.4.3.2 Movement joints in clay masonry
In general, unrestrained or lightly restrained unreinforced walls expand 1 mm/m during the life of a
building due to combined thermal and moisture movement changes.
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As a general guide and to allow for the compressibility of the filler, width of the joint in millimetres should
be about 30 % more than numerical value of the distance between joints in metres. For example,
movement joints at 12 m centres should be about 16 mm wide.
Where a manufacturer can show evidence from experience that the product expands more or less than
1 mm/m during the life of a building due to combined thermal and moisture movement changes, the
foregoing guidance may be modified at the designer’s discretion.
If a return in the length of clay masonry is less than 675 mm and either adjoining length of masonry
exceed 6 m, the masonry should be interrupted at the return to prevent the development of a mechanical
couple and a risk of cracking. This can be effected by the introduction of a vertical, compressible joint or
a “slide by” detail. Returns of 675 mm or more should be regarded as having sufficient inherent flexibility
to accommodate the stress caused by the opposing forces.
Dimensions in mm
(A) Mechanical couple in short return of clay masonry
(B) Alternative position for movement joint (preferable)
(C) Alternative position for movement joint (preferable)

Key
a Tendency to crack in these positions

b Compressible joint
c "Slide by" joint
Figure 10 — Short returns in clay masonry
Present evidence suggests that vertical movement of unrestrained walls is of the same order as horizontal
movement.
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5.4.3.3 Movement joints in calcium silicate masonry
Where possible, to control the contraction in calcium silicate masonry, it should be designed as a series
of panels separated by movement joints. The ratio of length to height of the panels should generally not
exceed 3:1. As a rule, vertical joints not less than 10 mm wide to accommodate horizontal movement
should be provided at intervals of between 7,5 m and 9 m.
In external walls containing openings, movement joints may be needed at more frequent intervals or the
masonry above and below the opening may need to be reinforced in order to restrain movement. The
design should pay particular attention to long low horizontal panels of masonry, e.g. those under
windows.
5.4.3.4 Movement joints in concrete masonry

Where possible, to control the contraction in concrete masonry, it should be designed as a series of panels
separated by movement joints. The degree of movement is dependent upon unit type and, as a rule,
vertical joints not less than 10 mm wide to accommodate horizontal movement should be provided at
intervals #not greater than 7 m$. The ratio of length to height of the panels should generally not exceed
3:1.
In external walls containing openings, movement joints may need to be provided at more frequent
intervals or the masonry above and below the opening may need to be reinforced to restrain movement.
Particular attention should be paid to long low horizontal panels of masonry, e.g. those under windows.
5.4.3.5 Movement joints in natural stone masonry
To accommodate horizontal movement, and in the absence of specific calculations, vertical joints not less
than 10 mm wide should be provided at intervals no greater than 15 m to 20 m, and located no more than
7,5 m from an external corner.
5.4.3.6 Placing of movement joints
Features of the building which should be considered when determining joint positions in masonry are;
a) intersecting walls, piers, floors, etc.,
b) window and door openings,
c) changes in height, thickness of walls or type of foundation,
d) chases in walls,
e) movement joints in the building as a whole or in floor slabs.
Areas above doors and above or below windows may benefit from being reinforced to distribute tensile
stresses.
5.4.3.7 Filler for movement joints
The material for filling movement joints to accommodate expansion should be easily compressible to
approximately 50% of its original thickness. Flexible cellular polyurethane, cellular polyethylene or foam
rubbers are satisfactory materials. Hemp, fibreboard, cork and similar materials should not be used for
expansion joints in clay brick masonry, but may be used for contraction joints in calcium silicate and
concrete masonry.
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5.4.3.8 Sealing movement joints
Movement joints should be sealed where resistance to water penetration is necessary. Guidance on the
selection of sealants is given in BS 6213.
5.4.3.9 Reinforcement to minimize the risk of cracking

Reinforcement should be used in masonry walls of calcium silicate masonry units, aggregate concrete
masonry units, autoclaved aerated concrete masonry units and manufactured stone masonry units to
minimize cracking which can occur above or below openings where the vertical cross-sectional area of
the masonry is much less than that of the masonry on either side. The reinforcement should be long
enough to distribute the stress to a position where the vertical cross-sectional area of the wall is able to
accommodate it.
Reinforcement should be protected against corrosion in accordance with the National Annex to
I.S. EN 1996-1-1.
5.4.3.10 Masonry cladding to framed structures
Masonry cladding to framed buildings should be designed to prevent cracking as a result of stresses
generated by differential movement between the masonry and the frame.
Cladding, irrespective of the type of masonry units from which it is built, should be provided with
adequate lateral edge restraint.
Concrete structures are subject to movement in the vertical direction due to shrinkage and creep of the
concrete structural elements. This movement will be in opposition to thermal expansion of the cladding.
In addition, in the case of cladding of clay units, there will also be irreversible moisture expansion.
With cladding of calcium silicate or concrete masonry the differential movement between the cladding
and the concrete structure is less. This is because the long term moisture movement of both cladding and
structure involves shrinkage, and thermal expansion of the cladding is the only opposing movement.
Steel frame structures are not subject to shrinkage movement and so vertical differential movement is
due only to thermal and moisture movements of the cladding. Generally, the differential movement
between the cladding and the steel frame structure is less.
Masonry cladding to a timber framed structure is usually supported on the same foundations as the
framed structure and not on the frame itself, although it is generally tied to it to enhance lateral stability.
Movement of the timber frame and movements of masonry in response to thermal and moisture changes
are dissimilar. Building details should accommodate the vertical movement between frame and cladding.
Masonry cladding to framed structures subject to sway in response to wind loads, e.g. in tall single storey
frame structures, should be designed to accommodate the movement.
The masonry may be tied to the frame and designed to move with it by permitting limited rotation at the
DPC at the base of the wall.
Alternatively, the masonry may be designed as a structurally self-supporting wall. Any connection to the
frame should not be fixed in a manner that restricts the anticipated movement.
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Key
a Allowance at eaves and verge:
18 mm – three story
12 mm – two story
6 mm – single story
b 15 mm between sill and brickwork at second floor level
c 9 mm between sill and brickwork at first floor level
d 3 mm between sill and brickwork at ground floor level
Figure 11 — Recommended allowances for differential movement between the timber frame
structure and brick cladding
5.5 Exclusion of moisture

5.5.1 General
Rain penetration is one of the commonest building defects, and it is essential to consider carefully design,
detailing, workmanship and materials in relation to local exposure conditions if the incidence of rain
penetration is to be minimised.
An assessment of the local wind-driven rain index should be made. When determining the likely exposure
of a building, the most exposed part should be given particular attention and this may affect decisions
concerning the choice of design and materials for the whole of the building. Using the guidance on
resistance to rain penetration of different forms of construction and the factors affecting rain resistance
given in 5.5.3, the designer should select a construction appropriate to the local wind-driven rain index,
paying due regard to the importance of correct detailing and workmanship.
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In cavity walls, some water will inevitably penetrate the outer masonry leaf in prolonged periods of wind-
driven rain but proper design and positioning of the damp-proof systems (see 5.5.4) will minimize the
risk of penetration further into the building.
5.5.2 Classification of exposure to local wind-driven rain

The quantity of rain falling on a vertical surface, such as a wall, at any point depends on both the intensity
of the rainfall and the wind speed. The BRE Report Driving Rain Index postulates that the quantity of rain
falling on a vertical surface, such as a wall, was proportional to the quantity falling on a horizontal surface
and to the local wind speed, and incorporated maps of an annual wind-driven rain index, which is the
product of the annual local rainfall and the annual average airfield wind speed. A map showing the driving
rain index for Ireland was prepared by the Meteorological Service and is shown in Figure 12.
Rainfall varies considerably across the country but is largely unaffected by local features. Conversely, the
general wind speed does not change so much across the country but is very much affected by local
features, such as the spacing and height of surrounding trees and buildings and whether the ground is
flat or steeply rising.
Table 10 — Classification of exposure to local wind-driven rain

Local spell index calculated as described in DD 93
Exposure category Simple exposure category
L/m2 per spell
Very severe 98 and over
Severe
Severe 68 to 123
Moderate / Severe 46 to 85
Moderate
Sheltered / Moderate 29 to 58
Sheltered 19 to 37
Sheltered
Very sheltered 24 or less
NOTE Methods for categorising exposure on the basis of the local spell index are included in column 2. The
basic data necessary for the application of this method is in course of preparation. In the interim period the
sheltered /moderate category may be taken to apply to areas where the driving rain index is less than 5 m2/s
Table 10 gives exposure categories defined either in terms of the local spells indices calculated using
DD93 or in terms of the following simple exposure categories;
1) sheltered category obtains districts where the driving rain index is 3 or less, excluding areas that
within 8 km of the sea or large estuaries the exposure should be regarded as moderate (see also
item 4 below),
2) moderate category obtains in districts where the driving rain index is between 3 and 7 except in
areas which have an index of 5 or more and which are within km of the sea or large estuaries
where the exposure should be regarded as severe (see also item 4),
3) severe category obtains in districts where the driving rain index is 7 or more,
4) in districts of sheltered or moderate exposure, high buildings which stand above their
surroundings, or buildings of any height on hill slopes or hill tops, should be regarded as having
an exposure one grade more severe than indicated by the map.
These simple categories cannot take account of all local circumstances. For example, if a building lies on
high ground on the windward side, or on the windward slope of even a slight hill, or in a valley facing into
the strongest rain-bearing winds, it may be more severely exposed than the average for the district. Such
details can be studied in large scale maps and taken into account, while the Meteorological Service may
be able to advise in cases of doubt.
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The local spell indices are not precise, since they are derived from inherently variable meteorological
data. This variability has been reflected in the definitions of the exposure categories by overlapping the
indices at their boundaries. Where exposure categories overlap (see Figure 13), the designer should
decide which is the most appropriate category for the particular case, using local knowledge and
experience. Examples of constructions suitable for particular exposure categories are given in 5.5.3.
(Taken from Met Eireann Climatological Report No.13 - Distribution of Driving Rain in Ireland (November 2010))
Figure 12 — Driving rain index (m² Sec-1 yr-1)
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Figure 13 — Overlap between exposure categories (see Table 10)
5.5.3 Selection of external constructions to resist rain penetration
5.5.3.1 General
The following factors affecting the resistance to wind-driven rain of masonry constructions should be
considered in relation to other functions of the wall such as strength, durability, sound and thermal
insulation;
a) presence of applied external surface finishes (see 5.5.3.2.1),
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b) quality of workmanship achieved in site (see 5.5.3.2.2),
c) type of masonry unit (see 5.5.3),
d) mortar composition (see 5.5.3.2.3),

e) joint finish and profile (see 5.5.3.2.4),
f) thickness of the leaf (see 5.5.3.2.5),
g) presence of a cavity; or the width of air space within any cavity (see 5.5.3.2.6) or the presence and
type of any cavity insulation (see 5.5.3.2.8),
h) architectural features (see 5.5.3.2.7),

i) the type of wall tie.
NOTE There has been no intention to list these factors in order of importance.
5.5.3.2 Detailed considerations
5.5.3.2.1 Applied external surface finishes
For both single-leaf and cavity walls, total resistance to rain penetration can be achieved only by cladding
with metal, plastics materials, shingles, slates, tiling or timber.
Rendering can substantially enhance the rain resistance of both single-leaf and cavity walls. It is essential,
however, to select the right type of mix, thickness and number of coats and to detail the wall properly to
minimize cracking, which may otherwise reduce the effectiveness of the rendering against rain
penetration. In general, the requirements of I.S. EN 13914-1 should be followed; however experience in
Ireland shows that rendering of both faces of concrete masonry parapets and screen walls enhances their
performance and durability.
The use of masonry paint systems and other proprietary external finishes including colourless
treatments, e.g. silicone-based water repellents, may increase the resistance to rain penetration.
However, these surface treatments may also reduce the rate of evaporation of any water from the wall
and, depending upon exposure conditions, the quantity of water in the wall may therefore increase. In
extreme cases this may be enough to saturate certain types of fired-clay masonry sufficiently for frost
damage to take place (see 5.6.1.2). Surface treatments also have a limited life.
Complete cavity fill may inhibit the drying out of any moisture which penetrates the external finish. The
presence of moisture could lead to sulphate and/or frost action (see 5.6.2) on the mortar and/or finish
with some fired-clay masonry backing materials.
5.5.3.2.2 Quality of workmanship
The quality of workmanship achieved on site is an important factor affecting rain penetration. Some
masonry external leaves require more care in construction than others. For example, consider lower and
higher absorption masonry units. For concrete and fired-clay units of lower absorption, e.g. absorption
by mass of 5 % (m/m), the water is shed by the relatively impervious surface (the 'raincoat effect'). Where
joints have not been completely filled, the film of water on the surface will rapidly penetrate the wall. For
masonry units of higher absorption, the wall acts like a sponge and absorbs the water falling on it (the'
overcoat effect'). Whilst all mortar joints should always be filled (see 5.5.3.2.4), minor imperfections
which can occur are not so critical, except in conditions of Very Severe exposure, because most periods
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of wind-driven rain are not long enough for the wall to become saturated, and thus permit rain
penetration, before the intervention of a dry period. Proper rendering is effectively impervious (the
raincoat effect) and the joint workmanship is not so critical.
5.5.3.2.3 Mortar composition

Mortars vary in water permeability relative to their cement content, high strength mortars of strength
classes M12 and M6 (see NA to I.S. EN 1996-1-1), being the most resistant to water penetration. These
mortar strength classes are often used in conjunction with dense, low water absorption clay bricks. This
combination is satisfactory but should not be regarded as providing a near waterproof construction.
For lower absorption fired-clay masonry units, the designer should consider using one of the less
permeable mortars such as designation M6 and M4. For other types of masonry unit, the selection of
mortar is governed by other factors such as accommodation of movement, durability and strength.
5.5.3.2.4 Joint finish and profile
Whatever the type of masonry, it is essential to fill all the joints to minimize the risk of rain penetration.
Tooled mortar joints are more resistant to rain penetration than joints which have not been tooled. The
tooling involved in finishing joints, such as those with bucket handled and struck weathered profiles,
firms the mortar, reducing its permeability at the surface, and pushes it more tightly against the masonry
units, thereby improving its adhesion to them. Both factors are beneficial in resisting rain penetration.
Recessed joints increase the risk of water penetration. Recessed joint profiles form ledges that impede
the run-off of water and may make it more likely to enter the walling at the mortar/masonry unit
interface. Those formed by raking out the mortar without subsequent tooling to firm its surface further
increases the vulnerability of the wall to rain penetration. Recessed joints also reduce the width of the
mortar joints. Compared with bucket handled and struck weathered profiles, the risk of rain penetration
is greater with recessed joints.
When recessed joints are contemplated for use in other categories of exposure than Sheltered, the
manufacturer of the masonry units should be consulted.
5.5.3.2.5 Single-leaf walls
The resistance to rain penetration of single-leaf walls of calcium silicate and fired-clay masonry without
rendering or cladding is dependent upon both the thickness and absorptive capacity of the masonry units,
whereas the rain resistance of dense concrete masonry is dependent more on thickness. Table 11 shows
the recommended minimum thicknesses for both rendered and unrendered walls.
Where hollow blocks are used in external walls, the use of shell bedding may reduce rain penetration to
the inner surface.
NOTE The thickness of the outer leaf of a cavity wall will similarly affect its rain resistance but Table 11 does
not apply to cavity constructions since it takes no account of the cavity.
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Table 11 Assessment of resistance to rain penetration - thickness of single-leaf walls with or

without rendering
Minimum thickness of masonry (mm)
(excluding rendering and finishes) a
Exposure category Concrete masonry
Clay and calcium silicate masonry
(dense, solid or hollow)
Unrendered b Rendered Unrendered b
Very severe Not recommended / Cladding should be used

Severe Not recommended
Moderate/Severe Not recommended
Sheltered/Moderate 390 190 390

Sheltered 290 190 290
Very sheltered 190 190 190
a Thickness of masonry is based on work sizes of masonry units, i.e. tolerances are not included
b Thicknesses of unrendered walls are based on the use of tooled joints filled completely with cement:lime:sand mortar
NOTE This table is intended to give guidance on the selection of forms of construction from the point of view
of resistance to rain penetration only but other factors such as durability should be considered
5.5.3.2.6 Unfilled cavity walls
In unfilled cavity walls, it is the air space between the two leaves, i.e. the clear cavity, which is intended
to prevent water passing from the outer leaf to the inner leaf. In most situations, a 50 mm air space is
satisfactory but where there is an increased risk of rain penetration, consideration should be given to the
use of wider cavities. Where the cavity is unavoidably bridged, e.g. at window and door openings, special
precautions are necessary (see 5.5.4). For partially filled cavity walls see5.5.3.2.8.
The inner leaf of a cavity wall should not be relied upon to resist water penetration.
The principal factors affecting rain penetration are given in Table 12.
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Table 12 Factors affecting rain penetration of cavity walls
Factor affecting rain Increasing probability of rain penetration in the direction of the arrows
penetration →→→→→→→→→→→
Applied external finish Other (e.g. masonry paint,

Cladding Rendering
(see5.5.3.2.1) water repellent)
Mortar composition
Cement:lime:sand Cement:sand plus plasticizer or cement:sand
(see5.5.3.2.3)
Mortar joint finish and Bucket handle,

Flush Recessed, tooled Recessed, untooled
profile (see5.5.3.2.4) weathered, etc.
Air space (clear cavity)

Over 50 mm 50 mm
(see 5.5.3.2.6)
Partial filling with

Insulation None Type A insulant Type B insulant
50 mm air space
NOTE It is essential to read this table in conjunction with 5.5.3.2 and 5.5.3.3. In particular, the table does not
take account of the quality of workmanship or the effect of architectural features.
5.5.3.2.7 Architectural features
Architectural features can play an important part in reducing the risk of rain penetration. The designer
should always consider the effects that the design (see 6.4.2) will have on the tendency for the external
masonry to be wetted more than by the incident rainfall.
The degree of wetting can be reduced by ensuring that water is thrown clear of the walls by adequate
overhangs and drips and by providing drainage to take the water away from the masonry. Large areas of
glazing or cladding give rise to very large amounts of surface run-off water which can cause water
penetration problems and excessive wetting of the masonry below.
5.5.3.2.8 Partially filled cavity walls
In Table 12 insulants are divided into:
Type A insulants, such as mineral fibre or polystyrene beads, which should not be subjected to exposure
conditions more severe than those recommended for the equivalent unfilled wall;
Type B insulants, such as urea formaldehyde foam and granular plastics fills, which are subjected to
various additional restrictions related to the local exposure conditions and the type of construction.
NOTE The risk of rain penetration for all insulants will be reduced by using a cavity wider than 50 mm.
Partial filling of a cavity wall (i.e. filling part of the width of a cavity with insulant placed against the inner
leaf) does not affect the resistance to wind-driven rain of the wall, providing the width of the remaining
air space is not less than 50 mm and the wall tie drips are not less than 25 mm from the insulation. Widths
less than this should not be used because of the risk of rain penetration.
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5.5.3.2.9 Full fill cavity walls
Filling the complete cavity of a cavity wall with thermal insulation will increase the risk of rain
penetration through the wall. In a “full-fill system”, the space between the inner and outer masonry leaves
is filled with insulation either by building it in as construction proceeds or by injecting or blowing it into
the cavity after the wall has been completed.
The space for full-fill insulation should be of a minimum target width of 50 mm, but the risk of rain
penetration will be reduced by specifying a wider cavity.
Also to note the combination of full-fill insulation and rendering can inhibit the drying out of any moisture
that enters the outer leaf of masonry. The moisture content of the outer leaf consequently rises and
remains high, increasing the risk of frost action and of sulfate attack of the jointing and rendering mortars,
if sulfates are present in the masonry units, i.e. S0 or S1 active soluble salts category. Clay bricks of F0 or
F1 freeze/thaw resistance category are not recommended in this situation.
5.5.3.3 Examples of cavity wall external leaf constructions suitable for particular exposure
categories
When choosing a cavity wall external leaf construction suitable for a particular exposure category,
Table 10 may be used with discretion as a starting point for the designer.
In general, the more severe the exposure category, the more items from the left-hand side of the table
should be selected. Conversely, the more items from the right-hand side of the table the designer wishes
to use, the less severe the exposure category in which the building construction will be satisfactory.
Local experience and conditions should always be taken into account when making a decision on the
suitability of a particular construction.
Some examples of cavity wall external leaf constructions suitable for particular exposure categories are
as follows.
Example 1- Rendered dense solid concrete blockwork (With or without dashing):
 Cement:lime:sand mortar, designation M4;
 50 mm clear cavity, no cavity insulation;
 Joint finish and profile as required for rendering;
 Maximum exposure category: Severe.
Example 2 - Rendered dense hollow concrete blockwork (With or without dashing):
 No insulation in cavities;
 Joint finish and profile as required for rendering;
 Maximum exposure category: Moderate.
Example 3 - Dense concrete blockwork:
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Cement:lime:sand mortar, designation M4;
Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints;
50 mm clear air space in the cavity;

Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe.
NOTE Certain types of dense concrete blocks may be suitable for severe exposure category. The
Example 4 - Concrete brickwork (1):

 Tooled and weathered or bucket handled joints;
 50 mm clear air space in the cavity;
Example 5 - Concrete brickwork (2):
 Cement:sand mortar plus plasticiser, designation M6 or M4;
 Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe.
Example 6 - Clay brickwork (1):
 Cement:lime:sand mortar, designation M6 or M4 ;
Example 7 - Clay brickwork (2):
 Cement:sand mortar plus plasticiser, designation M6 or M4;
 Maximum exposure category: Moderate/Severe.
NOTE For clay brickwork built to the quality of workmanship recommended in this standard, the maximum
exposure category will be comparable for all absorption levels of brick. However, the mechanism of resistance
to rain penetration may differ (see 5.5.3.2.2)
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Example 8 - Calcium silicate brickwork:

5.5.4 Damp-proof courses and cavity trays
A DPC in a building is intended to provide a barrier to the passage of water from the exterior of the
building to the interior, or from the ground to the structure, or from one part of the structure to another.
The passage of water may be horizontal, upwards, or downwards. Where the DPC is intended to prevent
the upward movement of water due to capillary action, joints may be lapped without sealing. However,
where water is moving in a downwards direction, the joints in the DPC should be sealed.
In cavity walls, DPC design should be based on the assumption that rain will penetrate the outer leaf of
the wall and run down the inside of the outer leaf. Where the cavity is bridged, e.g. by cavity fill, lintels,
structural beams, floor slabs or pipes, there is a danger that water will be conducted across it to cause
dampness inside the building. To avoid this problem, it is essential that watertight cavity trays are
provided above all bridges of the cavity (other than wall ties), so that water is diverted to the outer leaf
or clear of the bridges.
To ensure adequate performance, DPC's and cavity trays should have the following material properties:
 an expected life at least equal to that of the building,
 resistance to compression without extrusion,
 resistance to sliding where necessary,
 adhesion to units and mortar where necessary,
 resistance to accidental damage during installation and subsequent building operations,
 workability at temperatures normally encountered during building operations, with particular

regard to ease of forming and sealing joints, fabricating junctions, steps and stop ends, and ability to
retain shape.
Table 13 gives information on performance of individual materials currently used for DPC's. Wherever
possible, the part of the cavity tray which bridges the cavity should be continuously supported. It is
particularly important to provide support at joints so as to facilitate their formation.
Detailed three-dimensional drawings should be made of all junctions, steps, angles and stop ends, to
enable fabrication either on or off site. Typical details are given in 5.5.5. Many common details cannot be
formed satisfactorily on site, unless they are fabricated in lead. If materials other than lead are to be used
in these complex situations, then pre-formed cloaks should be specified, so as to restrict the site operation
to simple jointing only.
It is essential to form weepholes in the outer leaf immediately above the cavity tray. These may be formed
by leaving open perpend joints at not greater than 1 m intervals in the course of units immediately above
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the cavity tray, with not less than two weepholes over each opening (see 5.5.5.5). Where cavity filling is
anticipated, consideration should be given to reducing the spacing of weepholes.
DPC's should extend through the full thickness of the wall or leaf, and preferably project beyond the
external face. It is essential to prevent penetration of water beneath the DPC, which can occur if it is placed
on an irregular mortar or concrete bed. DPC's should be laid on a smooth bed of fresh mortar, unless they
are required to accommodate differential sliding movements between the units on either side of them, in
which case the mortar bed should be trowelled smooth and allowed to set, and then cleaned off before
the DPC is laid. It is essential not to use coarse aggregates which might damage the DPC. A DPC or cavity
tray should not be pierced by services, reinforcement, fixings, etc. nor bridged by pointing, rendering,
plastering, tiling, etc.
5.5.5 Positioning of DPC's

5.5.5.1 Below ground level
Horizontal and vertical DPC's are required where the lowest floor of the building is below ground level.
It may be necessary in this situation to consider tanking.
5.5.5.2 Immediately above ground level
In every external wall, a DPC should be provided at least 150 mm above the finished level of the external
ground or paving. To prevent the transference of moisture from external walls into solid floors, the damp-
proof membrane in the floor, and the DPC in the wall, should overlap and be sealed. In cavity work, the
cavity should be filled to ground level with fine concrete, and weepholes should be left in the perpends of
the outer leaf at not greater than 1 m intervals immediately above the top of this fine concrete.
5.5.5.3 Under sills
All pervious or jointed sills or sub-sills should be provided with a DPC for the full length and width of the
sill bed. The DPC should overlap the vertical DPC's at the jambs of the openings. Where the sill is in contact
with the backing, the DPC should be turned up at the back and ends for the full depth of the sill.
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!Table 13 Physical properties and performance of materials for damp-proof courses and/or cavity trays"
Joint treatment to prevent
Minimum Minimum water moving
mass thickness
Liability to
Material Durability Other considerations
extrusion
Upward Downward
Kg/m2 mm
(A) Flexible
Lead sheet ≥19,5 kg/m2 A 1,8 Lapped at 100 mm Not under Corrodes in contact Easily worked to required
least 100 passing lap and pressure met in with mortars Protect shape but this is a slow
mm interlocking normal with bitumen or process. Limit lengths to 1,5 m
upstand construction bitumen paint of heavy
consistency applied to
both surfaces of the
lead
Copper conforming to I.S. EN 1172:1997, ~2,28 0,25 Lapped at Welded or Not under Highly resistant to Can stain masonry. Not easy to
2.28 grades C104 or C106 in the O condition least 100 welted pressure met in corrosion. If soluble work on site, so not suitable for
mm normal salts are present, cavity trays. Avoid contact with
construction protected as for lead aluminium
Bitumen Hessian base (class A of 3,8  Lapped at Lapped at Likely to extrude The hessian or fibre can Materials should be unrolled
BS 6398:1983) least 100 least 100 mm under heat and decay but this does not with care. In cold weather,
mm and sealed moderate affect efficiency if the warm before use. When used as
Bitumen fibre base(class B of 3,3  pressure but this bitumen remains a cavity tray, the DPC should be
BS 6398:1983) is unlikely to undisturbed. Classes D fully supported. For further
affect resistance and E are most suitable guidance see BS 6398:1983,
Bitumen Hessian base and lead (class A of 4,4 
to moisture for buildings that are Annex B.
BS 6398:1983)
penetration intended to have a very
Bitumen fibre base and lead (class E of 4,4  long life or where there
BS 6398:1983) is risk of movement
A Code number 4 in BS 743:1970
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Table 13 Physical properties and performance of materials for damp-proof courses and/or cavity trays (continued)
Joint treatment to prevent

Minimum Minimum water moving
Liability to
Material mass thickness Durability Other considerations

Upward Downward extrusion
Kg/m2 mm
(A) Flexible (continued)
Polyethylene, low density (0,915 g/cm3 to ~0,5 0,46 Seal with Welted Not under No evidence of Accommodates considerable lateral
0,925 g/cm3) conforming to BS 6515 Welted pressure met in deterioration in movement. When used as a cavity tray,
double-sided normal contact with can be difficult to hold in place and
adhesive construction other building may need bedding in mastic for the full
tape materials thickness of the outer leaf, to prevent
rain penetration. Not suitable for use
where compressive stress is low, e.g.
under copings
Bitumen polymer and pitch ~1,5 1,10 Lapped at Lapped at Not under Unlikely to be Accommodates considerable lateral
polymer least 100 mm least 100 mm pressure met in impaired by any movement. When used as a cavity tray,
normal construction preformed cloaks should be used, e.g.
and sealed movements
construction at changes of level and junctions
normally
occurring up to
the point of
failure of the
wall
(B) Semi-rigid
Mastic asphalt conforming  12 No joint No joint Liable to extrude No deterioration To provide a key for mortar below
to BS 6925 of hardness problems problems under pressure next course of brick masonry, up to 35
above 0,65 % grit should be beaten into asphalt
appropriate to conditions
N/mm2 immediately after application and left
proud of surface. Alternatively, the
surface should be scored whilst still
warm
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Table 13 Physical properties and performance of materials for damp-proof courses and/or cavity trays (continued)
Minimum Minimum Joint treatment to prevent
mass thickness water moving
Liability to
Material Durability Other considerations
extrusion
Kg/m2 mm Upward Downward
(C) Rigid
DPC units of prescribed water  Two courses, laid to No joint Not suitable  No deterioration Particularly appropriate where
absorption conforming to I.S. EN 771-1 break joint, bedded problems is required to transmit flexural
in M12 (1:3) tension, e.g. at base of a
Portland freestanding wall. DPC
cement:sand Designation 1 units are required
mortar for buildings. DPC
Slate conforming to BS 743 and most  Two courses laid to No joint Not suitable  No deterioration 
granites break joint, bedded problems
in M12 (1:3)
Portland
cement:sand
mortar
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5.5.5.4 At jambs of openings
Where a cavity wall is closed at the jambs of openings, a vertical DPC should be inserted to separate the
inner and outer parts of the wall and should extend into the cavity at least 25 mm beyond the width of
the closer.
Any frame should be so placed as to avoid transmitting water past the DPC and, in the case of timber
frames, preferably so as to protect the timber from any damp units. Where the frame is to be built in, the
DPC should be secured to the frame before building in. If the frame is to be fixed later, the DPC should be
left projecting. Vertical DPC's at openings should be positioned to overlap with a horizontal DPC at the
sill of the opening and to be overlapped by horizontal DPC's at the head.
In single-leaf walls, a vertical DPC similar to that in a cavity wall should be provided at jambs of openings
to ensure resistance to rain penetration at least as good as that of the wall itself. Alternatively, this can be
accomplished by rendering the external surfaces of the jamb.
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Dimensions in mm
(a) Window opening with rebated jams

Key
1 Vertical dpc
2 Timber frame
3 Sealant
4 Concrete sill
5 Compatible sealant
Figure 14 — Damp-proof systems
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(b) Window opening in plastered wall

Key
1 Vertical dpc
2 Timber frame
3 Sealant
4 Concrete sill
6 Concrete block wall plastered
Figure 14 — Damp-proof systems (continued)
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Dimensions quoted in mm
(c) Steel lintel with separated DPC

Key
1 Vertical dpc a Vertical dpc taken up and between webs on steel lintel
3 Sealant b Weepholes
7 Steel lintel c Brick bedded on lintel flange
8 Timber window
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Dimensions in mm
(d) External wall becoming an internal wall

Key
e Distance between horizontal trays dependant on roof pitch
f Stop ends shown thus
g 75 mm minimum high weepholes at 1000 mm maximum centres !deleted text"
h Soakers to suit roof covering

i Stepped cover flashing in malleable metal
j Stop ends to cavity tray
k Roof line
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(e) Structural frames

Key
9 Vertical flap bonded or sealed to column l 75 mm minimum high weepholes at 1000 mm maximum centres
10 Continuous cavity tray
11 Concrete frame
12 Vertical DPC to column lapped over tray
13 Partial stop end continuing round column
14 Continuous cavity tray between columns
Figure 14 — Damp-proof systems (concluded)
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5.5.5.5 Over openings
In cavity walls, cavity trays with stop ends should be provided over all openings (including small openings
for ducts, services, etc.), unless they are well protected by building features, such as over-hanging eaves.
This may be difficult to achieve in arches (see 6.4.3). The cavity tray should step down or slope across the
cavity towards the external leaf and, preferably, terminate in a small drip on the external face of the wall.
Not less than two weepholes should be provided per metre run in the outer leaf in the perpend joints of
the course above the cavity tray. Consideration should be given to the detail of the junction between the
vertical DPC in the jamb and the cavity tray over the opening to ensure continuity of damp-proof
measures.
5.5.5.6 At balcony thresholds
Where balconies or patios are formed by an extension of the structural floor or the roof of a room below,
difficult waterproofing and thermal bridging problems can arise unless the details are carefully
considered. Such a junction should be carefully detailed for the particular location and, unless made of
malleable metal, should be fabricated off-site by specialists.
5.5.5.7 In parapets
A DPC should be provided at a height of not less than 150 mm above the abutment of a roof, to form a
moisture-resisting continuity with the flashing to the roof, and should extend to form a projecting drip at
the external face of the parapet.
In a cavity parapet wall, a DPC or cavity tray should be provided, stepped down at least 150 mm towards
the inner or outer part of the wall. The designer should carefully consider which way to slope the DPC in
a given case. If sloped outwards, the DPC will direct water towards the outer face, which may cause
staining. If sloped inwards, moisture may travel along the underside of the DPC and gain access to the
underside of the roof covering and interior of the building.
In addition to weepholes, a DPC should be provided under the coping, with rigid support where
necessary.
It should be noted that the DPC or cavity tray structurally separates the parapet from the wall beneath,
and the coping from the parapet. Structural stability of the parapet should be considered in accordance
with 5.2.3.1.
5.5.5.8 Chimneys
Chimneys should preferably be built in cavity wall construction from the foundation to the chimney
terminal. DPC's should be provided to prevent the downward passage of water into the interior of the
building. In principle, the aim should be to provide a horizontal DPC flashing tray through the thickness
of the chimney with a 50 mm upstand tight against the flue liner and the edge of the tray.
Flashing trays should be manufactured from non-ferrous metal, lead (code 5) or stainless steel. A
drainage channel should be provided at the front of the tray and kept free of mortar to allow water to
discharge over the flashing via weepholes in the masonry at the front of the chimney stack. To prevent
corrosion and avoid staining of adjoining material, lead trays should be coated with bituminous paint
where it is in contact with mortar. Galvanised metal or plastic trays should not be used in chimney
construction.
Flashing trays should be continuous with the vertical flashing at the intersection with the roof (see
Figure 9). This is possible with flat, or very shallow pitched roofs. However, the junction is more complex
with steeper pitched roofs. The DPC through the chimney stack should be stepped to correspond with,
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and be continuous with, the stepped flashing to pitched roofs. Alternative consideration should be given
to the use of cavity trays at both levels in these circumstances.
It should be noted that a sheet DPC, at the point of intersection with the roof, structurally separates the
masonry, and the stability of the chimney stack and its resistance to lateral wind loading should be
considered. A horizontal DPC consisting of two courses of DPC bricks bedded in designation (i) mortar
for clay brickwork, or two courses of slates bedded in designation (i) mortar for calcium silicate or
concrete bricks, is often satisfactory. A horizontal DPC should always be provided at the top of the stack.
Where a chimney stack is incorporated in an outer cavity wall, preferably the outer leaf and cavity should
be continuous around the chimney stack for the full height of the outer wall and then completely surround
the chimney stack where it projects above the roof. Corbelling from the chimney breast may be necessary
below the roof line, to support the outer leaf at the sides and back of the chimney stack. Chimney stacks
built in cavity work should contain a stepped DPC in the outer leaf, continuous with the stepped flashing
at the abutment with the roof.
5.5.6 Flashings and weatherings
The material to be used should be sufficiently malleable to permit dressing into shape, but sufficiently
stiff to maintain its shape and to resist lifting by the wind.
The material should be selected with due regard to the likelihood of corrosion. Flashings of metal other
than lead should, preferably, be preformed. Flashings should be bedded into the work a minimum of
25 mm, and be provided with welted, or otherwise sealed, joints, or adequate overlaps. Flashings should
preferably be built in as the work proceeds to avoid any damage to DPC's.
5.5.7 Flashings and copings
Chimney terminals, freestanding walls, including upstanding gables and parapet walls and retaining walls
exposed to the weather, should preferably be provided with a coping. The drip edge(s) should be
positioned a minimum of 40 mm away from the face(s) of the wall.
Where for aesthetic or other reasons a capping is used, special care is needed in the choice of materials,
both for the capping and for the walling beneath (see 5.6). Where the coping or capping is jointed, a
continuous DPC should be provided. Where cappings are used, the DPC may be positioned up to 225 mm
down from, rather than immediately below the capping course, in order to obtain greater weight on the
DPC Alternatively, a flashing designed to throw rainwater clear of the walling beneath may be built into
the joint.
Consideration should be given to copings being displaced, e.g. by lateral loads, and to the possibility of
vandalism. L-shaped copings and clip-over copings may be more satisfactory in these situations. Where
necessary, e.g. on sloping upstanding gables, copings should be dowelled or joggle-jointed together, or
suitably fixed down, but consideration has to be given to provision for movement in long coping runs.
Additional temperature movement joints may be required in cappings and copings (see 5.4).
5.5.8 External wall becoming an internal wall
When an external wall becomes an internal wall, as in the case of a stepped terrace of houses, a stepped
cavity tray should be used to drain the cavity. Where a pitched roof abuts such a wall, a stepped cavity
tray will be necessary, to follow the profile of the roof.
Pre-formed tray profiles should, preferably, be used, and the joints should be sealed.
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5.5.9 Structural frames
Where masonry is supported by a structural frame, particular attention should be paid to the detailing of
DPC's to ensure their continuity. Where cavity walling is supported on an edge beam, or on a floor slab, a
cavity tray should be used to prevent moisture penetration into the structure.
Where a column, or other structural member, obstructs the cavity of the wall, the cavity tray should be
continuous around the member. When a structural member bridges the cavity, a vertical DPC should be
included between the structural member and the external leaf and stop ends formed in the cavity tray.
5.6 Durability
5.6.1 General
5.6.1.1 Features influencing durability

A major factor influencing the durability of masonry and any applied finishes is the degree to which the
construction may become saturated with water. It may become saturated directly by rainfall, indirectly
by water moving upwards from the ground or laterally from retained material as in a retaining wall.
External masonry is much less likely to become saturated where projecting features have been provided
to shed run-off' water clear of the walling.
Examples of such features are;
a) protection to wall heads by roof overhangs or copings,
b) projecting throated sills,
c) bell casting to rendering and similar features at the base of tile hanging and other impermeable
cladding.
It should be noted that conventional weathering details may not protect walls sufficiently in situations of
Severe or Very Severe exposure as classified in 5.5.2. Recessing of the joints may increase water intake
and application of an initially impervious finish, e.g. of masonry paint, tiling, or a dense rendering may
lead to entrapment of moisture if imperfections develop or if water is able to get behind the finish by any
path.
External masonry will generally be maintained in a drier condition by a moderately porous uncracked
rendering complying with I.S. EN 13914-1 or by a ventilated cladding such as slate or tile hanging, by
weather-boarding, and by panels of various materials, e.g. of plastics, timber or metal.
5.6.1.2 Frost
Frost may damage both masonry units and mortar, depending upon their susceptibility to such damage
on freezing in the saturated condition. Masonry is particularly at risk when construction takes place
during the winter. Masonry units in stacks and uncompleted masonry may become saturated unless
adequate protection is provided (see 6.6). In addition, when fired-clay brick masonry remains wet for
long periods of time and soluble sulphates are present in sufficient quantities in the bricks, sulphate
attack on the mortar joints and other materials containing Portland cement may arise (see 5.6.2).
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5.6.1.3 Masonry construction
The durability of masonry depends primarily upon the characteristics of the masonry units and the
mortar, particularly as regards resistance to frost and to chemical attack. The following factors affect the
susceptibility of the masonry to damage;
a) exposure to the weather or to other sources of water (see 5.6.1.4),
b) exposure to aggressive conditions from all sources including the ground (see 5.6.1.5 and 5.6.2),
c) the adequacy of methods taken to prevent the masonry from becoming saturated both in terms of
design (see 5.6.3) and workmanship.
Particular attention should be paid to the choice of masonry units and mortar in the following and similar
situations where the masonry is likely to become, and may remain, saturated for long periods of time:
1) in chimney terminals, sills, copings and cappings,
2) in freestanding and retaining walls, parapets and chimney stacks,
3) below DPC at or near ground level and in foundations, manholes and inspection chambers,
4) below large expanses of glazing or impermeable cladding.
The degree to which masonry used below DPC at or near ground level becomes saturated will vary
according to the site. The masonry materials will be far less prone to problems on a site that is well-
drained and dry. Where a site is wet, and/or the masonry at or near ground level may be subject to
saturation, particular care should be taken in the choice of materials. It is good practice to ensure that
concrete and paved surrounds do not direct water into the masonry. Where there is more than 150 mm
of masonry exposed between DPC and finished ground level, e.g. on sloping sites, the inner leaf of such
masonry may act as an earth-retaining wall. As a result considerable quantities of water may be
transferred into the walling. There is thus an increased risk of frost and sulphate attack, efflorescence,
lime leaching and staining of the outer leaf. The application of a waterproofing treatment to the face of
the masonry in contact with the ground will minimize or obviate such problems.
5.6.1.4 Exposure to the weather
An indication of the general exposure of the site to wind-driven rain may be obtained as described in 5.5.
However, it should be appreciated that different elements in the same building may be subjected to
different degrees of exposure. In areas of Severe or Very Severe exposure, it is particularly important that
the masonry is protected by overhangs and other projecting features If such protective features are
omitted for aesthetic reasons, the possible effects of the increased exposure of the masonry to wetting
should be considered (see 5.6.3).
5.6.1.5 Frost action
5.6.1.5.1 General
Night frosts are common even in mild winters and it is important to protect the masonry units and the
newly erected masonry adequately, both from saturation and from frost (see 6.2 and 6.6). If freezing
occurs either during construction or shortly after completion of the work, frost may cause damage to
mortar and certain masonry units if they have become saturated during construction.
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Additional consideration should be given to the choice of masonry units and mortar if the masonry is
liable to be splashed by de-icing salts from roadways or if the masonry is to be located in conditions of
extreme exposure to weather.
5.6.1.5.2 Concrete units

Concrete masonry units possess good frost resistance and provided that they are selected following the
recommendations of this standard, problems should not occur.
5.6.1.5.3 Clay units
For fired-clay masonry units, neither strength nor water absorption are reliable guides for assessing the
resistance to freezing and there is no substitute for experience of performance in a particular situation.
Where brickwork is used in exposed situations (in which it may freeze while saturated), bricks of
category F2 should be used. If there is any doubt as to the suitability of the bricks proposed for use, the
brick manufacturer's advice should be sought.
NOTE There is as yet no agreed test method for assessing frost resistance of bricks, but a test developed by
British Ceramic Research Limited may be useful.
5.6.2 Sulphate attack
Where masonry remains wet, expansion and deterioration of mortar can occur as a result of chemical
reaction between soluble sulphates and tri-calcium aluminate in the Portland cement in the presence of
water. The reaction, forming calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite), is accompanied by an expansion
leading to cracking and crumbling of the mortar and in severe cases may lead to distortion or rotation of
the masonry.
The sulphates may be derived from ground waters, from the ground (including made-up fill adjacent to
the masonry), from flue gases, or from fired-clay masonry units and aggregates. The degree to which
soluble salts are extracted depends on the quantity of water available and the permeability of the
masonry. For this reason, the greatest attention should be given to the provision of effective DPC's and to
the exclusion of water by good design and detailing (see 5.5).
Where masonry is likely to remain wet for long periods of time, (e.g. in freestanding boundary walls,
retaining walls, parapet walls, below DPC at or near ground level, and all elevations exposed to
exceptionally severe wind-driven rain), sulphation of mortar can occur and consideration should be
mortars used in these situations.
When concrete masonry is in contact with sulphate bearing ground or ground water, it may be necessary
to use both high strength units and mortar containing sulphate resisting cement (see note); however, it
may be preferable to avoid the use of concrete masonry below DPC level in situations where it may be
exposed to high sulphate concentrations.
NOTE When the designer chooses this option, use may be made of the requirements given in I.S. EN 206-1
regarding cement types, cement contents and water/cement ratios for concretes to be used at various sulphate
concentrations.
5.6.3 Architectural features
For aesthetic reasons, designers may sometimes include features which lead to increased local exposure
of the masonry. As a result, the masonry will be more likely to become very wet or saturated, so increasing
the risk of frost damage or disfiguration. In such cases it is essential to select more durable masonry units
and mortar and joint details and this selection may in turn govern the choice for the whole building.
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Examples of architectural features leading to increased local exposure include;
a) windows with sloping masonry at the bottom,
b) flush sills,
c) inadequate or non-existent overhangs at verges,
d) large expanses of glazing or impermeable cladding with no effective form of construction at the base
designed to shed run-off clear of the masonry beneath,
e) areas of rendering adjoining the masonry and recessed from it without an efficient seal or other detail
at the junction of the rendering and the masonry,
f) vertical tile hanging, the lower edge of which has little or no projection over the walling below.
There has been an increasing tendency to use cappings for masonry parapet walling. The capping may be
brick-on-edge, brick-on-end, bonded brickwork or a purpose-made capping unit. Such cappings give
relatively little protection to the masonry beneath, which may become saturated for up to 1 m below the
capping level, depending on the water absorption of the masonry units used. It is strongly recommended
that parapets and chimneys be protected by copings and DPC's (see 5.5.7).
Since chimney stacks are normally exposed on all four faces and the top, they may be more liable to
saturation and frost attack than other parts of the building, especially where an effective coping has not
been provided at their terminals. Cappings of brickwork even though flaunched with mortar cannot be
relied upon to keep out moisture indefinitely and require an effective DPC beneath them. Where possible,
a precast concrete coping in one piece, with weathered top and ample overhang, properly throated, is
preferred.
5.6.4 Selection of masonry units and mortar for durability
Table 14 gives guidance on the choice of masonry units and mortar classes most appropriate for
particular situations as regards durability for finished work. At the design stage, the weather conditions
at the time of building will rarely be known and indeed building may continue through more than one
winter period. The recommendations given, therefore, relate to cold weather when night frost is expected
but even so it is essential to protect fully masonry units, mortar and masonry under construction from
saturation and freezing (see 6.2 and 6.6).
Experience of the durability of masonry construction in service may provide guidance in the use of
masonry units and mortar produced from particular constituent materials in a given geographical area.
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Table 14 — Durability of masonry in finished construction

Quality of masonry units and appropriate mortar designations
Masonry condition or
Remarks
situation A) Clay units Aggregate concrete bricks Aggregate concrete blocks
(Category 1) B) (Category 1) B) (Category 1) B)

(A) Work below or near external ground level
A1 Low risk of saturation: Without or with freezing Without or with freezing In sulfate bearing ground conditions, the
recommendations in 5.6.2 should be followed.
Compressive strength Group 1units B) with:
i) without freezing LD – F0 and S0 ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4 Some manufacturers of clay units do not recommend
a) a net density ≥ 1 500 kg/m3;and the use of their HD – F1 units for work below or near
MX2.1, or HD – F0, F1 or external ground level.
b) made with dense aggregate
MX2.2. F2 and S0, S1 or S2 The manufacturers should be consulted on the use of
conforming to I.S. EN 12620 and
clay units in freezing conditions.
in M12, M6 or M4 S.R. 16; and
For autoclaved aerated concrete block the
ii) with freezing c) having a declared mean manufacturer should be consulted.
MX3.1. HD – F1 or F2 and S0, S1 compressive strength ≥ 7,5 N/mm2;
or a declared normalised
!deleted text" or S2 in M12, M6 or M4
unless a manufacturer compressive strength of
≥ 10,5 N/mm2.
advises against the use of
HD – F1 (see remarks) All in M4 (see remarks).
A2 High risk of saturation HD – F1 or F2, and S1 and Compressive strength As for A1 in M6 Masonry most vulnerable in situations A2 and A3 is
without freezing MX2.2 S2 in M12 (see remarks) ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M6 or M4 located between 150 mm above and 150 mm below
finished ground level. In this zone masonry will become
wet and can remain wet for long periods, particularly
A3 High risk of saturation HD – F2 and S1 or S2 in Compressive strength #As for A1 but having a declared in winter. Where S1 clay units in designation M6
with freezing MX3.2 M12 (see remarks) ≥ 22 N/mm2 in M6 or M4 mean compressive strength of mortar are used in A2 or A3 locations, the
≥ 13 N/mm2 and a declared recommendations in 5.6.2 should be followed.
normalised compressive strength In conditions of highly mobile groundwater, consult the
of ≥ 18 N/mm2 in M12$ manufacturer on the selection of materials.
The manufacturers should be consulted on the use of
clay units in A3 conditions.
A) For the classification of micro conditions of exposure of completed masonry MX1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, see I.S. EN 1996-2:2006, Annex A and NA to I.S. EN 1996-2:2006
B) For definition of ‘Category’ and ‘Grouping’ of masonry units refer to I.S. EN 771 (Parts 1 and 3) and I.S. EN 1996-1-1 respectively
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Remarks

(B) Masonry DPCs
B1 In buildings MX3.1 Consult manufacturer Not suitable Not suitable The manufacturers should be consulted on the use of
B2 In external works MX3.1 Consult manufacturer Not suitable Not suitable
(C) Unrendered external walls (other than chimneys, cappings, copings, parapets, sills)
C1 Low risk of saturation HD – F1 or F2, and S1 and Compressive strength As in A3 (but Group 1 or Group 2 To minimize the risk of saturation, walls should be
protected by roof overhang and other projecting
MX3.1 S2 in M12 or M6 or M4 ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4 units)B)
features. However, such details may not provide
sufficient protection to walls in conditions of very
C2 High risk of saturation HD – F2, and S1 or S2 in Compressive strength As in A3 (but Group 1 or Group 2 severe driving rain (see 5.5). Certain architectural
MX3.2 M12 (see remarks) ≥ 22 N/mm2 in M4 units)B) features, e.g. brick masonry below large glazed areas
with flush sills, increase the risk of saturation (see
5.6.3).
D) Rendered external walls (other than chimneys, cappings, copings, parapets, sills)
Rendered external walls HD – F1 or F2, and S1 or Compressive strength As in A1 (but Group 1 or Group 2 Rendered walls are usually suitable for most wind-
S2 in M12 or M6 or M4 ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4 driven rain conditions (see 5.5.3.2.1).
units) B)
(see remarks)
Where S1 clay units are used, the recommendations in
subclause 5.6.2 should be followed for the jointing
mortar and the base coat of the render.
Clay units of F1/S1 designation are not recommended

for the rendered outer leaf of a cavity wall with full-fill
insulation (see 5.5.3.2.1).
!deleted text"
A) For the classification of micro conditions of exposure of completed masonry MX 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, see I.S. EN 1996-2:2006. Annex A and NA to I.S. EN 1996-2:2006
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Remarks

(E) Internal walls and inner leaves of cavity walls
Internal walls and inner leaves of LD – FO and SO or HD – Compressive strength As in A1(but Group 1 or Group 2 Where designation M2 mortar is used it is essential to
cavity walls MX1 FO, F1 or F2 and SO, S1 or ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4 (see units)B) ensure that all masonry units, mortar and masonry
S2 in M12, M6, M4 or M2 remarks) under construction are protected fully from saturation
(see remarks) and freezing.
(F) Unrendered parapets (other than cappings and copings)
F1 Low risk of saturation e.g. HD – F1 or F2, and S1 or Compressive strength Group 1 units B) with: Most parapets are likely to be severely exposed
irrespective of the climatic exposure of the building as
low parapets on some S2 in M12 or M6 or M4 ≥ 22 N/mm2 in M4
a whole. Copings and DPCs should be provided
single storey buildings a) of net density ≥ 1500 kg/m3; and wherever possible.
MX3.1 Some types of autoclaved aerated concrete block may
b) made with dense aggregate not be suitable. The manufacturer should be
conforming to I.S. EN 12620 and consulted.
S.R.16; and
c) having a declared mean manufacturer should be consulted.
compressive strength ≥7,5 N/mm2;
compressive strength of
≥ 10,5 N/mm2.
F2 High risk of saturation e.g. HD –F2, and S1 or S2 in M12 Compressive strength !As for F1 but having a declared Where S1 clay units are used in situation F2, the
where a capping is only or M6 (see remarks) ≥ 22 N/mm2 in M4 mean compressive strength of recommendations in 5.6.2 should be followed.
provided for the masonry ≥ 15 N/mm2 and a normalised
MX3.1, MX3.2 compressive strength of The manufacturers should be consulted on the use of
≥ 20 N/mm2 in M12" clay units in freezing conditions.

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Remarks

(G) Rendered parapets (other than cappings and copings)
Rendered parapets MX3,1, MX3.2 HD – F1 or F2, and S2 in Compressive strength As in A1 (but Group 1 or Group 2 Single-leaf walls should be rendered only on one face.
M12 ,M6 or M4 or HD – F1 ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4 units) B) All parapets should be provided with a coping.
or F2, and S1 in M12 or M6
(see remarks) Where S1 clay units are used, the recommendations in
5.6.2 should be followed.

(H) Chimneys
H1 Unrendered with low risk HD – F1 or F2, and S1 or Compressive strength Consult manufacturer Chimney stacks are normally the most exposed
of saturation MX3.1,MX3.2 S2 in M12, M6 or M4 (see ≥ 22 N/mm2 in M4 masonry on any building. Because of the possibility of
remarks) sulfate attack from flue gases the recommendations in
(see remarks) 5.6.2 should be followed.
Brick masonry and tile cappings cannot be relied upon

to keep out moisture. The provision of a coping is
preferable.

H2 Unrendered with high risk HD – F2, and S1 or S2 in Compressive strength Consult manufacturer For autoclaved aerated concrete block the
of saturation MX3.1, MX3.2, M12 or M6 (see remarks) ≥ 22 N/mm2 M4 (see remarks) manufacturer should be consulted.
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Remarks

H3 Rendered MX3.1, MX3.2 HD –F1 or F2, and S2 in Compressive strength Group 1 units B) with: See remarks for H1 & H2
M12, M6 or M4 or HD –F1 ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4
or F2, and S1 in M12 or M6 a) of a net density ≥ 1 500 kg/m3;
(see remarks) and

S.R. 16; and
c) having a declared mean

compressive strength ≥ 7,5 N/mm2;
≥ 10,5 N/mm2
All in M4
(I) Cappings, copings and sills

Cappings, copings and sills MX3.1, HD – F2, and S1 or S2 in Compressive strength Consult manufacturer Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks are not suitable
for use in situation (I).
MX3.2 M12 ≥ 33 N/mm2 in M6
Where cappings or copings are used for chimney
terminals, the recommendations in 5.6.2 should be
followed.
DPCs for cappings, copings and sills should be bedded

in the same mortar as the masonry units.
B) For definition of ‘Category’ and ‘Grouping’ of masonry units refer to I.S. EN 771 (Parts 1 and3) and I.S. EN 1996-1-1 respectively
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Remarks

(J) Freestanding boundary and screen walls (other than cappings and copings)
J1 With coping MX3.1, MX3.2 HD – F1 or F2, and S1 in Compressive strength As in A2 (but Group 1 or Group 2 Masonry in freestanding walls is likely to be severely
exposed, irrespective of climatic conditions. Such
M12 or M6 (see remarks) ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M4 units) B)
walls should be protected by a coping wherever
or HD – F1 or F2, and S2 in possible and DPCs should be provided under the
M12 ,M6 or M4 coping units and at the base of the wall (see 5.5).
Where S1 clay units are used for situation J1 in

J2 With capping MX3.1, MX3.2 HD – F2, and S1 or S2 in Compressive strength As in A3 (but Group 1 or Group 2
conditions of severe driving rain (see 5.5.2), the
M12 or M6 (see remarks) ≥ 22 N/mm2 in M4 units)B) recommendations in 5.6.2 should be followed.
(K) Earth-retaining walls (other than cappings and copings)
K1 With water-proofing on HD – F1 or F2, and S1 or Compressive strength As in A2 (but Group 1 or Group 2 Because of possible contamination from the ground
and saturation by ground waters, in addition to
retaining face and coping S2 in M12 or M6 ≥ 16,5 N/mm2 in M6 units) B
subjection to severe climatic exposure, masonry in
MX3.1, MX3.2 retaining walls is particularly prone to frost and
sulfate attack. Careful choice of materials in relation to
K2 With coping or capping but Consult the manufacturer Compressive strength As in A3 (but Group 1 or Group 2 the methods for exclusion of water recommended in
5.5 is essential.
no water-proofing on ≥ 33 N/mm2 in M12 or M6 units) B)
retaining face MX3.1, It is strongly recommended that such walls be
MX3.2 backfilled with free draining materials. The provision
of an effective coping with a DPC (see 5.5) and
waterproofing of the retaining face of the wall is
desirable.
Where S1 clay masonry units are used, the

recommendations in 5.6.2 should be followed.
Some aggregate concrete blocks are not suitable for

use in situation K2; the manufacturer should be
consulted.
A) For the classification of micro conditions of exposure of completed masonry MX1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, see I.S. EN 1996-2:2006. Annex A and NA to I.S. EN 1996-2:2006
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Remarks

(L) Drainage and sewage, e.g. inspection chambers, manholes
L1 Surface water Engineering bricks or F1 Compressive strength As in A3 Where S1 clay units are used, sulfate resisting
or F2 and S1 or S2 in M12 ≥ 22 N/mm2 M4 Portland cement should be used in the mortar.
MX3.1, MX3.2, MX5 (see remarks)
If sulfate ground conditions exist, the
L2 Foul drainage (continuous Engineering bricks or F1 Compressive strength Not suitable recommendation in 5.6.2 should be followed.
contact with masonry) or F2 and S1 or S2 in M12 ≥ 48 N/mm2 with cement content
MX3.1, MX3.2, MX5 (see remarks) ≥ 350 kg/m3 in M12 or M6 Local Authority requirements on the use of masonry
in drains and sewers should be consulted.
L3 Foul drainage (occasional Engineering bricks or F1 Compressive strength Group 1 unitsB) with:
contact with masonry) or F2 and S1 or S2 in M12 ≥ 48 N/mm2 with cement The manufacturers should be consulted on the use of
MX3.1, MX3.2, MX5 (see remarks) content ≥ 350 kg/m3 in M12 or a) of a net density ≥ 1 500 kg/m ;
3 clay units in freezing conditions.
M6 and

S.R. 16; and
c) having a declared mean

compressive strength ≥ 20 N/mm2;
≥ 28 N/mm2.
All in M12 (see remarks)
A) For the classification of micro conditions of exposure of completed masonry MX1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, see I.S. EN 1996-2:2006. Annex A and NA to I.S. EN 1996-2:2006
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5.6.5 Protection of components embedded in masonry from corrosion or degradation
5.6.5.1 Metal anchorages, dowels and fixings
Metal components other than wall ties built into masonry should be in the appropriate category given in
Table 2, and for wall ties see I.S. EN 845-1 together !with guidance given in Annex D". Bolts, nuts, screws,
etc. should be given the same protection as the components with which they are to be used and be
compatible with these components, e.g. consideration should be given to the possibility of electrolytic
action between dissimilar metals.
5.6.5.2 Reinforcement
Reinforcement for structural use should be protected as described in I.S. EN 1996-1-1. Reinforcement for
non-structural use should be in the appropriate category given in 4.6.
5.6.5.3 Timber components
Where joists or other timber components are built into external walls or the inner leaves of cavity walls,
they should always be treated with preservatives, preferably by a pressure or vacuum impregnation
method. Joists or other timber components should not project into a cavity.
5.7 Mortars
5.7.1 Types of mortar
5.7.1.1 General
Mix proportions for mortars are given in NA to I.S. EN 1996-1-1. The following sublclauses give non-
contradictory complementary information on various types of mortar.
5.7.1.2 Cement:lime:sand:mortar
Mortars made with appropriate proportions of Portland cement (including sulphate resisting Portland
cement) and lime take advantage of the useful properties of each. Cement:lime:sand mortars are design
on the principle that part of the cement is replaced by an equal volume of lime so that the binder paste
still fills the voids in the sand. In this way good working qualities, water retention, adhesion and early
strength development can be secured without the mature strength being too high. The lime used should
be non-hydraulic in accordance with I.S. EN 459-1.
5.7.1.3 Air-entrained cement:lime:sand mortar
Mortar incorporating both lime and an air-entraining plasticizer generally has good durability and an air-
entrained 1:1:5½ cement:lime:sand mortar made with sand for mortar conforming to I.S. EN 13139 and
S.R. 18 is suitable for a wide range of uses, both external and internal.
The incorporation of lime and air-entrainment in a mortar mix combines the workability benefits of the
lime with the freeze-thaw durability benefit of the air-entrainment.
Such mortars can also be produced using masonry cement.
5.7.1.4 Air-entrained (plasticised) mortar
Mortar plasticisers which entrain air in the mix provide an alternative to lime for imparting good working
qualities to lean cement sand mixes. In effect, the air bubbles serve to increase the volume of the binder
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paste, filling the voids in the sand, and this correspondingly improves the working qualities. When used
in structural masonry the written permission of the designer should be obtained.
5.7.1.5 Masonry cement:sand mortar
Masonry cement consists of a mixture of Portland cement with a very fine filler and an air-entraining
plasticizer. The working properties of mortar mixes made with masonry cement are derived from the
plasticizing effect of the fine filler and entrained air. Masonry cements, in which the fine filler is lime at a
ratio of 1:1 cement:lime, can be used to produce air-entrained cement:lime:sand mortars.
5.7.2 Mortar admixtures
Mortar admixtures should conform to I.S. EN 934-3.

Calcium chloride, ethylene glycol, or admixtures containing these materials, should not be added to
mortars to provide protection against freezing, or for any other purpose, because they have undesirable
side effects.
5.7.3 Selection of mortar
The designer should carefully select the mortar for an application by considering structural requirements
and taking into account the type of construction, position in the building and degree of exposure, together
with the general properties of the mortar and by reference to Table 14.
Generally, the stronger the mortar, the more durable it is. Conversely, the weaker the mortar, the greater
is its ability to accommodate movement due to, for example, settlement, temperature and moisture
changes.
Where a high strength mortar is required for structural reasons, consideration should be given to the
accommodation of movement.
Before deciding upon the mortar, the designer should pay particular attention to local practice and to any
mixes that have been designed to deal with special conditions.
When combined with any unit, an M12 or an M6 mortar can be assumed to have an S exposure rating, an
M4 can be assumed to have an M exposure rating and an M2 a P exposure rating. (Where P is passive
exposure, M is moderate exposure and S is severe exposure; see I.S. E 1996-2).
5.7.4 Factory made masonry mortar
Factory made masonry mortar includes prescribed and designed mortars. It may be produced as
complete or semi-finished mortar.
Mortar of this type should conform to I.S. E 998-2 !and Annex E."
5.8 Fire resistance to walls
Masonry walls should have a fire resistance appropriate to their use. I.S. EN 1996-1-2 deals with specific
aspects of passive fire protection in terms of designing structures and parts thereof for adequate
loadbearing and non-loadbearing walling resistance that could be needed for safe evacuation of
occupants and fire rescue operations and for limiting fire spread as relevant. The National Annex to
I.S. EN 1996-1-2 gives tabulated data for separating walls.
In assessing the fire resistance of a masonry wall using this tabulated data, it is necessary to know the
details of the masonry units being used (density etc.), the grouping into which the units fall (see
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I.S. EN 1996 1-1), the type of mortar used and any applied finish. The form and function of the wall should
then be considered, (e.g. separating construction in single leaf, load bearing, cavity etc.), see I.S. EN 1996-
1-2.
Masonry members must be considered against various criteria in relation to their fire resistance for
standard fire exposure. These are:
R – mechanical resistance,
E – integrity,
I – insulation,
M – mechanical impact.
The form and function of masonry walls in relation to nominal fire exposure are defined by these criteria;
loadbearing only – criteria R,
separating only – criteria EI,
separating and loadbearing – criteria REI,
loadbearing, separating and mechanical impact – criteria REI-M,
separating and mechanical impact – criteria EI-M.
NOTE ‘mechanical impact’ is not considered to be relevant in Ireland so the National Annex does not contain
tabulated data for the last two criteria.
If the element is loadbearing, it is necessary to verify its loadbearing capacity in accordance with
I.S. EN 1996-1-1 and to carry out an additional check on the slenderness ratio of the wall. Having verified
the loadbearing adequacy of the wall, the minimum thickness for the relevant criterion, to achieve the
stated period of fire resistance for the materials used, can be obtained from the Tables in Annex B to
I.S. EN 1996-1-2. In order to use the tables for loadbearing walls in the National Annex to I.S. EN 1996-1-
2 the level of loading, as obtained in the capacity calculation, is required, as well as the masonry materials
being used. The design load is compared with the design resistance of the wall in order to ascertain the
percentage loading. If the percentage is greater than 60 %, then the tabulated values for 100 % loading
are used. If the percentage is 60 % or less, then the 60 % loading tabulated values are used.
The National Annex to I.S. EN 1996-1-2 give the minimum thickness of the wall or leaf exposed to fire for
specific fire resistance periods (from 30 to 240 minutes) related to masonry materials and the criteria
given above.
The thicknesses given in the tables are for the masonry alone, excluding finishes. For each specification,
the top row of figures in each table is for walls without an applied finish or just a thin rendering. The
values in brackets are for walls having an applied finish of gypsum premixed plaster to I.S. EN 13279-1
or plaster type LW or T in accordance with I.S. EN 998-1. The plaster is to be at least 10 mm thick on both
faces of a single leaf wall or on the fire exposed face of a cavity wall.
NOTE Sand cement render is not considered to increase the fire resistance of the wall. For high precision units
or tongued and grooved units with narrow, unfilled perpend joints, reference should be made to the code. Walls
which include bed joint reinforcement to I.S. EN 845-3 are covered by the tables.
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For panel walls required to provide fire resistance where edge isolation is necessary, special
consideration should be given to the edge details.
The detailing of joints, connections, holes for service penetrations, chases and recesses, etc. is of
considerable importance in relation to the fire resistance of masonry construction. These items should
not reduce the fire resistance of the construction or they should be taken into account in assessing the
fire resistance. Thus, joints in walls and between walls must be appropriately designed and constructed.
Any fire insulating layers in movement joints must have a melting point of at least 1 000 ºC and be tightly
sealed so that movement does not affect the fire resistance. Connections which are between fire walls and
concrete or masonry structures which are required to satisfy mechanical impact requirements must be
in joints that are completely filled with mortar or concrete or properly protected against fire.
Where chases, ducts or holes are provided, the designer should ensure that an adequate wall thickness
exists to provide the fire resistance required. Chases and recesses in loadbearing walls which satisfy the
requirements of I.S. EN 1996-1-1 can be assumed to have no adverse effect on the fire resistance of the
wall.
Individual cables can pass through holes sealed with mortar and non-combustible pipes up to 100 mm
diameter may pass through non-combustible sealed holes. Other service penetrations must be sealed by
a method which has been evaluated by test or experience to be satisfactory.
Walls in attic or roof spaces should be built with all bed joints and perpend joints filled.
6 Workmanship
6.1 General
The workmanship recommendations given herein should normally be followed, but for alternative and
in some instances additional information on basic masonry workmanship, see BS 8000-3.
NOTE Users of BS 8000-3 should note that its text and these recommendations differ, particularly in the case
of the materials used for sills; the spacing of wall ties and the use of full cavity insulation in walls as defined in this
standard.
In the case of the structural use of masonry, the designer should consider the level of construction control
to be adopted (see I.S. EN 1996-2).
6.2 Storage of materials on site

6.2.1 General
Consignments of materials should be placed so that they will normally be used in order of delivery and
so as to permit the inspection and sampling of individual consignments.
All materials should be inspected both when delivered to site and immediately before use, to check
whether they have been subject to deterioration or damage.
6.2.2 Masonry units
Masonry units should be unloaded on to a dry and reasonably level area or scaffold. It is important that
they should be carefully stacked to avoid damage or deterioration and to ensure stability, and should be
protected from rain and snow.
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For concrete and calcium silicate masonry units, it is desirable that provision is made for the free
circulation of air within the stack so that masonry units may dry out before being built into the work.
Particular care should be taken with facing units. Masonry units should not be stacked directly on
sulphate bearing ground, clinker or ashes because of the danger of chemical contamination through rising
moisture, nor should masonry units be stacked on newly cast slabs until the slabs have attained sufficient
strength.
Strict precautions should be taken to ensure that stacks of material on floor slabs do not overload the
structure. This is particularly important where masonry units delivered in packs are hoisted direct to
areas where they are to be used.
It is desirable that facing masonry units should be mixed either on site or, by agreement with the
manufacturer, at the works, to avoid the effect of bands of colour in the finished work.
6.2.3 Cement and hydrated lime
Cement and hydrated lime should be stored off the ground, kept dry and used in order of delivery. Cement
or hydrated lime affected by dampness should never be used.
6.2.4 Fine aggregate
Fine aggregates should be stored in separate bins according to type so that they will not become
contaminated, preferably in bins with a dry solid base. Variations in moisture content will affect gauging.
For guidance on work when frosty or freezing conditions may occur, see 6.3.3.
6.2.5 Ready-to-use mortars and ready-mixed lime
Ready-mixed lime: sand for mortar should be stored in a clean area on a hard impervious surface and
should be protected from the weather to prevent wetting, drying out or freezing. Extreme variations of
moisture will affect subsequent gauging.
Particular care should be taken when using coloured lime: sand mixes, which should be covered to protect
them from the weather to safeguard them from the segregation of pigment.
Ready-to-use retarded cement:lime:sand and cement: sand mortars should be kept in containers (e.g.
skips). The containers should be covered when not in use to protect the contents from the weather.
6.2.6 Flexible DPC's
Rolls should be stored on end and on a level surface away from heat taking care that the rolls do not get
distorted or otherwise deformed. Preformed cavity trays should be treated with care and stored in an
area where there is no danger of items being placed on top of them. The manufacturers' instructions
should be followed.
6.3 Laying of masonry units

6.3.1 Setting out
When setting out masonry, care should be taken to reduce the cutting of masonry units to a minimum
and to avoid irregular or broken bond, particularly at openings or in piers. Great care should be taken to
ensure accuracy in the setting out of the first course of masonry units in order to avoid subsequent
inaccuracies in the finished work. Dimensions should be checked from time to time as the work rises.
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Masonry units should be laid in true and regular courses. In lengths of walling between corners the
masonry units should be laid to a string line stretched tight between the corners. To avoid excessive
deflection, string lines should be supported at not more than 6 m intervals.
Where corners and other advanced work are raised above the general level, they should be racked back
not higher than 1,2 m at one lift and for facing work the whole lift completed in one operation. Advanced
work has to be plumbed and the height checked with the gauge rod. Where units are laid on the batter,
as in retaining walls, they should be aligned by laying the face of the units to the desired angle, using a
tapered profile board.
A full masonry unit should be positioned directly beneath a lintel or other bearing.
6.3.2 Joint thickness

The average thickness of both horizontal and vertical mortar joints is dictated by the coordinating size of
the masonry units and is normally taken to be 10 mm exclusive of any key in the jointing surface of the
masonry units. This joint size allows for irregularities in the masonry units and should accommodate
irregularities in manufacture whilst being reasonably economical in the use of mortar. Joint sizes may
need to be varied from the nominal 10 mm but the joints in any section of work should be kept as
consistent as possible.
Flanking or abutting work may predetermine the joint size. For example, where a wall is composed of
two different types of masonry unit as in the two leaves of a cavity wall, it may be necessary to adjust the
joint thickness so that the appropriate courses correspond throughout the height of the wall. Where work
is to be built into a framed building, the length and height of a selection of units should be checked to
determine whether the joint thickness should be modified from the nominal 10 mm to accommodate any
tendency for units to be over or under size.
6.3.3 Achieving good adhesion
It is essential to ensure that in any masonry construction adequate adhesion exists between the masonry
units and the mortar. Depending on their characteristics, masonry units may be highly porous and,
particularly in warm weather, rapidly absorb the moisture from the mortar when laid. In such cases the
mortar becomes harsh and insufficiently plastic to accommodate movement of the unit during laying and
levelling and it is possible that no adhesion between the unit and the mortar will be obtained.
Experience has shown that adhesion will be adversely affected when masonry is allowed to dry out
rapidly in warm, dry conditions. In such conditions, laying mortar beds in shorter lengths, thus limiting
water loss from the mortar before the next course is laid is advantageous.
Wetting may assist in removing dust from the bricks and thus further improve adhesion. However, the
bricks should not be over wetted, as this may lead to 'floating' on the mortar bed and also to excessive
efflorescence and staining of the brick face.
In fired-clay brickwork, adjustment of the suction rate of the bricks at the time of laying may be required
by the designer for structural reasons. The consistency of the mortar should be adjusted or the bricks
should be wetted (docked) for not longer than 2 minutes just before use (less time may be required,
depending on the moisture content of the bricks).
In very dry conditions, easier laying and better adhesion of calcium silicate bricks may be achieved by
adjusting the consistency of the mortar or dipping the bricks briefly in water just before use. The bricks
should not be soaked in water.
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Concrete masonry units should not be wetted. Instead the consistency of the mortar should be adjusted
to suit the suction, if necessary using water-retaining admixtures.
For guidance on the characteristics of particular masonry units and appropriate wetting procedures, the
6.3.4 Appearance
The achievement of vertical alignment of perpends may require gauging of bricks, particularly for narrow
piers; setting out from the base in relation to openings or careful variation of vertical joint width.
Colour differences within or between consignments of masonry units should not result in uneven
appearance (banding or patchiness of colour) in the finished construction. Distributing units from
different pallets throughout a site, or choosing units from a minimum number of three pallets in
individual locations, will help to blend units of different colour within the same consignment. Some
manufacturers may be able to carry out this blending before delivery. Where several consignments will
be delivered to site over a long period of time, blending on site may not solve the problem of colour
variation between consignments. This should be identified before deliveries begin and the manufacturer
consulted.
Colour variation in different batches of mortar, which will also lead to uneven appearance, may be
reduced by consistent mixing and preparation. A change in the source of supply of mortar materials
(sands and cement etc.) can give rise to colour variations.
When laying masonry units, the mortar should not be allowed to encroach on their exposed faces, since
it is not easily removed when dry. This applies particularly to open-textured masonry units.
Wherever practicable, facing work racked back should not be left overnight before being brought up level.
The appearance of finished masonry may be adversely affected by failure to protect the work during
construction.
6.3.5 Jointing
Jointing as the work proceeds is preferable to pointing. Mortar joints on the face of the masonry should
be to the required profile.
The joints should be tooled to compact the mortar, to give a firm joint between mortar and unit and to
give the desired profile. Tooling helps to improve the durability of the mortar and the rain-shedding
capacity of the wall.
Rendering may be satisfactorily applied to masonry units but it may be preferable in certain
circumstances to provide additional mechanical key by raking out joints or by using keyed units.
6.3.6 Pointing
If pointing is desired, the joints should be well raked out to a depth of between 10 mm and 15 mm as the
work proceeds to give an adequate key. Joints should be brushed out to remove dust and loose material
and should be lightly wetted using a brush. The mortar used for pointing should not be stronger than that
used when constructing the wall. It is preferable to carry out pointing from the top of the wall downwards.
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6.3.7 Bricklaying
Bricks should be laid on a full bed of mortar and all cross joints and collar joints should be filled.
Immediately after the brick is laid, excess mortar should be struck off the external face of the work and
off the internal faces of leaves of cavity walls. Care should be taken to ensure that mortar is not scraped
into the exposed face of the brick. Any accidental smears should be lightly brushed off the face after the
mortar has taken its first set.
Where grout is used to fill collar joints or voids within the thickness of the wall, it should follow the
recommendations for mortar. Only enough water to make a pourable mix should be added, as excess
water may affect the suction rate of fired-clay bricks. The daily lifts should be regulated accordingly.
Unless otherwise specified, frogged bricks should be laid frog up and the frogs should be completely filled
with mortar. The position and filling of the frogs are important, as both can affect the strength and sound
insulation of the wall, Cellular bricks should be laid with their cavities downwards and unfilled.
Reinforced and prestressed brick masonry should be constructed following the requirements of
I.S. EN 1996-1-1.
6.3.8 Block laying
Solid blocks should normally be laid on a full bed of mortar (not shell bedded) and cross joints and collar
joints should be filled. In the case of concrete blocks laid on face, mortar is removed from the centre of
the bed to facilitate alignment and levelling of the blocks. Shell bedding may be used only by permission
of the designer, since it affects the strength and other properties of the finished wall. Sufficient mortar
should be used to ensure that all keys in the joint surface are properly filled.
Bed joints of hollow blocks should be shell bedded, with or without mortar strips under the cross webs;
the vertical joints may be either full or shell bedded.
The mortar stiffness used should be adjusted to ensure good adhesion to prevent extrusion from bed
joints. For fair-faced work, excess mortar should be struck off immediately after the block is laid. Care
should be taken to ensure that mortar is not scraped into the exposed face of the block. Any accidental
smears should be lightly brushed off the face after the mortar has taken its first set.
Reinforced and prestressed block masonry should be constructed following the requirements of
I.S. EN 1996-1-1.
6.3.9 Reinforced block lintels
Reinforced block lintels should be made from U-shaped blocks in which reinforcement is laid to the full
length, including bearings. The blocks should be filled with concrete and the joints between them should
be filled with mortar. Temporary support will be required during construction and until the concrete
infill has gained sufficient strength.
6.3.10 DPC's, cavity trays and flashings
DPC's should be laid on a smooth bed of fresh mortar, unless they are required to accommodate
differential sliding movements between the units on either side of them, in which case the mortar bed
should be trowelled smooth and allowed to set, and then cleaned off before the DPC is laid. Joints or
perforations in the underlying course should be flushed up. This is particularly important where a flexible
membrane is used, since the membrane is in danger of being torn or punctured if it is forced into hard-
edged cavities by the load of the wall above. It is essential to joint all laps other than those in simple
horizontal work, and all such unsealed laps should not be less than 100 mm long. Care should be taken
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not to pierce DPC's and cavity trays (e.g. by services, reinforcement, fixings) and not to bridge DPC's (e.g.
by pointing, rendering, plastering, tiling, etc.).
For bitumen-coated materials, the surfaces to be jointed should be heated until the bitumen is softened
and then pressed together. For pitch and bitumen polymer materials, an adhesive recommended by the
manufacturer should be used as directed. For polyethylene DPC's, a double-sided adhesive tape should
be used. Joints for lead DPC's should be formed either by welting or burning and joints for copper and
zinc based materials should be formed either by welting or soldering.
Asphalt should be dressed up to DPC's and into a chase. The asphalt should preferably be sufficiently fluid
to adhere to the material of the DPC In this case, polyethylene-based materials should not be used, since
they will melt and holes will be formed.
Where a sufficiently durable material, such as metal, is to be used, it should be allowed to project beyond
the surface of the wall by 10 mm. All DPC's except brick DPC's should project a minimum of 5 mm beyond
the external face of the wall.
Wherever possible, all cavity trays should be supported, either by laying directly on existing supporting
structures, e.g. the concrete slab upon which the inner leaf is built, or by building up the base of the cavity
to form a suitable support.
Wherever possible, flashings should be built in as the work proceeds.
6.3.11 Cavity walls
The main purpose of a cavity in a wall is to prevent water penetrating to the inner surface. The inner face
of the outer leaf of a cavity wall will often be wet during the life of a building, particularly in exposed
situations. When building a cavity wall, it is essential that the cavity is not bridged by any material which
could transmit water from the outer to the inner skin. Accumulations of mortar droppings in the cavity
should be prevented (e.g. by using laths). Any mortar which does fall on wall ties or cavity trays should
be cleaned off.
Both leaves of a cavity wall should be raised at the same time. The recommended maximum difference in
heights between the two leaves is;
a) approximately the vertical spacing of consecutive rows of ties for rigid ties (such as vertical twist
ties),
b) not greater than six block courses for more flexible ties (such as rod ties up to 4 mm diameter),
c) not more than 225 mm in a section of wall where pressed metal lintels are installed (to avoid twisting
the lintel).
The difference in heights given in case (a) and (b) above may be used if the metal lintel is propped to
avoid twisting.
Where it is necessary to permit greater differences in height between the inner and outer leaves during
construction it is necessary to take great care to ensure horizontal alignment of the beds. A slight fall from
the inner bed to the outer bed is acceptable but falls from the outer bed to the inner bed should not be
allowed.
The wall ties should be placed on mortar in the bed joint of the appropriate course of the higher leaf as it
is built and not pushed in after the units are bedded. Wall ties should be bedded a minimum of 50 mm in
each leaf and have a slight fall to the outer leaf.
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It is essential that the cavity is free from protrusions which would form ledges and thus facilitate the build
up of mortar droppings. If a bond pattern is desired which necessitates the use of snap-headers, these
should be either accurately cut, sawn or purpose made.
The cavity should extend for at least 150 mm below the lowest DPC. If cavity walls are built off the
foundation, they should be filled in solid to external ground level. At the base of the cavity every fourth
vertical joint in the outer leaf of external walls may be left open to drain the cavity.
6.3.12 Slips
6.3.12.1 Preparation of surfaces
It is essential to clean all surfaces of the slips and the substrate thoroughly, ensuring that they are free
from dust, particles, grease and mould oil, and to remove the laitance from any concrete surface to expose
the aggregate. Adequate cover to reinforcement should be maintained. Bituminous paint should never be
applied to concrete surfaces, as this would severely affect the adhesion between the concrete and the
slips.
6.3.12.2 Application of adhesive
Reference should be made to the manufacturer's instructions but generally the adhesive should cover the
whole of the back face of the unit and be continuous against the concrete face.
NOTE Application in the form of dabs of adhesive will cause pockets which may trap water and so lead to frost
damage. Movement joints should not be bridged by adhesive.
6.3.12.3 Types of adhesive system
The main types of adhesive system used are epoxy resin systems, polyester resin systems and systems
based on cementitious mortars with styrene/butadiene rubber (SBR).
Epoxy resin systems have a working life of 2 h to 3 h, with full cure developing in 24 hours. They should
not be used when the ambient temperature is below 4 °C (see 6.6.3). There are important differences
between proprietary formulations, such as the relative proportions of individual components and the
tolerable degree of moisture which is acceptable. For site work, the risk of error should be minimized by
the provision of prepared proportions of each individual component, which should be mixed thoroughly
in the correct order. The tolerance of a system to damp conditions should be checked by referring to the
manufacturers.
Polyester resin-based adhesive systems have a working life varying from 5 min to 24 h, depending on the
ratio of resin to hardener, which is generally quite critical. Tolerance to moisture also appears to vary
widely. However, as with epoxy resin systems, polyester resin adhesives, when properly mixed and
applied, rapidly develop a high strength bond which is resistant to water and most chemicals.
In systems based on cementitious mortars with SBR, the mortar is prepared by mixing one part by mass
of Portland cement with 2 ½ to 3 parts of clean sand, i.e. sand as free as possible from clay, with the
gauging water wholly or partly replaced by SBR. The surfaces to be joined should be prepared by coating
with a slurry of cement and SBR. Whilst this is still tacky, the mortar should be buttered on to the grouted
surfaces and the slips pressed into place. It should be noted that, as with conventional mortars, the
strength of the bond will be slow to develop at low temperatures.
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6.4 Masonry bonds and other constructional details

6.4.1 Masonry bonds
6.4.1.1 General
The horizontal distance between cross joints in successive masonry courses should normally be not less
than one-quarter of the length of the units but in no case less than 50 mm for bricks or 75 mm for blocks.
In the case of concrete blocks laid flat in two course bonding, it is permissible for cross joints to coincide
for two courses, but the rules for bonding should be applied to each set of two courses, see Figure A.2(c).
Those patterns which depart from the principle of having adequate distance between the cross joints in
adjacent courses, particularly stack bond, should be used only where experience or experimental data
indicate that they are structurally satisfactory for the particular construction.
The overall dimensions of walls and the positions and sizes of openings and piers should be chosen
bearing in mind the dimensions of the type of unit to be used and the dimensions of the special units
available, so that cutting of the units will be kept to a minimum and irregular or broken bonds will be
avoided. The lack of adequate bond (e.g. stack bond) may result in the need to include designed
reinforcement.
The types of masonry bonds and joint finishes that are commonly used are detailed in !Annex A." Quetta
or Rat-trap bonds may be desirable in reinforced blockwork or brickwork, because these bonds leave
voids for vertical reinforcement.
6.4.1.2 Location and fixing of wall ties
Details in relation to the choice of ties and their spacing are given (see 4.4 and Annex B). Ties should be
distributed in a staggered pattern in order to establish adequate connection between the inner and outer
leaves of the cavity wall.
In a wall panel of length H + 450 mm or greater, the recommended pattern is indicated in Figure 15.
In a wall panel of length less than H + 450 mm, the recommended pattern is indicated in Figure 16.
In Figures 15 and 16, H and V are respectively the maximum horizontal and vertical spacings of the ties
given (see 5.3.6). The actual spacings should be chosen to conform to the sizes of the masonry units used.
Where hollow blockwork is used to form one or both leaves of a cavity wall, care should be taken to
ensure that ties are placed on solid sections and that an appropriate tie type is used in order to ensure
adequate anchorage.
The height above any DPC of the first row of cavity ties should not exceed 225 mm. The maximum height
of wall panel above the top row of cavity ties should not exceed 225 mm. Where possible, ties should not
be installed at DPC level.
Reshaping or bending of wall ties should not be permitted unless it can be shown that this does not give
rise to adverse effects on the strength, anchorage or durability of the ties.
Each tie should be so placed that drips will cause water drops to fall within the cavity and away from any
cavity fill present.
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6.4.1.3 Blockwork masonry bonds
The masonry bonds described in Annex A, A.2 are commonly used in blockwork. The general principles
of bonding given in subclause 6.4.1.1 should be observed. Hollow blockwork may be suited to the
incorporation of reinforcement within the voids of the units, which are filled with concrete. Where quoin
or reveal blocks are used, alternate short and long blocks should be used in successive courses to ensure
that the bond within the wall is retained.
Solid concrete blocks are sometimes laid with mortar on two outer strips of block (i.e. they are shell
bedded). This leads to a reduction in;
 structural wall strength and
 resistance to moisture penetration of equivalent construction with a full mortar bed and should only
be used with the permission of the designer.
6.4.1.4 Brickwork masonry bonds
The masonry bonds described in A.1 are commonly used in brickwork. Other ornamental bonds, designed
for appearance only, may be derived from these principal bonds.
Stretcher bond, which consists of stretchers only in each course, is normally used for leaves one-half brick
thick whether in solid or cavity walls; other bonds should not be used for such cavity walls unless
purpose-made bats are available. The lap is normally half the length of the brick but the distance may be
reduced to not less than 50 mm, as, for example, in short lengths of partition walls to accommodate block
bonding of return and intersecting walls made of thin blocks. Sleeper walls and non-Ioadbearing screen
walls may be built using honeycombed construction provided the lap between courses is at least one-
quarter the length of the brick.
6.4.2 Architectural features
6.4.2.1 Plinths, string courses and cornices
Architectural features such as plinths, string courses and cornices may be formed of blocks, bricks or
other suitable materials. Their design may involve considerations of stability, resistance to abrasion,
moisture penetration (see 5.5.3) and durability (see 5.6.3), particularly where dissimilar materials are
associated. Wherever possible, all features should be designed to fit with the masonry units in length,
height or thickness.
6.4.2.2 Other features
Features which project from the main plane of the wall should have their upper surfaces protected by
flashings or weatherings from downward penetration of water. In modern cavity wall construction,
projecting features cannot readily be secured in the wall by the weight of masonry above as in older solid
walls. It may therefore be necessary to hold them in place by other means, such as a reinforced concrete,
reinforced masonry or steelwork core.
6.4.2.3 Fairfacing
Unless bricks are selected for size, their variation in length will usually preclude the building of one brick
(215 mm) single-leaf bonded walls having a fair face on both sides. This can, however, readily be achieved
by using double-leaf (collar-jointed) walls instead.
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6.4.2.4 Veneering materials
The facing of external walls of common bricks by veneering materials requires careful consideration of
their weathering and jointing characteristics. If absorbent, the veneer will add to the capacity of the wall
to act as an overcoat but if the veneer is impermeable, the success of jointing in resisting penetration will
become critical. If water gets behind such veneers and cannot readily escape it may cause disruption by
sulphation of the mortar of the backing material or by crystallization of soluble salts.
6.4.2.5 Enhanced appearance
Where a separate leaf of brickwork or an ornamental leaf is added to a common block or brick wall to
improve the appearance, the added leaf should be adequately fixed to the parent wall, using metal ties,
and due consideration should be given to stability and differential movement. The parent wall should be
regarded as carrying the load independently of the ornamental leaf, i.e. as a veneered wall.
6.4.2.6 Masking
The practice has grown up of masking the building structure with courses of brick or block slips to match
facing masonry. However, lack of appreciation of the shrinkage and creep of the building structure,
insufficient provision for thermal movement, inaccuracy of construction and lack of care in the
preparation of the surfaces and incorrect choice of mortars has given rise to problems, with the slips
failing in adhesion and falling from the face of the building. There are significant thermal problems with
these masking details.
Where the use of slips is unavoidable, the designer should pay attention to the tolerances on the materials
and components to ensure correct alignment of the concrete face or nib, both horizontally and vertically,
with the floors above and below. Reference may be made to BS 5606 which quotes characteristic
accuracies for various materials and components. It is important also that the wall above does not
overhang its support by more than one-third its width, e.g. 34 mm for a 100 mm wide leaf. The accurate
positioning of the face of concrete in relation to the eventual finished face of the masonry is critical and
needs close attention at all stages of design and construction.
The method of fixing slips using adhesives is described in 6.3.12. Where more than two courses are to be
fixed a mechanical method of tying back slips should always be used to supplement the adhesives. Where
fired-clay brick slips are bonded to the nib or toes of a concrete slab or beam, arrangements should be
made to minimize horizontal and vertical stresses acting on the courses of slips. Bituminous paint should
never be applied to concrete surfaces, as this would severely affect the adhesion between the concrete
and the slips.
6.4.2.7 Pistol bricks or blocks
Pistol bricks or blocks may be used to mask the toes of a supporting steel angle or lintel. Special units for
this purpose may be supplied by some manufacturers or may be cut from whole units.
Generally a 'barrel' thickness of 20 mm may be achieved with most types of facing bricks but it is
important that over-run of the horizontal cut be avoided, as this will weaken the barrel at what is already
its weakest point. The bottom of the 'barrel' should not be allowed to rest on brickwork below, but a
flexible compressible horizontal joint as recommended for bricks slips should be provided for the full
thickness of the 'barrel' and its vertical backing joint.
6.4.3 Arches
The traditional masonry arch, which can have many shapes, e.g. segmental, parabolic, semicircular or
elliptical, is a curved assembly of voussoirs solidly buttressed at each end and proportioned so that the
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line of resistance to the loads falls within the middle third of the depth of the arch ring, so avoiding the
development of tension at the intrados or extrados. The sides of each voussoir are determined by lines
radiating from the arch centre or centres so that they are normal to the curve of the arch and thus are
approximately perpendicular in minor arches to the internal line of thrust.
In brick masonry, the wedge shaped voussoirs have to be specially made or cut from standard bricks. For
restoration work reference should be made to BS 8221 parts 1 and 2.
For uniform loads, a parabolic shape is ideal because the line of thrust coincides with the centre line of
the arch ring and eliminates bending and tension. In practice, masonry arches are built as segments of
circles and a parabola is approximated when the rise of the arch equals one-eighth of the span.
The difficulties of determining the actual loads acting on arched openings formed within masonry walls
means that accurate structural design is unlikely to be achieved. Usually minor arches of segmental,
parabolic or semi-circular form and up to, for example, 2 m span, can be proportioned empirically,
provided care is taken to ensure that there is an adequate amount of masonry over the arch ring and
between it and any line of floor loads, and also that adequate resistance is provided at the abutments.
Other arches should be designed and specialist advice should be sought. Arch construction is less suitable
for the external leaf of cavity walls than for solid walling of greater thickness because of the added
complications of damp-proofing the junctions between inner and outer leaf. Refer to Clause 6 for further
detail.
6.4.4 Jointing and pointing
Jointing is preferable to pointing because it leaves the bedding mortar undisturbed. The mortar used for
pointing should have mix proportions similar to those used in the bedding mortar.
Types of finish for jointing and pointing of work are described in A.3. These should be carefully chosen in
relation to colour, texture, form and durability of the units used and the conditions of exposure. Tooling
of the joints to compact the mortar helps to improve the durability of the mortar and the rain-shedding
capacity of the wall. Recessed joints should not be used where there is a danger of excessive wetting
which may lead to damage by frost action or rain penetration. The depth of the recess should be related
to the distance of any perforation or cavity to the exposed face of the unit.
6.4.5 Corbelling
Where courses are corbelled out one above the other, the extent of corbelling should not exceed that
shown in Figure 15 unless the work is otherwise supported or reinforced.
6.4.6 Provision for services and fittings
In deciding upon the type and thickness of the masonry unit to be used, consideration should be given to
the suitability for accommodating services and for the fixing fittings. Services may be run through ducts
or on the surface of the masonry in chases. Preferably chases and sleeves should be provided during the
erection of the work.
6.4.7 Chases and holes
Chases and holes should only be cut with the approval of the designer. The following restrictions should
normally be adopted;
a) where the masonry construction is less than 90 mm in thickness chases should not be used,
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b) where the masonry construction is of solid units in single leaf or cavity walls,
horizontal or raking chases should not exceed the values stated in National Annex to
I.S. EN 1996-1-1 and
vertical chases should not exceed the values stated the National Annex to I.S. EN 1996-1-1
c) where the masonry construction is to be penetrated by services, the cutting of holes up to

approximately 300 mm2 (i.e. holes of approximately square cross section) in the wall to
accommodate items of equipment is permitted without further consideration by the designer,
d) vertical chases on opposite sides of a wall should be offset relative to each other by a clear
distance equal to the wall thickness.
j)
k)
Section through solid walling Section through cavity walling
Key
1 Wall tie a No diminution in thickness on opposite side of corbel
b Maximum corbel
Figure 15 — Sizes of corbels
6.4.8 Ducts across cavities cavity walls
Where ducts are used to ventilate a building or are used to bridge or close the cavity of a cavity wall, they
should be designed to prevent water reaching the inner leaf of the wall. Such ducts should, where
possible, slope away from the inner leaf of the wall and be protected by a stepped DPC. Both ends of the
duct should be protected from rubbish and vermin by an airbrick, grating or mesh such that a 5 mm
diameter sphere cannot pass through.
6.4.9 Constructional details
6.4.9.1 Quoins and reveals
When constructing quoins and reveals, particular care should be taken to check gauge and verticality as
the work proceeds. The use of toothings should be avoided. Quoins and reveals in vulnerable positions
should be protected during the period of work on site.
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6.4.9.2 Piers
Broken bond should be avoided in piers and the bonding of the quoins should be such as to preserve
symmetry in the appearance of the work. Piers which are required to strengthen the wall should be
properly bonded or tied into the parent wall.
Dimensions in mm
NOTE Additional ties are required where panel edges coincide with openings (see 4.4)
Key
H Maximum horizontal spacing of tie
V Maximum vertical spacing of tie
a Top of panel
b DPC level
Figure 16 — Recommended pattern for wall ties in panels of lengths H+ 450mm or greater
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Dimensions in mm
NOTE Additional ties are required where panel edges coincide with openings (see 4.4)
Key
H Maximum horizontal spacing of tie
V Maximum vertical spacing of tie
a Top of panel
b DPC level
c Leaf thickness 90 mm or more
d Leaf thickness less than 90 mm
Figure 17 — Recommended pattern for wall ties in panels of lengths H + 450 mm
6.4.9.3 Sills and thresholds
One-piece sills or thresholds, e.g. stone or concrete, should be bedded with mortar only below the ends
or stoolings, to prevent fracture of the sill in the event of thermal movement and differential settlement.
The open joint should be pointed with mortar on completion of the masonry.
Sills should be provided with a DPC for the full length and width of the sill bed. Sills should be adequately
weathered to prevent water lying on their upper face.
6.4.9.4 Lintels
Lintels should have adequate bearing (see 5.3.4) and should be bedded on mortar. They should not bear
on a short length of cut block. Precast concrete lintels should have matured and dried before being built
into the wall, to prevent cracking at the ends due to drying shrinkage of the lintel. Cast in situ lintels of
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reinforced concrete or of reinforced masonry should be propped and allowed sufficient time to develop
adequate strength before they are made to carry superimposed loads.
Where composite lintels (e.g. solid masonry on prestressed concrete planks) are used, no chase, hole, joist
hanger or DPC should be formed in the area comprising the composite section nor should any inclusion,
such as joists, be built into this section. Installation should follow the recommendations of the
manufacturers, but in any case a bearing length of 200 mm should be provided.
6.4.9.5 Arches
When building an arch, temporary support should be provided and the arch should be allowed sufficient
time to develop adequate strength before it is made to carry superimposed loads. Care should be taken
to butt up the voussoirs, either by using rubbers or by varying the thickness of the joint. In cavity
construction cavity trays should be of malleable material, curved to follow the arch, or preformed.
6.4.9.6 Toothing and indenting
Where future extensions are required to be provided for in a wall, the course terminating in a header or
bat should have that header, and the adjacent closer, if one occurs, bedded in designation (iv) mortar so
that these units can be easily removed to enable the bond to continue.
Alternatively, units can be left projecting or omitted and where this is done, the upper exposed surfaces
of the units should be weathered in designation (iv) mortar.
6.4.9.7 Connections between walls and partitions
Walls and partitions should generally be bonded, tied or dowelled to one another at angles and junctions,
but particular care should be taken to construct joints as shown on detailed drawings, as they may be
required to accommodate movement in a particular direction or to be totally discontinuous. Where it is
necessary for a partition to be connected to an adjacent wall or column, this should be done by toothing
or block bonding unless otherwise specified.
6.4.9.8 Movement joints
Movement joints should be formed as the work proceeds. For efficiency in the performance of sealants, it
is essential that the joint is properly designed and prepared (see 5.4) Back-up material should be placed
within the joint in such a way that the distance of its face from the joint face will allow the correct depth
of seal to be used. The faces of the joint to which sealant is to be applied should be clean and free from
loose material; they should also be dry unless otherwise specified. Application of primer and sealant
should be in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Care should be taken to apply the sealant to the full specified depth, avoiding bubbles. The sealant should
adhere to each side of the joint.
6.4.9.9 Fixing of window, door or other frames
Frames may either be built in when the walling is being built or fixed after the opening has been formed.
When built in with the walling, temporary strutting of the frame is necessary to prevent distortion. The
horns may be cut off or built in, providing the building-in does not weaken the structure of the wall.
Cramps should be fixed to the backs of the posts and built into the walling. It is not usually necessary to
use fixings at the heads of door frames, except, perhaps, with very wide doorways. Care should be taken
in building-in frames to prevent staining by mortar splashings, especially if the wood is not to be painted.
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6.5 Provision of services, including fixings and chases
Chases, fixings and holes in masonry may seriously affect the strength of the masonry. As far as is
practicable, in order to eliminate unnecessary cutting away and making good, sleeves and chases should
be provided during the erection of the masonry. This applies especially to electric ductwork. In external
walls, all sleeves and pipes should preferably be laid with a fall towards the outside. Services should not
be run within the cavity of cavity walls. The installation of services should be completed before plastering
or other finishing work is begun.
Where chases have to be cut, suitable power tools which do not operate by heavy impact, e.g. rotary tools,
should be used so that the depth recommended in I.S. EN 1996-1-1are not exceeded. Fixing units (bricks
or blocks), where required, should be built into the wall or partition in the correct positions for skirting,
rails and other items of joinery or fittings required.
6.6 Protection against damage during construction
6.6.1 General
Care should be taken to anticipate and prevent damage or disfigurement to the finished work due to
weather, subsequent building or other operations. Care should also be taken over the siting of hoists. The
arrisses around openings to be used by barrows, etc should be protected. Temporary support to walls
may be required during construction to prevent damage by wind
6.6.2 Protection against rain
Newly erected masonry should be protected to prevent the mortar being washed out of the joints by rain.
Walls should be prevented from becoming saturated by covering the top of the wall with waterproof
sheets; this is particularly important to minimize the incidence of efflorescence and lime bloom. When
any working platform is not in use, the inner board should be turned away from the wall to prevent the
splashing of the wall face.
6.6.3 Work in cold conditions
Generally, when masonry construction is carried out during freezing weather, proper facilities should be
made available for preparing the mortar, protecting the materials and protecting the fresh masonry work
against frost damage.
Where work is to be carried out in frosty or freezing conditions, particular attention should be paid to
protection of the materials and finished masonry, since water in the mortar mix and masonry units may
cause considerable damage to the masonry if it is allowed to freeze. During cold weather, the mortar will
be slow to gain strength and, therefore, any precautions should be maintained until the mortar has gained
sufficient strength to resist being frozen. Because of the possible damage that may occur to newly
constructed masonry in cold weather, no masonry units should be laid when the temperature is at or
below 3°C, unless precautions are taken to ensure that the mortar has a minimum temperature of 4 °C
when laid and that the masonry is protected from becoming frozen until the mortar has hardened. In
addition, precautions may be required where the temperature is above 3 °C when the mortar is laid but
where the subsequent temperature may fall below freezing before the mortar has hardened, e.g.
overnight.
The precautions to be taken should be agreed with the designer and may include the following:
a) protection of the mixing plant, at times by a heated enclosure,
b) heating the aggregate and water before use,
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NOTE When this is done, the mortar should be used immediately after mixing, before it loses all its heat.
The water temperature should normally not exceed 60 °C.
c) protection of the finished work by an insulated waterproof covering,
d) provision of complete heated enclosures to protect both masonry and operatives,

NOTE In this condition, both the mixing plant and materials should, ideally be housed within the
enclosure.
The following precautions should generally be implemented in freezing conditions:
1) the masonry units in the stack should be protected from becoming saturated,
2) the sand should be protected by waterproof insulating covers (insulating quilts, tarpaulins or
similar),
3) supported clear of the sand to improve thermal insulation.
NOTE Unprotected sand may remain frozen for some considerable time after the air temperature has
risen above freezing point.
Antifreeze admixtures, particularly calcium chloride, should not be used. It is essential to protect the
masonry from coming into contact with strong salt solutions, e.g. those used for clearance of snow and
ice.
6.7 Supervision
The design recommendations given in section five of this standard assume that the quality of
workmanship described in section six is achieved, and appropriate supervision should ensure that this
quality is achieved. In the case of the structural use of masonry, the designer should consider the level of
construction control to be adopted (see NA to I.S. EN 1996-1-1).
The quality of workmanship actually achieved both when constructing masonry and when installing any
insulation product, is a very important factor affecting resistance to rain penetration. The workmanship
should be in accordance with BS 8000-3.
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Annex A
(informative)
Masonry bonds and joint finishes

Brick masonry bonds

A.1.1 English bond
English bond shows on both faces alternate courses of headers and stretchers (see Figure A.1(a)).
A.1.2 Flemish bond

Flemish bond shows on the face alternate headers and stretchers in each course (see Figure A.1 (b)). It
may be built as a 'single Flemish bond', which shows Flemish bond on both faces of the wall.
A.1.3 English garden-wall bond
English garden-wall bond shows a sequence of three courses of stretchers laid with half lap to one course
of headers.
A.1.4 Flemish garden-wall bond
Flemish garden-wall bond shows on both faces a sequence of three stretchers to one header in each
course of a full brick wall (see Figure A.1 (c)). In thicker walls, one face is formed in English bond.
A.1.5 Header bond
Heading bond consists of bricks with their ends showing on the face of the wall, laid with a half lap of the
brick width (see Figure A.1 (d)).
A.1.6 Quetta bond
Quetta bond is used for walls a minimum of one and a half bricks thick and consists of alternate stretchers
and headers arranged to leave a series of vertical voids in the wall thickness, in which is placed vertical
reinforcement, the voids being filled with grout or fine concrete as the work proceeds (see Figure A.1 (e)).
A.1.7 Rat-trap bond
Rat-trap bond shows bricks laid on edge, each course consisting of alternate headers and stretchers. It
has a similar appearance to Flemish bond and may be vertically reinforced in the same way as Quetta
bond (see Figure A.1 (e)).
Block masonry bonds

A.2.1 Running or stretcher bonds
Running or stretcher bond requires block thickness to be equal to half block length. Half blocks at wall
ends (see Figure A.2 (b)).
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A.2.2 Thin stretcher bond
Thin stretcher bond requires cut-block closers or quoins at corner and half blocks at wall ends (see
Figure A.2 (b)).
A.2.3 Off-centre running bond

Off-centre running bond requires three-quarters or two-thirds cut blocks at wall ends (see
Figure A.2 (a)).
Joint finishes
The principal types of joint finish used for brick and block masonry are shown in Figure A.3.
(a) English
(b) Flemish
(C) Running or stretcher (d) Collar jointed wall
Key
1 Header
2 Closer
3 Stretcher
4 Collar joint
(e) Quetta (reinforcement not shown)
Figure A.1 — Brick masonry bonds
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(a) Off centre running bond

(b) Running or stretcher bond
(C) Block on flat running bond (d) Hollow block
(e) Longitudinal hollow block
Key
1 Quoin block
Figure A.2 — Block masonry bonds
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Key
1 Jointing a Flush
2 Pointing b Struck or weathered
c Bucket handle (keyed)
d Recessed
Figure A.3 — Joint finishes
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Annex B
(informative)
Use of replacement wall ties

Use of replacement wall ties

When there are insufficient effective wall ties in a cavity wall, because of omission, lack of anchorage or
deterioration of the ties appropriate to the design of the wall, the use of replacement wall ties may be a
satisfactory alternative to rebuilding the wall. Before the use of replacement ties can be decided upon and
a particular tie selected, the following matters require investigation:
a) the cause of any deterioration or lack of anchorage of wall ties,
b) the cause of any omission of wall ties,
c) the extent of vertical support of the outer leaf of the wall,
d) the extent of cracking of the outer leaf of the wall,
e) the extent of outward or inward movement of the outer leaf of the wall,
f) the construction of the inner leaf of the wall and the structure supporting it,
g) the support of the outer leaf at openings,
h) the exposure of the wall.
If the amount of vertical support of the outer leaf is inadequate, or if the outer leaf has moved or cracked
appreciably, then rebuilding is necessary. Replacement wall ties do not provide vertical support to the
outer leaf, and cannot be used to reduce or eliminate movement which has occurred in the outer leaf.
Installation of replacement wall ties

Although some replacement ties can be installed from the inside face of a wall, the installation is usually
carried out from the outside face in order to avoid both restrictions of access when the building is
occupied, and obstructions presented by built-in fittings and structural members such as columns and
floors beams. Some types of replacement wall tie can only be installed from the outside face.
Satisfactory installation of replacement ties depends on an appropriate standard of workmanship. The

work is difficult to supervise or to check, and some replacement ties require higher standards of
workmanship than others. The standard of workmanship available and the means of access for carrying
out the work need to be considered when the choice of replacement tie is being made.
Types of replacement wall tie

There are two main types of replacement wall tie:
 grouted ties,
 mechanically fixed ties.
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Grouting is commonly used with proprietary resin, usually in cartridge form, especially for attachment of
the ties to the inner leaf of the wall. Grouting the ties to the outer leaf is usually done by injection with a
suitable gun, except when the ties are built into the joints of the external leaf.
Some types of grouted ties are installed by removing a single brick or block in the external leaf of the wall,
drilling the internal leaf, grouting the tie into the internal leaf and building the tie into the external leaf
when the brick or block is replaced, the outer end of the tie being of a shape similar to that or ordinary
wall ties.
The simplest type of grouted tie, consisting of a length of deformed bar, is installed by drilling both inner
and outer leaves, and grouting the bar into place. The bar is installed at a slight slope to prevent migration
of moisture to the inner leaf.
Mechanically fixed ties are bolts with expanding sleeves at each end of the bolt, both sleeves being
expanded simultaneously by tightening a nut on the outer end of the bolt with a special tool. The sleeves
are of metal expanded in a manner similar to that used in masonry fixing bolts, or are of plastics which is
expanded by axial compression.
Advantages and disadvantages affixing methods

The method of installation involving the removal of a brick or block in the external leaf of the wall has the
advantage that the relationship between the courses of the inner and outer leaves can be observed, and
adjustment of the replacement ties can therefore be made to ensure satisfactory anchorage in the inner
leaf. This method is only practicable when removal of a brick or block is feasible without damaging the
external leaf of the wall. The method also involves the most work and requires scaffolding. However, if
removal of existing corroded ties is required, which will involve the removal of bricks or blocks in the
external leaf, this method is particularly suitable.
Methods involving only the drilling of the inner and outer leaves to install the ties are relatively simple to
execute, and access by ladder or hydraulic hoist may be sufficient if no other work requiring scaffolding
needs to be carried out. However, the relationship between the courses of the inner and outer leaves
cannot be observed, so the security of the fixing to the inner leaf cannot be checked. This is of importance
with mechanically fixed replacement ties, since an expanded fixing close to the edge of a masonry unit
may rupture the unit and consequently be ineffective. Mechanically fixed replacement ties involve the
least amount of work to install, with minimal skill required.
Choice of replacement wall tie

The following matters will influence the choice of replacement tie:
a) The extent of remedial work required, including removal of corroded ties, provision of vertical
support at floor levels, remedial work to opes, repair of cracks, etc.,
b) means of access,
c) time available to execute the work,
d) movement characteristics required,
e) corrosion resistance required,
f) fire, sound, etc performance required,
g) nature of the masonry leaves (i.e. solid, perforated, hollow).
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Characteristics of replacement wall ties

Except for grouted ties installed by the brick or block removal technique, which are similar in shape and
cross section to standard ties, the characteristics of replacement wall ties are very different to those of
conventional wall ties. Most replacement ties are relatively stiff on both vertical and horizontal axes
because their cross-section is determined to suit the method of installation. Also, resin grouting into a
masonry unit is likely to provide a stiffer anchorage than embedment in a masonry joint. It may therefore
be difficult to select a replacement tie which will satisfy the movement characteristics of the wall if these
are substantial. There is little information on the long-term performance of replacement wall ties, since
they have only recently come into use.
There is also little information on the fire performance of replacement ties. Where substantial fire
resistance is required, consideration should be given to the effects of raised temperature on anchorages.
Some circumstances may require the use of replacement ties for which deterioration of the anchorages
is considered possible due to excessive stiffness, ageing or raised temperature. In such cases lateral
supports should be provided at such intervals as will prevent failure in the event of the replacement ties
becoming ineffective. Such supports may consist of angles, cramps or ties secured to the inner structure
at each floor level but not more than 3,5 m centres vertically.
Accommodation of relative movement

The leaves of a cavity wall are subject to continual relative movement during the life of the wall. Initial
movements which occur shortly after construction are not normally relevant when considering
replacement ties; however, it is important to allow for other reversible movements e.g. thermal, moisture
movements etc
The recommended maximum panel dimensions for which two typical types of replacement ties can be
used are given in Table B.1. Suitability of particular ties for use in panels whose dimensions are greater
than those given in Table B.1 should be checked, taking into account the particular conditions which arise
in each case.
Table B.1 — Replacement wall ties - selection of wall tie types

Relative movement Higha Lowb
category
Cavity width (mm)c 50 75 110 50 75 110
Recommended Panel Maximum panel dimension (m)
tie types direction
Metal rod up to Horizontal 15 15 15 15 15 15
6 mm Ø Vertical 12 12 12 12 12 12
Metal rod up to Horizontal 6 8 12 8 15 15
6 mm Ø Vertical 6 8 10 8 12 12
Metal tube Horizontal 3 4,5 6 6 8 12
≥ 12 mm Ø Vertical 3 4,5 6 6 8 12
a e.g. clay brick outer leaf, concrete inner leaf. Note that the recommendations for movement joint spacing may override
these values.
b e.g. concrete inner and outer leaves. Note that the recommendations for movement joint spacing may override these
values.
c For cavity widths that are intermediate between those given it is permissible to interpolate between the panel
dimensions provided.
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Spacing of replacement ties

The standards for the spacing of ordinary wall ties are determined by maximum wind conditions. Because
the installation of replacement wall ties is costly, the spacing of these should be determined by the actual
exposure of the building. Since replacement ties are usually stronger than ordinary ties, the spacing may
be determined by the wall design rather than by the strength of the tie, subject to proof of anchorage
performance. In a city environment a spacing of 900 mm × 900 mm may be satisfactory for replacement
wall ties, except at openings where a closer spacing is necessary.
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Annex C
!(informative)
Masonry units I.S. EN 771-1 to 6

General
This informative annex provides additional guidance on the use of masonry units, as specified in
I.S. EN 771-1 to 6, and sets out recommended minimum performance levels of masonry units intended
to be used in elements subject to structural requirements.
Traditionally clay masonry units and aggregate concrete masonry units are used in Ireland and hence the
guidance given is predominantly for those units. For additional guidance on all masonry units refer to
manufacturers' technical specification and I.S. EN 1996 series and national annexes.
Nothing in this annex should be construed as specifying requirements other than those contained in the
normative parts of the European Standard(s) for these products.
Dimensions
This annex does not limit the size or shape of masonry units. The Irish tradition has been to differentiate
blocks and bricks by face size. The current range of sizes commonly used in Ireland is detailed in Table C.1
and Table C.2. When ordering blocks or bricks it will be important to specify the size required in the order
of length, width (thickness) and height, which is at variance with previous Irish practice of length, height
and thickness (width). Table C.1 and Table C.2 show the unit sizes commonly supplied in Ireland but not
all manufacturers will produce all of the sizes listed.
Table C.1 — Dimensional sizes of blocks

Work size Width
Masonry unit Co-ordinating size mm
Length Height
mm mm 90 100 140 190 215
450 × 225 440 215 X X X
I.S. EN 771-3
400 × 200 390 190 X X X
Table C.2 — Dimensional size of bricks

Work size
Width
Masonry unit Co-ordinating size mm
Length Height
mm mm 90 100
I.S. EN 771-1 225 × 75 215 65 X
I.S. EN 771-3 300 × 100 290 90 X -

225 ×75 215 65 - X
200 × 100 190 90 X -
200 × 75 190 65 X -
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Dimensional tolerances
C.3.1 Aggregate concrete masonry units to I.S. EN 771-3
Class D1 is the most appropriate for common applications. The manufacturer is required to declare the
tolerance class, but there is also the opportunity to declare closer tolerances for one or more dimensions
than those given. Class D4 is intended for use with thin layer mortar (typically 3 mm joints).
Manufacturers supplying units specifically for use with thin layer mortar should check the deviation from
flatness of bed faces and deviation from plane parallelism of bed faces.
Compressive strength
Designs to I.S. EN 1996 series and national annexes require the normalised compressive strength of units
to be used in design calculations rather than the unit strength required by I.S. 325-1 (now superseded).
The normalised compressive strength of a unit is its strength adjusted to that of an equivalent 100 mm
wide by 100 mm high unit tested dry. Normalised compressive strengths of units require a shape factor
(based on height to width relationship) to be applied to establish a cube strength and are based on the
unit air dry strength. Normalised compressive strengths are a means of taking into account the range of
masonry unit shapes and moisture contents available for testing in Europe.
To obtain the normalised compressive strength from the declared unit strength to I.S. EN 771-1 to 6, a
correction for shape is applied. Shape factors are given in the compressive strength test method
(I.S. EN 772-1). The factors given in I.S. EN 772-1 generally require interpolation to establish the factors
for common masonry unit sizes. Where a manufacturer has not declared the normalised compressive
strength of the masonry unit, the following information should be provided;
 orientation(s) of the units as tested,
 method(s) of bedding the units,
 whether any voids present are intended to be fully filled with mortar,
 conditioning regime, and
 the surface preparation used.
This will allow for the normalised compressive strength to be calculated. It is recommended that
designers review the manufacturers Declaration of Performance for masonry units intended to be used
prior to incorporation into the construction works.
The recommended minimum declared mean compressive strengths for masonry units intended to be
used in elements subject to structural requirements in buildings in Ireland are given in Table C.3 and
Table C.4.
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Table C.3 — Recommended minimum declared mean compressive strength for clay brick units
to I.S. EN 771-1
Minimum declared mean compressive

Group Number
Category strength
(See NOTE 1)
fm (min) N/mm2
Group 1
1 and 2 9,0
(See NOTE 2)
Group 2
1 and 2 13,0
(See NOTE 2)
1 and 2 All others To be declared

NOTE 1 Refer to Table 3.1 in I.S. EN 1996-1-1:2005 for further information on the grouping of masonry units.
NOTE 2 Group 1 and Group 2 LD brick units are the types most commonly used in Ireland.
Table C.4 — Recommended minimum declared mean and normalised compressive strength for
aggregate concrete masonry units to I.S. EN 771-3
Minimum mean declared

Minimum declared normalised
Group Number (See NOTE 1) compressive strength
compressive strength
(Category 1 and 2) fm (min) N/mm2
fb (min) N/mm2
(Length × Width × Height)
Group 1 7,5
10,5
(See NOTE 2) (440 × 100 × 215 solid)
Group 2 4,5
5,8
(See NOTE 2) (440 × 215 × 215 cavity)
Group 4
─ 5,8
(See NOTE 2)
NOTE 1 Refer to Table 3.1 in I.S. EN 1996-1-1:2005 for further information on the grouping of masonry units.
NOTE 2 Group 1, Group 2 and Group 4 aggregate concrete masonry units are the types most commonly used in Ireland.
Durability
Refer to Table 14 for recommendations for durability of masonry units (clay and aggregate concrete)
used in different conditions and situations.
Moisture movement
For limits on drying shrinkage refer to Table NA.6, Values for the Final Creep Coefficient, Long Term
Moisture Expansion or Shrinkage, and Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for Masonry, of National Annex of
I.S. EN 1996-1-1. This is required when relevant, and in all cases for units intended for structural
applications. If a unit is put on the market with no indication of a limit on its use this property should be
declared."
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Annex D
!(informative)
Ancillary components for masonry

I.S. EN 845-1 to 3
Ties, tension straps, hangers and brackets to I.S. EN 845-1

D.1.1 General
This informative annex provides additional guidance on the use of ancillary components, as detailed in
I.S. EN 845-1 to 3, and sets out recommended minimum performance levels for specific intended uses of
ancillary masonry components in buildings.
Nothing in this annex should be interpreted as specifying requirements other than those contained in the
normative parts of the European Standard(s) for these products.
D.1.2 Durability
Refer to Table 2 for guidance on the selection of ancillary components in relation to material/coating
specification and situation. These have proven satisfactory for use in Irish conditions. Nevertheless, the
durability life of the wall tie should be no less than the design life of the construction in which it is being
used.
D.1.3 Fire resistance
Wall ties, tension straps, hangers and brackets can form a part of fire-resisting masonry elements but do
not themselves necessarily form fire-resisting components. I.S. EN 845-1 does not require a declaration
in respect of the resistance to fire of the individual ancillary products. Unless constructions have been
appropriately tested, ancillary components and fixings, which contain materials that soften or are
combustible at elevated temperatures, should be avoided in fire resisting elements. Wall ties that reduce
the fire resistance of the cavity wall should not be used.
D.1.4 Mechanical strength (See I.S. EN 845-1)

D.1.4.1 Wall ties
Recommended minimum declared mean load capacities for wall ties used in buildings in Ireland are
provided in Table D.1. Wall ties used in accordance with Table D.1 are suited for Irish conditions where
the peak velocity pressure does not exceed 1,1 kPa. Where cavity widths are greater than 150 mm or
dynamic pressure greater than 1,1 kPa specialist design is required and manufacturers' guidance should
be sought.
Table D.1 — Recommended minimum declared mean load capacity
Cavity width for which Number of ties per m2 Declared mean load Embedment length
tie is intended capacity mm
mm N
50 to 75 2,5 ± 1 780 50
>75 to <100 3,0 ± 1 490 50
100 to 150 4,9 ± 900 50
>150 Specialist design / see manufacturers' guidance
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The declared values of load capacity can be considered as characteristic strengths for use in design. The
design strength may be obtained by dividing the declared value of load capacity (characteristic strength)
by the appropriate material partial safety factor γM...For values of γM refer to Table NA.2 of National Annex
to I.S. EN 1996-1-1.
I.S. EN 845-1 specifies limits on displacement under load at one third of the declared value of load
capacity. Where a lower displacement value is required, a product with load capacity greater than
required for strength alone will need to be chosen.
D.1.4.2 Joist hangers to I.S. EN 845-1
Recommended minimum declared values of vertical load capacity for joist hangers for use in residential
construction to support solid timber joists of certain sizes are given in Table D.2.
Table D.2 — Recommended minimum values of vertical load capacity for joist hangers for use in
residential construciton to support solid timber joists of certain sizes
Minimum declared value of
Joist width Joist depth
vertical load capacity
mm mm
kN
38 175 2,8
38 225 3,7
50 175 3,2
50 225 4,1
63 150 2,9
63 225 4,4
75 150 3,1
75 225 4,7
Lintels to I.S. EN 845-2

D.2.1 Mechanical performance (See I.S. EN 845-2)
I.S. EN 845-2 requires mechanical performance to be declared in terms of the total uniformly distributed
loading that can be carried at ultimate failure based on tests for flexural and shear resistance, and
additionally on a serviceability deflection limitation for a lintel spanning the effective length (le) of the
opening. A mean value of load capacity has to be declared, but a characteristic value may also be declared,
as 0,9 times the mean value.
The declared value of loading can be considered as a characteristic strength for use in design. To apply
limit state principles, the numerical value given by dividing the characteristic strength by the material
partial safety factor, γm, should be equal to or greater than the numerical value given by multiplying the
characteristic loads on the system by the partial safety factor for loading, γf. Conventionally in Irish
practice, safe load tables have been used for lintel design and these can be derived by dividing the
declared mean value of lintel load-bearing capacity by the effective global safety factor (γm x γf ) as given
in Table D.3. where γm is the material partial factor and γf is the partial factor for loads.
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Table D.3 — Values of γm x γf for use in preparation of safe load tables

Lintel Type γm × γf
Concrete 2,25
Steel 1,6
I.S. EN 845-2 allows a manufacturer to declare a flexural load at a stated maximum value of deflection not
exceeding 1/200 of the effective span. For serviceability, and in the derivation of safe load tables for use
in Ireland, the numerical value of flexural load corresponds to 1/325 of the effective span or to a lesser
deflection, where required. Consequently, the declared value of flexural load may need to be adjusted by
linear interpolation, in accordance with the formula given in I.S. EN 845-2:2003, 5.3.1.4.
D.2.2 Durability
durability life of lintels should be no less than the design life of the construction in which they are being
used. Refer to exposure conditions in I.S. EN 1996-2.
Bed joint reinforcement of steel meshwork to I.S. EN 845-3

D.3.1 Durability
durability life of lintels should be no less than the design life of the construction in which they are being
used. Refer to exposure conditions in I.S. EN 1996-2."
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Annex E
!(informative)
Specification for mortar for masonry

I.S. EN 998-1 and 2
Rendering and plastering mortar (I.S. EN 998-1)

E.1.1 Exclusion of moisture
For specific guidance on exclusion of moisture refer to 5.5.

Masonry mortar (I.S. EN 998-2)

E.2.1 Compressive strength
The compressive strength should be designed or as per Table NA.3 of National Annex to
I.S. EN 1996-1-1:2005.
E.2.2 Durability
Refer to Table 14 for durability of masonry in finished construction."
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Annex F
#(informative)
National guidance to I.S. EN 13914-1:2016

Scope (Clause 1.0 Footnote 1)

The final paragraph of Clause 1 of I.S. EN 13914-1:2016 permits individual countries to provide further
appropriate guidance to complement this standard in order for it to be usable to practitioners in each
country. This is indicated by footnotes throughout the text, which cross-refer to this the final paragraph
of Clause 1.
The NSAI Masonry Panel has identified the issues that it considers necessary to give advice on regarding
the application of I.S. EN 13914-1:2016. Where no specific guidance is considered necessary, the term
"No further guidance" is used.
Mineral Binders (5.2.1 Table 3 [Footnote a])

Renders with mineral binders should conform to I.S. EN 998-1. I.S. EN 13914-1:2016 permits a range of
mineral binder types for use in rendering mortars. Table 1 of I.S. EN 13914-1:2016 outlines types of
mineral binders permitted for use, and application examples of each.
I.S. EN 197-1:2011 permits a greater range of cement types to be used than traditionally used. Many of
these newly permitted cements have very different characteristics (e.g. rate of gain of strength) than the
cements traditionally used in Ireland. Therefore, users are advised to exercise great care when using a
newly permitted cement type that they are not familiar with. Attention is drawn to the note in Table 3,
which warns that “Not all types of binders and/or all possible combinations of binders are compatible
and suitable for each and every application”.
NOTE Under 5.2.2, I.S. EN 13139 should be read in conjunction with the latest version of S.R. 18, Guidance on
the use of I.S. EN 13139 - Aggregates for mortar.
Materials for reinforcement, carrier and beads (5.4 Table 4 [Footnote a])
There are differences between I.S. EN ISO 1461 and I.S. EN 10346, two of the standards cited in the
normative references (Clause 2) as material specifications for compliance for the coating of metal
accessories. I.S. EN ISO 1461 relates to hot dip galvanizing that takes place after the metal object is
formed, whereas I.S. EN 10346:2015 (Clauses 5.4 and 5.6 and Tables 4 and 5) relates to the zinc coating
being applied to the sheet or strip before the object has been shaped, also see F.9.
Plugs and anchors (5.5.2 [Footnote 2])

No further guidance.
Choice of render type, mix, number of coats and thickness (6.2.1 [Footnote
2])
See F.7 and F.13.
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Strength of background (6.3.2 [Footnote 3])

Exposure conditions (6.6 [Footnote 4])

Rendering is affected to a greater or lesser degree by the combined action of freeze thaw cycles, wind,
sun and rain, and their effects will depend to some extent upon the degree of exposure. Altitude, locality
and environment will have a bearing on the severity of freeze thaw action.
Rendering substantially enhances the rain resistance of single leaf and cavity walls, however, the
durability of the render will depend on the correct choice of mix, thickness and number of coats and the
correct detailing.
Clause 5.5.2 of S.R. 325 provides guidance on simple exposure categories.
Resistance to water rising from the ground without pressure (capillary

water) (6.8 [Footnote 5])
Corrosion of metals (6.13 [Footnote 6])

In Ireland, the use of stainless steel for metal components is preferred.
Movement of the rendering (6.14.3 [Footnote 7])

Methods of minimizing the occurrence of cracks (6.14.5.1 [Footnote 8])

Site made prescribed mixes (6.17.2.2 [Footnotes 9 & 10])

F.12.1 General
The compositions of mix designations I to V are given in Table F.1. Mixes recommended for use in
different combinations of circumstances are given in Table F.2 and Table F.3. The mix for each successive
coat should never be richer in cement than the mix used for the coat to which it is applied. Generally,
successive render coats specified as being no stronger than the previous coats or background except in
the case of thermal insulating, strong roughcast and lightweight renders. Successive coats should be no
thicker than the previous coat.
F.12.2 Designation I mixes
Designation I mixes produce strong, relatively impervious renderings with high drying shrinkage and
consequently high susceptibility to cracking. Their use should be restricted to strong backgrounds such
as first coats on metal lathing and abrasion-resistant applications such as plinths.
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F.12.3 Designations II, III and IV mixes
Designations II, III and IV mixes are likely to provide satisfactory results in most types of rendered finish
and under most conditions. They are more permeable than designation I mixes and have a lower drying
shrinkage. Their strength is adequate for the conditions laid down in Table F.2 and Table F.3
Mix designations III, and IV in particular, are less liable to cracking and crazing. The mixes lower in
cement content may not be sufficiently hard to deter vandals or to withstand severe abrasion.
F.12.4 Designation V mixes
Designation V mixes are suitable for weak backgrounds in sheltered locations and for remedial work to
weak lime-based renderings.
Table F.1 — Prescribed Mixes suitable for rendering

Mix proportions by volume based on damp sand
Cement:ready-mixed lime:sanda
Mix Class Cement:sanda Masonry
Cement:lime:sanda Ready-mixed Cement:ready-mixed
(using plasticizer) cement:sanda
lime:sand material
I 1:¼:3 1 : 12 1:3 — —
II 1 : ½ : 4 to 4½ 1:9 1 : 4 to 4½ 1 : 3 to 4 1 : 2½ to 3½
III 1: 1 : 5 to 6 1:6 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 4 to 5
IV 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 1 : 4½ 1 : 8 to 9 1 : 7 to 8 1 : 5½ to 6½
V 1 : 3 : 10 to 12 1:4 1 : 10 to 12 — —
NOTE In special circumstances, e.g. where soluble salts in the background are likely to cause problems, mixes
based on sulphate-resisting Portland cement should be employed.
a With fine or poorly graded sands, the lower volume of sand should be used.
Recommended thicknesses for various types of multicoat systems

F.13.1 Factory made, semi-finished and established site mixed rendering mortars
Factory made, semi-finished, and established site mixed rendering mortars shall be applied in accordance
with I.S. EN 13914:2016 and specifically Table 7. Prescribed rendering mortars mixes and coat
thicknesses are outlined in Table F.2 and F.3. Mix properties of designed rendering mortars are outlined
in Table 1 and Table 2 of I.S. EN 998-1:2016. For the recommended choice of designed rendering mortars
and subsequent coat thicknesses refer to section 6.2.1 of I.S. EN 13914-1:2016.
Historic data or third party certification of factory made render systems should be sought to ensure that
they are fit for the use for which they are intended and for the conditions in which they are to be used.
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Table F.2 — Prescribed Mixes suitable for rendering

First undercoat Second undercoata Final coat
(see 6.18.4) (see 6.18.4) (see 6.18.5 and Note 2)
Mix
Background /Designation /Designation proportions by
Thickness Thickness
(see Table (see Table Type volumeb or

(mm) (mm) designation
F.1) F.1)
(see Table F.1)
Roughcast 1 : ½ : 3 : 1½
Strong to
II 8 to 12 II 6 to 10 Buttercoat for drydash
Moderate
II
Tyrolean
Roughcast 1 : ½ : 3 : 1½
Metal lathing I 3 to 6c II 10 to 14 Buttercoat for drydash
II
Tyrolean
Moderate to Buttercoat for drydash

III 8 to 12 III 6 to 10 II/III
weak Tyrolean
NOTE 1 The nominal overall thickness (excluding texture) is not normally less than 20 mm.
NOTE 2 For severe exposure, it is preferred that the finish coat be thrown, or rough textured.
NOTE 3 For full fill cavity applications refer to clause 5.3.3.2.9.
a For severe exposure, the use of two undercoats is preferred
b Cement:lime:sand:coarse aggregate
c Render thickness given is from the outer face of the lath
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Table F.3 —Moderate and sheltered exposure: recommended rendering specifications
Undercoata Final coat

(See 6.18.4) (See 6.18.5)
Background Classification/Mix
Designation
proportions by volumeb
(see Table Thickness Finish Thickness Type or designation
F.1)
(see Table F.1)
- Roughcast 1:1:3:2
Thrown/ Buttercoat for
II 8 to 12 7 to 10 III
Applied drydash
- Tyrolean II
Strong to
8 to 10 Wooden Float
moderate
Trowel 10 (after
III 8 to 12 Scraped/ Patterned IV
applied scraping)
8 to 10 Tooled
III 10 to 15 1 to 5
- Roughcast 1:1:3:2
Buttercoat for
III 8 to 12 Thrown 7 to 10 III
drydash
- Tyrolean II
Moderate to 8 to 10 Wooden Float
weak
Trowel 10 (after Scraped/
IV 8 to 12 IV
applied scraping) Patterned
8 to 10 Tooled
III 10 to 15 1 to 5
Weak
Trowel
(in sheltered IV or V 8 to 12 8 to 10 Wooden Float V
applied
positions only)
NOTE The nominal overall thickness (excluding texture) is not normally less than 20 mm,
a for severe exposure, the use of two undercoats may be required
b Cement:Lime:Sand:Coarse aggregates
Renovation render (R) (6.18.6.4 [Footnote 11])

Minimum applied coat thickness for one coat mineral renders (Table 8
[Footnote a])
Single-layer factory made water-resisting render should have third party certification to ensure that they
are fit for the use for which they are intended and for the conditions in which they are to be used and
have an average thickness of 15 mm, minimum thickness of 10 mm.
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Scaffolding (7.3 [Footnote 12])

Reinforcement (7.5.2.5 [Footnote 13])

In Ireland, the use of stainless steel for metal components is preferred.
Lathing over timber-framed construction (7.5.2.6 [Footnote 13])

Special rendering methods, using factory made renders, over thermal

insulation or backgrounds that may move (7.5.2.7 [Footnote 13])
Volume batching (7.6.3 [Footnote 14])

See F.12.
Mixing on site (7.7 and 7.7.1 [Footnote 15])

Curing (7.9.2 [Footnote 15])

Thermal insulating renders (7.9.4 [Footnote 16])

Example on the selection of site mixed prescribed renders mixed in

accordance with background type (Annex A (informative) [Footnote 17])
Restoration of renders on old and historic buildings (Annex B (informative)

[Footnote 18])
Air lime based renders (B.4.6 [Footnote 19])

121
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Act 1996 to publish Irish Standards.
Revisions
NSAI Publications are updated by amendment ot revisions from time to time. Users of
Publications should make sure they possess the latest versions.
Buying Standards
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Recommendations for the design of masonry structures in

ICS number(s): See ISO/IEC cover or back page

Údaras um Chaighdeain Naisiúnta na hÉireann

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3.2 Joint type terms ............................................................................................................................... 11

5.3.4 Support over openings .................................................................................................................. 29

5.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................... 43

5.5.5 Positioning of DPC's ........................................................................................................................ 58

6.3.12 Slips ..................................................................................................................................................... 90

6.4.5 Corbelling .......................................................................................................................................... 94

6.6.2 Protection against rain .................................................................................................................. 99

D.1.2 Durability........................................................................................................................................ 112

Bed joint reinforcement of steel meshwork to I.S. EN 845-3 .......................................... 114

E.2.2 Durability........................................................................................................................................ 115

It is intended that this Standard Recommendation will provide non-contradictory complementary

unreinforced masonry structures;

Amendments are indicated by the TAG !"

Amendment 2 is indicated by the TAGs #$

#Annex F provides additional information on I.S. EN 13914-1:2016. $

I.S. 65, Mastic asphalt for buildings

I.S. EN 12620, Aggregates for concrete

I.S. EN 13139, Aggregates for mortar

S.R. 18 Guidance on the use of I.S. EN 13139, Aggregates for mortar

I.S. EN 14411, Ceramic tiles – Definitions, classification, characterisation and marking

I.S. EN 1997-1, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design – Part 1: General rules

I.S. EN 206-1, Concrete – Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity

BS 6213, Selection of construction sealants – Guide

BS 6510, Steel framed windows and glazed doors

BS 8000–3, Workmanship on building sites – Part 3: Code of practice for masonry

3 Terms and definitions

3.1 General terms

3.2 Joint type terms

mortar layer upon which masonry units are set

movement joint (Control joint)

3.3 Masonry joints type terms

3.4 Mortar bedding terms

3.5 Support types terms

3.6 Wall types terms

double-leaf (collar-jointed) wall

4 Materials and components

4.2 Masonry units

Table 1 — Masonry Units

Masonry Unit Standard

Clay I.S. EN 771-1

Calcium silicate I.S. EN 771-2

Aggregate concrete (dense and lightweight aggregate) I.S. EN 771-3

Autoclaved aerated concrete I.S. EN 771-4

Manufactured stone I.S. EN 771-5

Natural stone I.S. EN 771-6

4.4 Wall ties

4.5 Ancillary components

Figure 2 — Joist hanger as tie: Nailed form

Figure 3 — Joist hanger as tie: Bolted form

Table 2 — Selection of ancillary components in relation to material/coating specification and situation

Situation in buildings up to three storeys in a

(For other buildings see Notes 1 and 2)

Key to product types

(Blank) Components with this material/coating reference are not specified

4.7 Damp–proof courses

Table 3 — Damp-proof courses