Emergent Materials

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-021-00292-5

REVIEW

Sustainable synthesis of silver nanoparticles using various biological

sources and waste materials: a review
Deepak Sharma1 · Sehaj Singh Gulati1 · Nitish Sharma2 · Abhishek Chaudhary1 

Received: 25 June 2021 / Accepted: 21 August 2021

© Qatar University and Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract
Recently, with the developments in the field of nanotechnology, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have become one of the most
fascinated nanoparticles by virtue of their multifarious applications in wide array of disciplines. AgNPs hold unique physical,
chemical, and biological properties which determine their suitability in these applications. The synthesis of AgNPs using the
principles of green chemistry in contrast to other methods is not only eco-friendly and cost-effective, but the nanoparticles
thus formed are also biocompatible. AgNPs produced by such means express certain unique characteristics which allow
them to be used as antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer agents. Moreover, natural catalytic action for degra-
dation of pollutants, usefulness in treatment of diabetes-related complications, and wound healing properties make AgNPs
even more valuable. A lot of work has been done on AgNPs in the past, hence a comprehensive review article will be more
beneficial for the readers and futuristic work. Therefore, the present review article is aimed to provide a detailed study of
various biological methodologies employed in synthesis of AgNPs, their characteristics, and applications in various fields.

Keywords  Silver nanoparticles · Green synthesis · Antimicrobial activity · Biomolecules · Sustainable development

1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is one of the fastest growing fields of sci-
ence which creates abundant opportunities for industries.
The discipline can be defined as the creation and use of
nano-sized particles (1–100 nm) for multiple application as
a virtue of unique properties [1]. Materials at nano-scale
behave differently and acquire very high surface area to vol-
ume ratio, which leads to both physical and chemical differ-
ences in their properties (e.g. electrical, optical, mechanical,
and magnetic properties) as compared to the bulk counter-
part [2]. These distinct and unique properties of material
at the nano-scale enables them as potential candidate for
various applications such as sensors [3], imaging [4], drug
delivery [5], conformational studies of biomolecule [6],
* Abhishek Chaudhary
abhishek.chaudhary@juit.ac.in; abhishekcbt@gmail.com
1
Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Jaypee
University of Information Technology, Waknaghat, Solan,
India
2
Center of Innovative and Applied Bioprocessing (A
National Institute under the Department of Biotechnology,
Govt. of India), S.A.S. Nagar, Mohali Punjab, India
cosmetics [7], food [8], feed [9], mechanics [10], electronics
[11], energy devices [12], and medicinal applications [13].
Nanoparticles from noble metal like gold, platinum,
palladium, copper, and silver have gained significant atten-
tion for their broad spectrum of applications, but silver is
remarkably ahead of others due to its exclusive set of prop-
erties. Silver is known for its strong antibacterial effects
from centuries and has been utilized for prevention and to
inhibit deadly infections [14]. Silver have the potential to
kill around 650 disease causing pathogenic microorgan-
isms [15]. In addition to elemental silver, the nano forms
of silver are also receiving huge attention due to their anti-
bacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities, as well as
their high conductivity, catalytic activity, and chemical
stability [16, 17]. Other metals such as copper (Cu), gold
(Au), iron (Fe), titanium (Ti), and zinc (Zn) also possess
antimicrobial activity but silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)
have several advantages over the other metals like small
loss of the optical frequency during the surface-plasmon
propagation, high electrical and thermal conductivity,
thermal stability, low cost compared to gold and platinum,
higher chemical stability, and catalytic activity making
them more desirable [18–23]. Furthermore, AgNPs are
extensively used in cryogenic super-conducting material,

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cosmetic products, food industries, electronic component,
and in biomedical applications such as wound dressing and
topical creams [24–28].
Beneficial effects of nanomaterials are highly influenced
by the methodologies and materials used for their synthesis.
Nowadays, different methodologies are available for the syn-
thesis of metal nanoparticles are photochemical [1], green
[29], electrochemical [30], chemical [31], and physical [32].
However, selection of synthesis approach primarily relies on
parameters like cost, instrumentation facility, potential risks,
and applications, even though most of demands are fulfilled
by the physical and chemical synthesis methods [33] but
the environmental issues and operational risks associated
with them are higher. Moreover, nanoparticles synthesized
through chemical routes are not safe every time because
of the hazardous chemicals involved in the synthesis pro-
cess [34] and can enter into humans through hand to mouth
contact, breathing, and skin contacts. The inhaled chemi-
cal fumes can cause lung inflammation and heart problems.
Skin contact with these chemicals can cause skin rashes and
burns. In case the chemicals come in contact with a person’s
eyes, it can affect vision adversely [35, 36].
The green routes to synthesize nanoparticles could be
a sustainable alternative for the planet in mitigating the
hazardous effects of various chemicals and solvents used
in the traditional synthesis strategies [37]. The utilization
of biological sources for synthesis of nanomaterials is
known as green synthesis which is emerging as a potential
alternative to the costly and hazardous chemical processes
[38–40]. Green synthesis route utilizes biological sources
including microbes (fungi, algae, and bacteria) lichens, and
plant extracts for metal nanoparticles synthesis [20, 41, 42].
Furthermore, the waste generated from food, agriculture,
wood industry, and pharmaceutical industries can be utilized
for sustainable production of nanoparticles [43–45]. These
wastes are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, fla-
vonoids, polyphenols, and carotenoids that can be effectively
utilized for the reduction of metal ions [46–53]. Therefore,
the purpose of current review article is to sensitize scien-
tific community with existing information on green routes
of AgNP synthesis and to open new perspectives for the sus-
tainable development. The mechanisms of AgNP synthesis
through various biological routes have also been described
in the current review article. Furthermore, this review article
will also provide a comparative information on various bio-
logically produced AgNPs, their characteristics, and appli-
cability. Additionally, information about the progressive path
travelled by AgNPs to in vivo and clinical stage trials have
also been included in the current review.
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Emergent Materials
2 History of nanotechnology and AgNPs
The origin of nanotechnology can be traced back to 1800
AD, when Michael Faraday for the first time reported the
formation of metal nanoparticles. However, he did not
use the term nanoparticle or colloidal solution. Instead,
he called it “activated gold” [54]. He explained his work
at Royal Society of London and said, “gold reduced in
exceedingly fine particles, which becoming diffused, pro-
duce a ruby red fluid, the various preparations of gold,
whether, ruby, green, violet or blue consist of that sub-
stance in a metallic divided state” [54]. He reduced the
metallic gold with phosphorus salt and demonstrated the
phenomena of scattering of light by colloidal gold called
Tyndall effect. After Faraday’s first scientific proof on gold
nanoparticles synthesis, in the 1940s, silica nanoparticles
were synthesized and marketed in USA and Germany as
a substitute of carbon black to reinforce rubber [55]. In
the year 1959, in a future visionary lecture, Feynman said
“there is plenty of room at the bottom” in context to the
hidden potential of dimensionally small matter. He also
states that “The principles of physics, as far as I can see,
do not speak against the possibility of manoeuvring things
atom by atom” [56]. But at that time, his words were not
appreciated and were considered as conceptual and sci-
ence fiction.
The scientific history of AgNPs began over 120 years
ago. It started in 1889 when the synthesis of a citrate sta-
bilized silver colloid was reported [57]. The stabilization
of AgNPs using proteins has also been reported in 1902
[55]. However, the commercial manufacturing started in
1897 under the name “Collargol” for medical applications
[58]. After that, gelatin-stabilized AgNPs production was
reported in 1953 [59]. Since then, lots of scientific studies
have been conducted testing the application of AgNPs for
various purposes.
3 Methods of nanoparticle synthesis
In general, nanoparticle synthesis can be accomplished
by two major approaches viz. top down and bottom up
(Fig.  1). In the top-down approach, larger particles
mechanically break into smaller nano-scale particle.
This approach involves physical breaking of large par-
ticles through high energy process and mainly used in
microelectronic industries to create electronic feature on
the surface of silicon wafers [60]. Mechanical milling,
laser ablation, lithography, and ion sputtering are some
of the most widely used top-down methods. Advantages
of top-down methods include that these are operationally
Emergent Materials
Fig. 1  Various physical and
chemical methods of AgNPs
simple and can produce nanoparticles in bulk. Bottom-up
approach of metal nanoparticle synthesis involves assem-
bly of ions or basic unit into nano particles. Reduction of
metal ion using a suitable agent is the key to this approach.
The biggest advantage of bottom-up approach is that thus
produced nanostructures possess less defects and have
more homogenous chemical composition. A wide range
of chemical and biological reducing agents have been used
for the reduction of metal ions to metal nanoparticles. Bot-
tom-up approach of synthesis can be further categorized
into chemical and green synthesis. Both these approaches
include three major components viz. metal ion source, a
reducing agent, and a capping agent [61, 62]. Chemical
synthesis utilizes a range of chemicals for the reduction
of silver salts into AgNPs viz. sodium borohydride, triso-
dium citrate dihydrate, hydroxylamine hydrochloride, N,N
dimethylformamide (DMF), and polymeric compound
such as polymethylmethacrylate, poly(vinylpyrrolidone),
and polyoxometalate [63–68]. There is also wide range of
chemicals that can be used as capping agents to stabilize
AgNPs. Trisodium citrate, hydrazine sulphate, chalcone
carboxylic acid, sodium 3-mercapto1-propanesulfonate,
methyl cellulose, riboflavin, citrate/l-cysteine, cyclodex-
trin, thiol terminated chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol, gluco-
nate, polyethyleneimine, thioglycolic acid, citrate + hexa-
peptide, cyclen dithiocarbamate, poly(vinylpyrrolidone),
glycolaldeyde, cetyltr imet hylammoniumclor ide,
polyaniline, hexamine, and maltol, rhodamine B isothio-
cyanate or fluorescein isothiocyanate, and lauryl sulfobe-
taine are some of the reported capping agents employed
to stabilize AgNPs [69–80]. However, most of the chemi-
cals (sodium borohydride, potassium bitartrate, methoxy-
polyethylene glycol, and hydrazine) and solvents (sodium
dodecyl benzyl sulphate and polyvinyl pyrrolidone) used
in chemical synthesis are toxic [81, 82] and also lead to
the generation of toxic by-products like iminodiacetic
acid [HN(CH2COOH)2] [83]. Most of market demands of
metal nanoparticles are fulfilled by chemical synthesis,
but at the same time, environmental and human health
risks are also associated with use of such methods. The
inappropriate disposal of these toxic substances is also
a big issue to deal with [84]. The disposal of these waste
chemicals firstly requires a categorization. The innocuous
aqueous waste like sodium chloride solution can be poured
into sink directly, while dilute acids, alkali, and harmless
inorganic salt solutions can be disposed with excess of
water. However, solutions having toxic compounds should
be collected separately. The solutions having metals like
mercury can be subjected to recycling. In contrast to the
above-mentioned substances, the red list chemicals (tran-
sitional metals, cyanides, hydrocarbons, nitrites, fluorides
etc.) should never be washed down [85–87]. Furthermore,
the waste solvents can be separated into chlorinated and
non-chlorinated categories. The chlorinated waste solvents
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can be incinerated at high temperature while non-chlorin-
ated solvents can be burned to recover energy [88]. The
disadvantages and constraints of chemical methods have
led scientists to explore alternative methods of synthesis.
Green synthesis approach is much fascinated in current
scenario as it overcomes most of the shortcomings associ-
ated with traditional methodologies.
4 Green synthesis of AgNPs
Green approach of AgNP synthesis generally utilizes bac-
teria, algae, fungi, or plant extracts as reducing and cap-
ping agents. Most synthesis processes have multiple steps
(synthesis, stabilization, and functionalization) (Fig. 2).
Multistep synthesis requires separate reagents in each of
the steps (reducing agent, stabilizing agent, and functional
reagent). However, single-step reactions also exist that offers
some advantages. Firstly, it shortens the synthesis process;
secondly, it reduces number of reagents required in the syn-
thesis (Fig. 2) [89, 90]. Plant or plant-based materials are
more suitable for large-scale production of safe, eco-friendly
nanoparticles [91, 92]. But plant sources are depleting on
an alarming speed; therefore, technically, these should not
be the primary source of materials for nanoparticle synthe-
sis. Alternatively, bacteria and fungi could be the excellent
candidates for synthesizing nanoparticles [93, 94]. Employ-
ing microbial sources for synthesis requires highly aseptic
conditions and skilled personals for isolation procedures,
microbial growth analysis, and culture maintenance. Fur-
thermore, wastes especially kitchen and agriculture-based
waste materials could also be a good choice for synthesis
Fig. 2  Comparison between
green synthesis and other syn-
thesis methods
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Emergent Materials
purpose as these wastes are quite rich in primary and sec-
ondary metabolites (sugars, polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenes
etc.). The biomolecules from these wastes have significant
potential (reduction and stabilization) to produce metal
nanoparticles [84, 95].
Prior studies have shown that green synthesized AgNPs
also possess better biocompatibility as compare to those
synthesized through physical and chemical methods
[96–99]. Bone stem cells of mice were observed to have
approximately 50% more viability when treated with AgNPs
(0.1 mg/l) synthesized with Nigella sativa leaf extract in
comparison with chemically synthesized AgNPs after 24 h
of exposure [100]. However, this biocompatibility varies
with change in species of biological source used in the syn-
thesis process [89]. The biological activities of AgNPs and
other metal nanoparticles are greatly influence various fac-
tors. These factors include size distribution, morphology,
surface charge, surface chemistry, capping agents, concen-
tration of metal salt, pH, temperature, and time. Light is
also a crucial factor in photogenic synthesis of AgNPs [90,
101–103]. Conclusively, we can say that every biological
source has its own benefits and limitations. However, the
selection of one amongst all will rely on the probabilistic
applications for which they are being developed. In the sub-
sequent sections, we will discuss potent biological sources
employed in the AgNP synthesis (Fig. 3).
Despite of fact that AgNPs exhibit wide range of use-
ful activities, the adverse effects of AgNPs on humans and
environment cannot be ignored [104–106]. Although the
long historical use of silver has not shown obvious adverse
effects, there is concern about the potential risks of AgNPs
in the environment. Hence, AgNPs can be toxic to humans
Emergent Materials
Fig. 3  Schematic representa-
tion of biological approach of
AgNPs
and other life forms (aquatic and non-aquatic both). Com-
pared to chemically synthesized AgNPs, green synthesized
AgNPs believed to be non-toxic based on toxicity data on
in vivo cell line studies. The literature suggested that the
fate and toxicity of AgNPs are determined by the types of
coating on their surface [107, 108]. There are several pro-
posed mechanisms on the toxicity of AgNPs, but a univer-
sally accepted conclusion is still lacking [109]. Hence, an
important question here whether the toxicity of AgNPs is
­ g+ still remains
from the nanoparticles or it is related to A
unanswered. Therefore, authors believes that further effort
should be made to try to discern the toxicity of AgNPs and
silver ions.
4.1 Microbial mediated AgNP synthesis
Green synthesis of nanoparticles using bacteria has emerged
as a rapidly growing branch of nanotechnology. In the recent
past, large numbers of bacterial species have been used in
the green synthesis of nanoparticles (Ag, Au, Pd, Pt, CdS
etc.) [33]. AgNPs of various shapes and sizes can be pro-
duced from bacterial sources. AgNPs in the form of equi-
laterals, triangles, and hexagons having size up to 200 nm
has been produced from Pseudomonas stutzeri AG259
[110]. Moreover, Lactobacillus sp. in buttermilk has been
documented by Nair and Pradeep (2002) to produce gold,
silver, and gold-silver alloy particles of 20–50 nm in size
possessing hexagonal and triangular shapes. Likewise, the
supernatants of Klebsiella pneumonia, Escherichia coli, and
Enterobacter cloacae have been successfully employed to
reduce ­Ag+ to A­ g0 to produce AgNPs. The resultant AgNPs
were 28.2 nm to 122 nm in size. There are many other exam-
ples where silver ions have been reduced by bacteria to pro-
duce morphologically diverse AgNPs listed in Table 1. The
antimicrobial activity of these AgNPs is very much depend-
ent on its size and morphology. The possible reasons for
this could be that diverse morphologies provide different
amounts of surface area to interact with microbes. Thus,
these interactions result in different level of antibacterial
efficacy [112–117]. The differential biological activities of
AgNPs on microorganisms due to variations in shape, size,
and geometry can be studied by methods like disc or well
diffusion assay and broth microdilution assay. However, the
damaging effects of shape, size, and geometry on organisms
can be traced by techniques like scanning electron micros-
copy and transmission electron microscopy [112, 118, 119].
Intracellular synthesis of nanoparticles is a multistep pro-
cess and involves steps like cell membrane disruption by
ultrasound treatment or treatment with suitable detergents
to release the synthesized nanoparticles. Moreover, down
streaming involves many treatments to remove impurities
[120]. Contrary, extracellular process is achieved by utiliz-
ing the cell biomass or culture supernatant [121, 122]. At the
same time, extracellular biosynthesis is comparatively cheap
and have simpler downstream processing. Hence, extracel-
lular synthesis of nanoparticles is suitable for large-scale
production of AgNPs [123]. Bacteria can produce AgNPs by
number of mechanisms like absorbing the ions, ion adsorp-
tion on their surface, and secreting enzymes, proteins, and
other reducing moieties in the surrounding medium [124].
Generally, majority of metal ions are noxious to bacterial
cells and the reduction of metal ions to nanoparticles is a
defence mechanism adopted by the bacteria to overcome the
toxic effect of metal ions. One of the mechanisms of AgNP
synthesis is the reduction of silver nitrate by enzyme reduc-
tase [125]. Additionally, various cofactors and enzymes have
been known to be involved in the electron shuttle system
which interacts with silver ions and reduces silver ions ­(Ag+)
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 Emergent Materials

Table 1  Examples of bacterial synthesized AgNPs and their characteristics

Bacteria Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Pseudomonas stutzeri AG259 200 Eqilateral triangles and hexagones Thin films and surface coating technolo- [110]
gies
Bacillus subtilis 5–50 Spherical and triangular – [126]
Brevibacterium casei 10–50 Spherical Anticoagulant [127]
Streptomyces hygroscopicus 20–30 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [128]
Geobacillus stearothermophilus 5–35 Spherical – [129]
Escherichia coli (S30, S78), Bacillus 15–50 Spherical – [130]
megaterium (S52), Acinetobacter sp.
(S7), and Stenotrophomonas malt-
ophilia (S54)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa 13 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [131]
Pseudomonas antarctica, Pseudomonas 6–13 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [132]
proteolytica, Pseudomonas meridiana,
Arthrobacterkerguelensis, Arthrobac-
ter gangotriensis, Bacillus indicus, and
Bacillus cecembensis
Morganella morganii RP42 10–50 Quasispherical – [133]
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens 14.6 Circular and triangular Antimicrobial activity [134]
Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 8–12 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [121]
Acinetobacter calcoaceticus 4–40 Spherical Biofilm disruption [135]
Bacillus flexus 12 and 65 Spherical and triangular Antimicrobial activity [136]
Bacillus stearothermophilus 9.96–22.7 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [137]
Escherichia coli – – Antimicrobial activity [138]
Pseudomonas putida NCIM 2650 70 – – [139]
Bacillus strain CS 11 42–92 Spherical – [123]
Rhodhococcus sp. 10–15 Spherical Antimicrobial and catalysis [140]
Bacillus safensis LAU 13 5–30 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [141]
Delftia sp. strain KCM-006 9.8 Spherical Antifungal activity [142]
Nocardiopsi svalliformis OT1 5–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [143]
Lactobacillus lactis KC117496 35 Spherical Catalytic activity [144]
Bacillus brevis (NCIM 2533) 41–68 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [145]
Bacillus cereus 10 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [146]
Pseudomonas rhodesiae 20–100 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [147]
Escherichia coli, Exiguobacterium 5–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [148]
aurantiacumm, and Brevundimonas
diminuta
Lactobacillus reuteri E81 50 Spherical Antimicrobial and antifungal activities [149]

to silver nuclei ­(Ag0). These silver nuclei further grow and
form stable AgNPs [124]. The mechanisms of nanoparticle
synthesis by bacteria have been shown in Fig. 4a.
4.2 Fungal mediated AgNP synthesis
Members of kingdom fungi are another budding candidate
to synthesize metal nanoparticles. Fungi can be used to
synthesize large quantity of nanoparticles because of their
ability to secrete huge amount of enzymes and other metabo-
lites [150]. Dead biomass and culture filtrates of fungi can
also be utilized for nanoparticles synthesis [151] and hence
synthesis can be both intracellular and extracellular. Fungi
also have been used for the synthesis of wide range of metal
nanoparticles with different size and shape; but in this sec-
tion, we will mainly discuss about AgNPs. The examples of
AgNPs synthesizing fungi with their shape, size, and appli-
cations has been briefly described in Table 2.
There are various proposed mechanisms of AgNP syn-
thesis by fungi, but exact mechanism is still a mystery
(Table 3). However, according to Mukherjee et al. [152],
AgNP synthesis involves two main steps: the very first step
includes the entrapment of A­ g+ on the outer most surface of
fungal mycelium while in the subsequent step this attach-
ment of silver ions creates an osmotic shock condition for
fungi and secretes the extracellular enzymes and metabolites

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Emergent Materials
Fig. 4  Intracellular and extracellular mechanisms of AgNP synthesis
by a bacteria, b fungi, and c algae
­ g+ ions to A
which results in the reduction of A ­ g0 to form
AgNPs. In addition to enzymes, naphthoquinones and anth-
raquinones also have great reduction potential. These bio-
molecules along with NADPH-dependent nitrate reductase
function in shuttle system to facilitate AgNP synthesis as
represented in Fig. 4b [153]. The size and synthesis rate of
AgNPs can be controlled with a number of parameters like,
temperature, pH, concentration of substrate, and the time of
exposure to substrate [154].
4.3 Algal mediated AgNP synthesis
Along with bacterial and fungal strategies of nanoparti-
cles synthesis, algae have also attracted the researchers to
synthesize silver and other metal nanoparticles due to their
extraordinary capabilities of toxic metal bioremediations
[200]. Algal cells are rich in polysaccharides, flavonoids,
terpenoids, enzymes, minerals, fatty acids, and proteins
which serves as potential reducing and stabilizing moieties
[201, 202]. These biomolecules possess great capabilities to
synthesize biocompatible metallic nanoparticles. Thus, algae
provide an alternate route to traditional toxic approaches to
synthesize nanoparticles through a rapid, eco-friendly, and
cost-effective route [202, 203]. Algal synthesized nanoparti-
cles can be utilized for wide range of applications including
catalysis, as antimicrobial agents, and many other purposes
(Table 4). The physical and chemical factors such as pH,
temperature, substrate concentration, and shaking play key
role in influencing the properties of synthesized nanopar-
ticles. Synthesis temperature greatly affects the rate, size,
and stability of nanoparticles [178]. But an increase in tem-
perature increases the synthesis for only a certain limit since
after that enzymes and proteins start degrading [204]. Like-
wise, pH of the system also affects the morphology and size
of the AgNPs [205]. Light is also an essential factor during
algal synthesis of AgNPs [206]. The synthesized nanopar-
ticles can be found in the cytoplasm, periplasm, nucleus,
or pyrenoid of the algal cells. Examples of some AgNPs
synthesized using algae are given in Table 4.
The exact mechanism of silver and other metallic nan-
oparticles synthesis is not yet exactly known but the bio-
reduction of metallic salts by the biomolecules of algae and
bioaccumulations of nanoparticles inside the algae could
be most probable mechanisms of synthesis [207]. The bio-
reduction phenomena involve three major steps of activa-
tion, growth, and termination. The activation phase involves
the reduction of metal ions, followed by nucleation of the
reduced metal atoms. In the growth phase, small nanopar-
ticles transform into larger size particles. In the first step,
metal ions are trapped on the outer algal surface. The entrap-
ment of ions is the result of electrostatic interaction between
the positively charged ions and the negatively charged cell
wall components. Subsequently, in the second step, the
enzymatic reduction of metal ions occurs, which results into
cytoplasmic metallic nucleation process. Finally, in the last
step (termination), growth and accumulation of nuclei into
metallic nanoparticles takes place as summarized in Fig. 4c
[208, 209].
4.4 Lichen‑mediated AgNP synthesis
Lichens have received special interest in the AgNP synthesis
due to their peculiar symbiotic association between a fungus
and green algae. The extracts of lichens are quite rich in vari-
ety of metabolites such as polysaccharides (homo-D-glucan)
and phenolic compounds (depside, depsidon, and dibenzo-
furane) [234]. These compounds can potentially reduce and
stabilize silver ions. The most of primary metabolites from
lichens are water soluble while the secondary metabolites
show very poor aqueous solubility and require organic sol-
vents for their extraction [235]. There are few reports where
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 Emergent Materials

Table 2  Examples of fungal synthesized AgNPs and their characteristics

Fungi Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Verticillium 25 ± 12 Spherical – [152]

Aspergillus fumigatus 5–25 Spherical and triangular – [155]
Aspergillus flavus 8.92 ± 1.61 Spherical – [156]
Alternaria alternata 20–60 Spherical Antifungal activity [157]
Trichoderma viride 2–100 Spherical to triangular – [158]
Penicillium fellutanum 5–25 Spherical – [159]
Penicillium sp. 52–104 Irregular – [160]
Aspergillus terreus 1–20 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [161]
Candida albicans 50–100 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [162]
Fusarium sp. 12–20 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [124]
Trichoderma harzianum 19–63 Spherical & ellipsoid Seed germination and viability [163]
Fusarium solani 5–30 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [164]
Aspergillus versicolor 15.5 Spherical Antioxidant and antimicrobial [165]
activities
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 25–30 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [166]
Colletotrichum sp. 20–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [167]
Aspergillus clavatus, Aspergillus 25–145, 25–175, Spherical – [168]
niger, Aspergillus flavus, and 45–185, and
Aspergillus fumigatus 5–95
Aspergillus flavus (AfAg-NPs) and 100 Quasispherical, hexagonal, and Antimicrobial activity [169]
Emericella nidulans (EnAg-NPs) triangular
Trichoderma viride 15.5 Globular Antimicrobial activity [170]
Penicillium expansum and Aspergil- 14–25 and 10–18 Spherical Antifungal activity [171]
lus terreus
Rhizopus arrhizus IPT1011, 30–100 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [172]
Rhizopus arrhizus IPT1013,
Trichoderma gamsii IPT853, and
Aspergillus niger IPT856
Ganoderma enigmaticum and Tram- 15–25 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [173]
etes ljubarskyi
Aspergillus oryzae (MTCC 1846) 7–105 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [174]
Duddingtonia flagrans (AC001) 12–486 Quasispherical – [175]
Aspergillus niger L3 (NEA) and 15.21–77.49 Spherical Antimicrobial activity, antioxidant [176]
Trichoderma longibrachiatum L2 activity, and catalytic activity
(TEA)
Penicillium polonicum 10–15 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [177]
Trichoderma longibrachiatum 10 Spherical Antifungal activity [178]
Phenerochaete chrysosporium 34–90 Spherical and oval Antimicrobial activity [179]
(MTCC-787)
Cladosporium species 135–140 Spherical Antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti- [180]
Alzheimer activities
Phomopsis liquidambaris 18.7 Spherical Antimicrobial and larvicidal activi- [181]
ties
Phomopsis helianthi 35.05 Spherical to hexagonal Antimicrobial activity [182]
Beauveria bassiana 10–50 Triangular, circular, and hexagonal Antimicrobial activity [183]
Botryosphaeria rhodina 2–50 Spherical, rectangular, and trian- Anticancer activity [184]
gular
Trametes trogii 1–65 Spherical – [185]
Piriformospora indica 6–30 Spherical Antioxidant activity [186]
Cladosporium cladosporioides 30–60 Spherical Antioxidant and antimicrobial [187]
activities
Setosphaeria rostrata 2–50 Spherical and cylindrical Antifungal activity [188]
Penicillium oxalicum 60–80 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [189]

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Emergent Materials

Table 2  (continued)
Fungi Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Ganoderma lucidum 15–22 Spherical Antioxidant and antimicrobial [190]

activities
Alternaria tenuissima AUMC 9.8 Spherical Antioxidant and antimicrobial [191]
13,621 activities
Penicillium duclauxii 3–32 Spherical Antifungal activity [192]
Penicillium citrinum CGJ-C1 2–5 Spherical Anticancer activity [193]
Colletotrichum incarnatum DM16.3 5–25 Spherical Antithrombin and cytotoxic activi- [194]
ties
Pleurotus florida 10 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [195]
Inonotus hispidus 69.24 – Antimicrobial and antifungal [196]
activities

Table 3  Various fungal Site of synthesis Methods Reference

mechanisms of AgNP synthesis
Extracellular By nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and NADH-dependent [173]
nitrate reductase enzymes
By biomolecules during NADPH/NADH to ­NADP+/NAD+ conversion [168]
By the action of NADPH without nitrate reductase enzyme [197]
By nitrate reductase enzyme and anthraquinones [198, 199]
Intracellular Bioaccumulation, precipitation, biomineralization, and biosorption with [26, 198]
the help of enzymes and proteins
In the mycelial matric by enzymes and proteins [152, 156]

lichens have been explored for AgNP synthesis, as listed in
Table 5. However, AgNP synthesis using lichens is a rela-
tively newer field of work and lots of work is presently going
on to decipher the synthesis mechanism of AgNPs.
4.5 Plant‑mediated AgNP synthesis
The most extensively studied method of synthesising metal
nanoparticles is by plants. It is a fast, eco-friendly, eco-
nomic, and easily scaled up process. Utilization of plant
and their parts for the production of nanoparticles has
drawn attention due to the presence of primary and sec-
ondary metabolites (carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids,
pigments, glycosides, vitamins, flavonoids, alkaloids, pol-
yols, alcohols, and amino acids). These plant metabolites
can be used to reduce metal ions to metal nanoparticles
(Fig. 3) [243]. The aforementioned biomolecules exhibit
excellent reducing and capping capabilities. In the past,
the extract of various parts of plants has been used for
the synthesis of different metal nanoparticles viz. Au, Ag,
Cu, Zn, Ti, etc. In the previous reports, the live plants,
plant extracts, and plant tissues have been used for reduc-
tion of metal ion into nanoparticles. Plant extracts are
most effective for reducing A ­ g+ into ­Ag0 as they neither
use harmful chemicals (borohydride, thio-glycerol, and
2-mercaptoethanol) [20] nor produce any toxic by-prod-
ucts like as iminodiacetic acid [64, 65, 83]. Since the first
synthesis of AgNPs by this method, using Medicago sativa
being reported by Gardea-Torresdey et al. [244], a lot of
work has been done using different plants as machinery to
synthesize AgNPs. Similarly, AgNPs from extracts of Oci-
mum sanctum [245], Datura metel [246], Coffea arabica
[247], Azadirachta indica [243], Matricaria recutita [248],
Aloe barbadensis miller (Chandran et al. 2006), Camel-
lia sinensis [250], Allium sativum [98], Pistacia atlan-
tica [251], Nelumbo nucifera [252], Datura metel [246],
Citrus sinensis [253] for various applications have also
been documented. The examples of plants and their parts
utilized for AgNPs production, their characteristics, and
applications have been listed in Table 6. The plant-derived
synthesis of AgNPs is an inexpensive procedure and can
be easily maintained and handled as compared to micro-
bial processes. The hydroxyl groups of metabolites present
in the plant extracts act as mild reducing agents and help
to control the size and shape of nanoparticles [254]. The
diverse morphologies of AgNPs were also achieved due
to complex interactions between nanoparticles surface and
functional groups (aldehydes/ketones) present in the plant
extract [255–257].

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Table 4  Examples of algal synthesized AgNPs and their characteristics

Algae Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Sargassum muticum 5–15 Spherical – [210]

Chaetomorpha linum 3–44 – – [201]
Chlorella pyrenoidosa 2–15 – Antimicrobial activity and catalytic [211]
activities
Caulerpa racemosa 5–25 Spherical and triangular Antimicrobial activity [212]
Dracocephalum moldavica 5–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [213]
Ecklonia cava 43 Spherical Antimicrobial activity, antioxidant [214]
activity, and anticancer activity
Euphorbia antiquorum L 10–50 Spherical Anticancer activity [215]
Phoma exigua var. exigua 22 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [216]
Ulva compressa (L.) Kütz. and Clad- 81.8 and 66.3 Irregular and sponge like Antimicrobial activity [217]
ophora glomerata (L.) Kütz
Laminaria japonica 20–30 Spherical to oval Seed germination [218]
Gelidium amansii 27–54 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [219]
Gracilaria birdiae 20.2–94.9 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [220]
Ulva armoricana sp. 339 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [221]
Botryococcus braunii 40–90 Cubical, spherical, and truncated Catalytic activity [222]
triangular
Polysiphonia 5–25 Spherical Anticancer activity [223]
Padina pavonia 49.58–86.37 Spherical, triangular, rectangle, – [224]
polyhedral, and hexagonal
Chlorella vulgaris 40–90 Cubical, spherical, and truncated Catalytic activity [225]
triangular
Oscillatoria limnetica 3.30–17.97 Quasispherical Antimicrobial and anticancer activi- [226]
ties
Spyridia filamentosa 20–30 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [227]
Padina sp. 25–60 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [228]
Gelidium corneum 20–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity and antibi- [229]
ofilm activities
Portieria hornemannii 70–75 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [230]
Saccharina cichorioides and Fucus 45–57 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [231]
evanescens
Chlorella ellipsoidea 220.8 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [232]
Chaetomorpha linum 70–80 Spherical Anticancer activity [233]

4.6 A sustainable approach of AgNP synthesis
Disproportionate development of cities and exponential rise
in urban population have led to rapid increase in consumer
demands and generations of various types of municipal solid
waste [300]. According to Environmental Protection Agency
[301], the USA generated about 267.8 million tonnes of
municipal solid waste in 2017. It is estimated that annu-
ally more than 2 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste are
generated globally out of which less than 20% is recycled.
It is believed that global waste production will rise by 70%
until 2050 [302]. If we talk about Asia, everyday, more than
1 million tonnes of municipal solid waste is generated, and
it is assumed to reach 1.8 million tonnes by 2025 [303]. In
India 90, million tonnes of solid waste is generated annually
[304, 305], out of which the organic waste amount remains
between 40 and 60% of its total solid waste generated [306].
The above stats highlight the alarming situation of municipal
solid waste globally; hence, sustainable development is the
need of time to overcome this problem.
The green synthesis of nanomaterial using waste mate-
rials is a developing area of research in recent time. This
approach focuses on innovative strategies to implement sus-
tainable methods to achieve the desirable products with min-
imal or almost zero production of waste materials [307–309].
Agricultural wastes, fruit wastes, waste plant residues, wood
wastes, and some other wastes have been successfully uti-
lized by various researchers to synthesize AgNPs [310].
These squander materials contain starches, proteins, sug-
ars, alcohols, phenols, lignins, flavonoids, unsaturated fats,
and a lot more biomolecules that have been viably used for
green synthesis of AgNPs (Fig. 5). Utilization of fruit and

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Emergent Materials
Table 5  Examples of lichen-synthesized AgNPs and their characteristics
Name Size (nm)
Parmotrema praesorediosum and 42 and 20 respectively Spherical to oval
Ramalina dumeticola
Evernia mesomorpha, Parmeliopsis 150–250
ambigua, Punctelia subrudecta,
and Xanthoparmelia plitti
Parmotrema praesorediosum 19
Cetraria islandica 1–118
Parmelia perlata – Spherical
Cetraria islandica 6–21
Usnea longissima 9.40–11.23
Xanthoria elegans, Cetraria 5–100
islandica, Usnea antarctica, and
Leptogium puberulum
Xanthoria parietina and Flavopunc- 1–40
telia flaventior
Pseudevernia furfuracea and 10–100
Lobaria pulmonaria
other wastes as source of reducing moieties provides con-
siderable economic benefits and is becoming increasingly
attractive in last few years [311]. Wastes like banana peel
[17], papaya peel [312], tea wastes [313], sugarcane bagasse
[314], orange peel [315], cauliflower waste [316], and Euca-
lyptus camadulensis waste bark [317] have been successfully
utilized for the synthesis of AgNPs. Although until now,
considerable research has been carried out using wastes to
synthesize AgNPs, the detailed mechanism still needs to be
deciphered and needs to be further explored. Some exam-
ples of waste utilization for synthesizing AgNPs have been
discussed in Table 7.
5 Antimicrobial mechanisms of AgNPs
Existing literature revealed that AgNPs have multiple mech-
anisms of action (Fig. 6) for antimicrobial activity. AgNPs
exhibit their antimicrobial activity by continually releasing
silver ions in their vicinity [336]. AgNPs can also interact
with sulphur-containing proteins and with the assistance
of this interaction they adhere to the cell membrane and
cytoplasmic membrane of microorganism and may cause
disruption of the bacterial envelope [337]. With post bacte-
rial envelop destructions, the free silver ions are taken up
by cells where they can deactivate respiratory enzyme and
other important enzymes. In contrast to this activity, cells
generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) but on the cost of
interrupting adenosine triphosphate production [338]. ROS
also leads to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) modification
by interacting with sulphur and phosphorus hence creating
problems in DNA replication process and cell reproduction
Shape Applications References
– [234]
– Antioxidant and antimicrobial activi- [236]
ties
Cubical Antimicrobial activity [234]
Spherical, oval, and irregular – [237]
Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and [238]
antidiabetic activities
Spherical Catalytic activity [239]
Spherical Antimicrobial activity [240]
Bimodal Antimicrobial activity [235]
Spherical Antimicrobial activity [241]
– Antimicrobial activity [242]
of the microorganisms [339]. Moreover, the liberated sil-
ver ions can also inhibit proteins synthesis by denaturing
ribosomes in the cytoplasm of microorganisms [339, 340].
Unfortunately, there have been few studies where subin-
hibitory concentrations of AgNPs are supposed to develop
AgNP resistance in microorganisms [341, 342]. However,
other studies conclude that AgNPs pose low risk of bacte-
rial resistance development because they concurrently affect
so many aspects of bacterial physiology [340, 343]. AgNP
resistance is also shown to be microorganism dependent,
with different bacterial taxa exhibiting differential resistance
profiles and some not developing any resistance [341, 342].
Despite these conflicting outcomes, the scientific community
is still working on developing AgNPs with great enthusiasms
to develop as efficient antibacterial agent.
6 Applications of AgNPs
AgNPs are the most interesting materials for industrial
applications as they play an extensive role in electronics
industries, as antibacterial and antifungal agents (in medi-
cal implants, dressings, catheters, and in dental composites),
and anticancer agents, used in textile coatings, food storage,
and many more applications as shown in Fig. 7. The growing
resistance in microorganisms against antibiotics is a severe
threat to health and well-being of people around the world
[344]. Silver has been reported to inhibit microbial growth in
various medical and industrial processes. In addition to this,
silver and its nanoparticles are successfully used in the form
of ointments to inhibit the infection in burn cases and open
wounds [65]. Damage to cellular structures, inactivation
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Table 6  Examples of plant-synthesized AgNPs and their characteristics

Plant Plant’s part used Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Aloe vera Leaves 15.2 Sphere – [249]

Camellia sinensis Leaves 5–100 Sphere – [258]
Datura metel Leaves 16–40 Quasilinear – [246]
Acalypha indica Leaves 20–30 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [259]
Memecylon edule Leaves 50–90 Squares – [260]
Allium sativum Cloves 12 Sphere – [98]
Nelumbo nucifera Leaves 25–80 Sphere, triangle Anti-malarial and anti-filariasis [252]
activities
Eclipta prostrate Leaves 35–60 Triangles, hexagons, pentagons Larvicidal activity [261]
Ocimum sanctum Leaves 4–30 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [245]
Vitex negundo Leaves 5, 10–30 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [262]
Tribulus terrestris Fruit 16–28 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [263]
Acorus calamus Rhizome 31.83 Sphere Antioxidant, antibacterial and [264]
anticancer activities
Cocous nucifera Inflorescence 22 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [265]
Pistacia atlantica Seeds 10–50 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [251]
Ziziphora tenuior Leaves 8–40 Sphere – [266]
Melia dubia Leaves 35 Sphere Anticancer activity [267]
Alternanthera dentate Leaves 50–100 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [268]
Brassica rapa Leaves 16.14 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [269]
Abutilon indicum Leaves 7–17 Sphere Antimicrobial activity [270]
Ficus carica Leaves 13 Sphere – [271]
Azadirachta indica Leaves 34 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [243]
Phlomis Leaves 25 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [272]
Helicteres isora Roots 16–95 Spherical Antioxidant and antimicrobial [273]
activities
Coffea arabica Seeds 20–30 Spherical and ellipsoidal Antimicrobial activity [247]
Elephantopus scaber L Leaves 50 Spherical Antioxidant activity [274]
Zanthoxylum armatum Leaves 15–50 Spherical Catalytic activity [275]
Prunus persica Leaves 40–98 Spherical Antimicrobial activity and cata- [276]
lytic activity
Alpinia katsumadai Seeds 12.6 Quasispherical Antioxidant activity, cytotoxic- [277]
ity activity, and antibacterial
activity
Camellia sinensis Leaves 65–70 Spherical to cubical Thermal conductivity and anti- [250]
bacterial activity
Callistemon lanceolatus, Leaves 5–55 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [278]
Decaspermum parviflorum,
Eucalyptus citriodora, Mela-
leuca cajuputi, Rhodomyrtus
tomentosa, Syzygiupam cam-
panulatum, and Xanthostemon
chrysanthus
Gmelina arborea Fruits 8–32 Spherical Catalytic activity [279]
Rheum palmatum Root 121 Hexagonal and spherical Antimicrobial activity [280]
Origanum vulgare L Arial parts 2–25 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [281]
Cordia dichotoma Fruits 2–60 Spherical Antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and [282]
photocatalytic activities
Cleome viscosa L Fruits 20–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity and anti- [283]
cancer activity
Curcuma longa Rhizome 18 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [284]
Pelargonium Leaves 25–150 Spherical – [285]
hortorum(geranium)

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Table 6  (continued)
Plant Plant’s part used Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Thymus kotschyanus Whole plant 50–60 Spherical Antioxidant, antibacterial, and [286]
cytotoxic activities
Fritillaria Flower 10 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [287]
Salvia spinosa Whole plant 5.13 Spherical and oval Antimicrobial activity [288]
Phyllanthus pinnatus Stem  < 100 Cubical Antimicrobial activity [289]
Berberis vulgaris Root 30–70 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [290]
Camellia sinensis Leaves 34.68 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [291]
Withania coagulans Leaves 14 Spherical Antibacterial, antioxidant, and [292]
cytotoxic activities
Albizia procera Leaves 6.18 Spherical Antimicrobial activity and cata- [293]
lytic activity
Dionaea muscipula and Dio- Plant tissue 5–60 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [294]
naea indica
Annona muricata Fruits 60.12 Spherical – [295]
Lactuca indica Leaves 13.5 Spherical Catalytic activity [296]
Allium cepa Bulbs 49–73 Spherical Antidiabetic activity [297]
Rheum ribes Leaves 18.2 Spherical Anticarcinogenic and antimicro- [298]
bial activities
Hibiscus rosasinensis Leaves 12–17 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [299]
Matricaria chamomilla Flower 18 Spherical and irregular flower- Antimicrobial activity [248]
like

Fig. 5  Wastes as sustainable
source for synthesis of AgNPs

of enzymes and proteins, condensation of DNA, error in
DNA replication, reduction in ATP synthesis, and barrier
in ribosomal interactions and accumulation in the cell are
most common proposed mechanisms of antimicrobial activ-
ity. Additionally, phenomena like generation of ROS, dis-
ruptions in cell membrane, and obstacle in cell signalling
are also equally important mechanisms for antimicrobial
activity of AgNPs [99, 345–347]. Therefore, where most of
available antibiotics acts only by one or two mechanisms,
the AgNPs function in multiple ways. Some reports have
been listed in Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 where nanoparticles have
been successfully used to inhibit the growth of pathogenic
microorganisms.
Nanoparticles are a distinctive tool for biosensor applica-
tion as they can be detected by methods like optical absorp-
tion, fluorescence determination, and electric conductivity
measurements. AgNPs have been used to improve sensing
for diagnosing diseases, monitoring pathogenicity, therapy
monitoring, cell tracking, and bioimaging [348]. Chen et al.
[349] have synthesized fluorosurfactant-capped AgNPs to
sense cysteine (detection limit 0.05 μM) colorimetrically.
The mechanism of biosensing was the analyte-induced

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Table 7  Examples of waste-synthesized AgNPs and their characteristics

Waste Name Size (nm) Shape Applications References

Mango peel 7–27 Quasis-spherical Antimicrobial activity [318]

Sugarcane bagasse 50–150 Spherical – [314]
Industrial milk waste – Nanorods Milk quality [319]
Fish processing discard 8–40 Spherical – [320]
Waste teak leaves 28 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [321]
Grape seeds 25–35 Spherical and polygonal Antimicrobial activity [322]
Banana peel extract 23.7 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [17]
Citrus aurantifolia peel 10–32 Spherical Catalytic activity [323]
Waste vegetable fibres 15–35 – Antimicrobial activity [324]
Carboxymethyl sago pulp 15 Spherical – [325]
Waste banana plant stems 70–600 Cubes, truncated trian- Antimicrobial activity [326]
gular, and hexagonal
plates
Papaya peel extract 16–20 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [312]
Waste tea extract 45 Spherical Catalytic and antimicrobial activity [313]
Coconut shell waste 14.2–22.96 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [327]
Orange peel 25.4 Irregular Antimicrobial activity [315]
Citrus fruits waste 9–46 Spherical and irregular Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and [328]
cytotoxic activities
Citrus sinensis peels 3–12 Spherical – [329]
Green vegetable waste 10–90 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [330]
Palm shell agro-waste  < 40 Spherical Catalytic activity [331]
Ananas comosus outer peel extract – Spherical Antioxidant, antibacterial, antidia- [332]
betic, and cytotoxic activities
Grape and orange wastes 3 to 14 and 5–50 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [333]
Pisum sativum outer peel 10–25 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [334]
Sapota fruit waste 8–16 Spherical Antimicrobial activity [335]
Eucalyptus camadulensis waste bark extract 468.7 Spherical Anti-ageing effect [317]
Cauliflower waste extract 35.08 Spherical Catalytic activity and biosensing [316]

aggregation of nonionic fluorosurfactant-capped AgNPs.
Green synthesized AgNPs were used to sense lactose with
detection limit of 3.5 mM [350]. The biosensor utilized cel-
lobiose dehydrogenase from Trametes villosa for the elec-
trochemical detection of lactose. In another study, Rosati
et al. [351] have used conductive properties of AgNPs to
detect ampicillin in milk and estimated the detection limit
to be around 10 μg/ml. Recently, a electrochemilumines-
cence (ECL) biosensor has been developed using AgNPs
nanoparticles to sense mucin 1 [352]. Similarly, Naqvi et al.
[80] have developed a colorimetric biosensor using maltol-
capped AgNPs as selective probe to sense cysteine with a
detection limit of 0.043 μM. It utilized cysteine-induced
AgNP aggregation mechanism for the detection.
Beside these utilities, textile industry also utilizes AgNPs
for making different types of textile fabrics. In the same
pipeline, silver nanocomposite fibres were prepared by
incorporating AgNPs inside the fabric having antibacterial
effect. The prepared cotton fibres containing AgNPs exhib-
ited good antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli [353,
354]. Recently, Streptomyces antimycoticus L-1 (isolated
from Mentha longifolia L.)-synthesized AgNPs loaded on
cotton fabric were observed to exhibit antimicrobial activity
against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and
loaded fibres were found stable upto 10 washings [355]. Sim-
ilarly, Muntingia calabura synthesized AgNPs, when loaded
on the surface of cotton, polyester and nylon fabrics were
found to exhibit antimicrobial activity against Escherichia
coli, Chromobacterium haemolyticum, and Bacillus cereus
[356]. Cotton fabrics loaded with AgNPs (synthesized from
Curcuma longa L.) were observed to exhibit appreciable
antimicrobial properties against the skin infection-causing
pathogens. Furthermore, fabric also exhibited potent wound
healing activity in the fibroblast (L929) cells [357].
In additon to the above applications, AgNPs also find
themselves in the field of electronics. Inkjet technology is
considered as cost-effective technology for the production
of electronic circuits [358]. The nanoparticles of Ag, Cu,
Zn, and Au are useful for making electronic circuits due to
their nanosize. The advantage of size helps in their isolation

13
Emergent Materials
Fig. 6  Antimicrobial mechanism of AgNPs
Fig. 7  Application fields of AgNPs
from the inks and their electrical conductivity can also be
improved [63]. AgNPs of uniform size have been observed
to display improved electrical conductivity in electronically
conductive adhesives [359]. Similarly, to fabricate a con-
ductive mark pen, the AgNPs were injected in the ink of
mark pen and were found to have an electrical conductiv-
ity of 2.4 μΩ cm [360]. The use of AgNPs in the printable
elastic conductor was found to exhibit conductivity higher
than 4000 S ­cm−1 with highest conductivity of 6168 S ­cm−1
at 0% strain [361].
AgNPs also have bioremediation potential; hence, it has
a great role in pollution control. Azo dyes are a group of
synthetic colourants commercially used in the textile and
fibre processing industries. These dyes are highly toxic, car-
cinogenic, mutagenic, and non-biodegradable in nature due
to the presence of benzene/naphthalene ring and azo bond
in their structure [362–365]. Unfortunately, these dyes are
extensively employed in dyeing processes and straightway
discharged into the water bodies without proper treatment
[366]. Moreover, these effluents also contain acids, alkalis,
heavy metals, various inorganic, and organic salts etc. These
components along with toxic dyes exhibit serious health haz-
ards to flora, fauna, and microbiome of terrestrial as well
as to aquatic lives [367, 368]. In order to sort this problem
AgNPs have been utilized as a catalyst for the degradation
of various commercial dyes [275]. In some previous reports,
bleaching of organic dyes by potassium peroxodisulphate
has been enhanced by addition of AgNPs [369]. Findings
of Gangula et al. [370] has showed that green synthesized
AgNPs have tendency to catalytically reduce 4-nitrophenol.
Similarly, green synthesized AgNPs from Zingiber officinale
have been reported as excellent catalysts for the degrada-
tion of 4-nitrophenol and methylene blue [371]. Recently,
κ-Carrageenan gum-stabilized AgNPs have been reported
13

to degrade rhodamine and methylene blue with degrada-
tion efficiency of almost 100% [372]. There are many more
reports where AgNPs have exhibited excellent catalytic
activity.
However, the applications of AgNPs are not limited to the
above-mentioned fields. The AgNPs have been widely used
in water filters, sanitization equipment, soap and detergent
industries, deodorants manufacturing, in seed germination
technologies, in cancer diagnostics and treatments, in food
preservations, and as insecticides (Fig. 7) [63, 373, 374].
7 In vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies
of AgNPs
AgNPs offer great spectrum of applications in biomedicine
and related fields. In the past years, AgNPs have been tested
in vitro and in vivo for various applications. On studying
in vitro interactions of AgNPs with HT-1080 and A431 cells
in the process of topical antimicrobial agent development
for burn wound infections, it was observed that there were
no morphological changes in the cells up to 6.25 μg/mL
concentration of AgNPs. However, abnormal size, shrink-
age, and rounded appearance of cells at higher concentration
of AgNPs displayed its toxicity [375]. AgNPs from 3 and
10 g/mL concentration were observed to modulate cytokine
production and hence prove its use for the treatment of
inflammatory diseases [376]. In an interesting study, com-
mercially available AgNPs during in vivo oral exposure to
humans did not cause clinically important changes in human
metabolic, hematologic, urine, physical findings, or imaging
morphology [377]. Furthermore, poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate-
co-3-hydroxyvalerate) and AgNPs in a nano-fibrous scaf-
folds showed good antibacterial activity as well as in vitro
cell compatibility for joint arthroplasty [378]. Similarly,
AgNPs in bone cement were observed to inhibit the pro-
liferation of Staphylococcus epidermidis without in vitro
cytotoxicity [379]. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles
having the drug alisertib and AgNPs have been observed to
exhibit cytotoxicity against glioblastoma multiforme in both
in vitro and in vivo studies [380]. Biologically produced
AgNPs from phycoerythrin extracted from Nostoc carneum
have been observed to exhibit anti-haemolytic, antibacterial,
and anticancer activity during in vitro and in vivo studies
[381].
It is well known that implantable devices can cause hos-
pital-acquired infections. To counter this problem, several
attempts have been made using AgNPs. AgNPs impreg-
nated in medical polymers were found to exhibit antimi-
crobial activity [382]. Furthermore, AgNP-impregnated
intraventricular catheters have also been developed to reduce
catheter-associated infections in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
drainages. The study revealed that AgNP-impregnated
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Emergent Materials
intraventricular catheters were able to inhibit the growth of
Staphylococcus aureus [383]. More recently, polygalactu-
ronic acid, hyaluronic acid, and AgNPs containing dressing
were found to exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
activities (in vivo and in vitro). The developed dressing pro-
tected wound from the enhanced level of reactive oxygen
species and accelerated the healing process [384]. Likewise,
AgNP-based inhalation delivery system was found to exhibit
significant antimicrobial and antiviral activities [385]. The
in vitro and in vivo studies clearly show that there are some
pleasing findings using AgNPs.
The literature studies showed that limited research has
been conducted by performing clinical trials using AgNPs.
Some of those are discussed below. A clinical study where
triple-lumen central venous catheters were impregnated with
AgNPs was observed to exhibit no significant difference in
central venous catheter colonization and related bloodstream
infections as compare to conventional catheters [386, 387].
Furthermore, AgNP incorporation into the acrylic baseplate
of orthodontic retainers was found to exhibit strong antimi-
crobial effect against Streptococcus mutans under clinical
conditions [388]. In another study, polymeric middle ear
prosthesis enriched with AgNPs was observed to exhibit
strong antimicrobial activity with no microorganism in mid-
dle ear spaces [389].
8 Conclusions and future prospects
Based on literature study, we can conclude that green tech-
nologies have obtained lots of appreciation as environment
friendly and sustainable technology. This appreciation has
motivated the scientific community to work with more enthu-
siasm. This piece of information has addressed that biologi-
cal approaches of AgNP synthesis have several advantages
over traditional physical and chemical approaches. The bio-
logical sources (bacteria, fungi, plants, algae, lichens, and
waste materials) are reservoir of biomolecules which have
marvellous potential to reduce and stabilize AgNPs. The
benevolence of utilizing these sources provides ecological
as well as economic advantages. Moreover, manipulations
in parameters like temperature, pH, substrate concentration,
and time provide control to shape and size of nanoparticles.
The shape, size, and geometry of AgNPs determine their
intrinsic properties. AgNPs produced from green methods
have showcased valuable properties viz. antimicrobial, anti-
fungal, antiviral, anticancer, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and
anti-inflammatory properties. However, it was noticed that
most of studies on AgNPs are limited to in vitro level studies
with slight extension up to primary in vivo studies. Further-
more, there are lesser number of studies on clinical trials of
AgNPs for biomedical applications. Hence, authors believe
that there is urgent need to scale up clinical and in vitro
Emergent Materials
studies to establish AgNPs as strong antimicrobial agent in
the health sector. Additionally, toxicity of AgNPs is also
a big challenge to deal with. Although green synthesized
nanoparticles are more biocompatible than chemically syn-
thesized nanoparticles, but detailed studies on dynamics
and kinetics in humans and other animals are still lacking.
Hence, authors believe that there is immense need to develop
non-toxic and sustainable AgNPs. Current progress in the
fields of biosensing, therapeutics, and bioremediation pro-
vides a strong belief that in the future the demand of AgNPs
will rise more.
Acknowledgements  The authors of the manuscript received financial
and infrastructural support from Jaypee University of Information
Technology, Waknaghat, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India.
Declarations  14. G. Franci, A. Falanga, S. Galdiero, L. Palomba, M. Rai, G.
Conflict of interest  The authors declare no competing interests.
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