Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers
Water Management 158
September 2005 Issue WM3
Pages 93–102
Paper 13967
Received 31/08/2004
Accepted 06/06/2005
Keywords: Adrian Laycock
drainage & irrigation/tunnels & Chief Design Engineer, PHLC,
tunnelling/waterways & canals Lahmeyer International, Oban,
UK
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan
A. Laycock MSc(Agr Eng), FICE, C. Swayne
This paper describes the design, construction and
commissioning of a major irrigation project in Pakistan. It is
the final stage of the Tarbela Dam project and follows two
centuries of irrigation development in the Indus Valley. The
Pehur high-level canal (PHLC) is now operational after a
five-year construction period which began in 1997. The
purpose of the project is to bring 30 m3/s of water from the
Indus River at Tarbela Dam to the lower reaches of the
existing Upper Swat canal (USC) system. This not only
alleviates water shortage in the existing 100 000 ha Upper
Swat scheme but will allow additional areas totalling about
25 000 ha to be brought under irrigation upstream of the
confluence with PHLC. The combined system Tarbela–
PHLC and Swat river–USC is a complex one that is aimed
at optimising water use from the two different sources,
which are in restricted supply at different times of the year.
Accordingly the design philosophy of PHLC is different to
all other major canals in Pakistan. The project included
several novel principles of design, construction and
operation, such as automatic downstream control, large
parabolic canals and low-pressure pipelines for irrigation
distribution. The main project comprises two tunnels
totalling 6 km, two large inverted siphons, each over 3 m
dia. and about 2 km long, 26 km of concrete-lined parabolic
canal (the largest of its kind in the world) and
reconstruction of the existing 45 km long Maira branch
canal. Cross-regulation of main and branch canals is
provided by 13 pairs of self-regulating float-operated gates.
The rugged terrain necessitated about 40 cross-drainage
structures in the form of culverts and super-passages. Also
included was rehabilitation of the existing minor canal
system covering 40 000 ha and the development of about
5000 ha of new irrigation based on a buried pipeline
distribution network. Commissioning was delayed by
difficult tunnelling conditions, and several design
modifications were required in commissioning the canal
control gates. The more unconventional facets of the
project’s design were initially met with scepticism by the
engineering establishment, but have been mostly
vindicated by the project’s successful completion.
1. OVERALL DESIGN STRATEGY
1.1. Indus–Swat inter-catchment transfer
The Upper Swat scheme was constructed between 1902 and 1919
and extended in the 1930s. It irrigates a large proportion of the
Water Management 158 Issue WM3
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Chris Swayne José Marques
Project Manager Construction, Mechanical and Electrical Specialist
PHLC, Lahmeyer International, Consultant, Binnie & Partners (Overseas)
Monmouth, UK Limited, Woking, UK
CEng, FICE, FCIWEM, MASCE and J. E. J. Marques MOE (Portugal)
fertile Peshawar Vale centred on Mardan and has recently been
rehabilitated under Swabi salinity control and reclamation
project (SCARP).1 Cropping diversity and population intensity
have increased over the years and the original design basis of
protective irrigation for the wheat crop is no longer an overriding
factor. Over 100 different crops are grown under irrigation,
including wheat, maize, rice, sugar cane, sugar beet, tobacco,
alfalfa, fodder and various fruits and vegetables.
The Swat river has excess water in summer (Kharif) from April to
September, but runs low in winter (Rabi) from October to March.
Water shortage can be particularly acute in October/November,
at the start of the wheat planting season.
The Indus is regulated by Tarbela reservoir and has water
available at different times of the year, when Swat water is in
short supply. The 1991 Indus Waters Apportionment Accord
between the four provinces of Pakistan allowed the Pehur
high-level canal (PHLC) to proceed, diverting water into
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) up to a limit of
650 Mm3/year (528 000 acre-ft/year). However, any water
diverted into PHLC cannot be used for power generation at
Tarbela and therefore has an economic cost of forfeited power
generation, which needs to be minimised.
1.2. Canal operating principles
The combined system Tarbela–PHLC and Swat river–USC is
shown in Fig. 1. The USC is operated under upstream control, in
which adjustments to canal discharge are made at the head of the
main canal system. The response time near the tail of the canal
system is typically 4–5 days. The flow is continuous into the head
of the system and split in proportion to irrigated area into the
distributary (secondary) canals. Watercourses (tertiary canals)
offtake from these, also flowing continuously, each serving a
irrigation area typically between 50 and 250 ha. Along the
watercourse the water is diverted to each farm in turn.
The rigid Warabandi system is still the official method of water
distribution, although it is usually only resorted to at times of
severe shortage. Warabandi is a system of water allocation
between farmers, in which each farmer receives from the
watercourse an amount of the available water proportional to the
size of the farm, on a fixed two-week rotation. Although giving
an apparently equitable division of water, the amount, frequency
and duration of irrigations are not suited to the convenience of
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al. 93
 Project area
Amandara
Land irrigated by Pehur high-level canal command
headworks

canal t
Swa
Land irrigated by Upper Swat canal command
Benton tunnel
AN

Upper
er
Future irrigation by Upper Swat canal with water
ST
riv

KI
available after Pehur high-level canal construction
Pitched channel
at

PA
Sw

h
nc
Bra
ai
az
Ab

Badri siphon
Baja tunnel
Ma Kundal siphon
Lower Swat canal ch
ai
Br Gandaf tunnel
an
ch

Ballar Peh
Mardan u r hi
gh-

ch
lev

an
el c
ana

Br
l

ra
ai
Top

M
i are
a Tarbela Dam

Peshawar River Indus

Kab
ul riv
er

km
0 12 3 4 5 10 15

Fig. 1. The Upper Swat canal—Pehur high-level canal system

the farmer or to the actual needs of the crop. Farmers often
trade their Warabandi turns and routinely waste excess water
into the drainage system, especially if their turn comes during the
night. (A recent study by the International Water Management
Institute, based in Sri Lanka, found that 60% of water was wasted
on some distributaries.)
Upstream control requires operators to be in attendance at all
cross-regulators and needs an efficient communication system
between operators. A common manifestation of inadequate
operation is the occurrence of tail-end water shortages, which
arise because farmers closer to the system head take more water
than their theoretical allocation. Tail-end shortages were
particularly severe in distributaries fed by Maira Branch.
Since the distributaries and watercourses were originally
designed for proportional distribution, the main system canals
are operated on a rotational basis during Rabi, when water
availability is restricted to approximately half that in Kharif.
Swabi SCARP introduced main system cross-regulation
structures for the first time and increased the system capacity
to permit on-demand scheduling in the future.
distributary, the head regulator gate is adjusted accordingly and
the response of the main canal in delivering or storing rejected
water is immediate. No water need be wasted as it is retained
within the main canal. The tail of the canal system is guaranteed
water and there should be no tail-end shortage.
This is achieved through self-regulating float-operated cross-
regulator gates. The gates open or close in order to maintain
downstream water levels at a pre-established value. This effect is
carried up through the system to Tarbela Dam, where a SCADA
control system operates the Gandaf outlet valves in response to
water levels in the PHLC head reach.
The normal operating mode of the main canal should be with
water levels at or near ponded level, except in periods of
maximum demand, when levels will tend to draw down to normal
channel flow. Normally there will be less demand at night and
distributary head gates should be partly closed then, allowing
water levels to recover to full ponding level overnight. Although
officially the Warabandi system is in force, in practice it is
only fully used at times of water shortage, and most farmers
prefer to work in daylight.

Regulation of the PHLC and the tail of the combined system in
Maira Branch is achieved through downstream control. Water is
stored in the PHLC and Maira Branch in ponded reaches. The
points of control are hence shifted to the distributary head
regulators. When more or less water is required in the
The key issue from the farmers’ viewpoint is flexibility of supply.
With downstream control and wedge storage in the canal
system they are not restricted to fixed amounts of water at fixed
times. The key issue from the Irrigation Department’s viewpoint
is the ease of operation and reduced manpower required as the

94 Water Management 158 Issue WM3 Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al.

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.


Fig. 2. Excavation and trimming to profile using a chain
template
cross-regulators operate automatically. It would also be
extremely difficult to balance supplies between PHLC and USC
without some form of automation in this way.
2. MAIN CANALS
2.1. Pehur high-level canal
The concrete-lined main canal is unusual in that its
cross-sectional profile is for the most part parabolic, rather
than a more common trapezoidal section. The reasons for
adopting this design were as follows.
(a) It offered ease and speed of construction, using a rotating
striker tube on pre-formed screed bars. It took less than 1 h to
place a 6.5 m bay of the 15 m wide canal. The sequence of
construction is shown in Figs 2–5.
(b) It also offered greater strength owing to reduced stress
concentration, and hence reduced tendency to crack.
Trapezoidal lining of this size tends to crack longitudinally
along the junction of sides and base owing to varying
earth pressure, and on the sides owing to tension cracking
during concrete placement. A finite-element analysis of both
profiles is shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 3. Concrete screed bars are cast in situ at 6.5 m spacing. A
single purpose-built shutter is used over the whole canal, with
the elevation adjusted to suit the level-top design
Water Management 158 Issue WM3
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Fig. 4. The screed bars are used as a guide for formation trimming
(c) It provided a saving in concrete. The parabolic section offers a
potential saving in concrete volume of about 5% over
the equivalent trapezoidal section. However, in the interests
of safety the adopted profile was made flatter than the
theoretical optimum, which would have had top side slopes
too steep for a person to climb out. The actual saving in
concrete was about 2%, which was nevertheless significant
over the 26 km length.
(d) Suspended sediment-carrying capacity is better than other
profiles, owing to the even velocity distribution over the
cross-sectional profile. At present the water from Tarbela is
sediment-free, but by the year 2015 it is anticipated that
Tarbela reservoir will have silted up to the extent that all
the reservoir outlets including Gandaf tunnel will be
significantly affected by sediment. De-silting basins at
the head of the canal have been planned, and will be built
when needed in the future.
The design capacity is 30 m3/s, with a longitudinal gradient of 1
in 5000. Typical cross-sectional profiles are shown in Fig. 7. A
rectangular profile was adopted over two short reaches through
deep cut in rock, in order to reduce the amount of rock
excavation, and in the short head reach between the tunnel
outlet and the site of the future de-silting basins. Owing to the
level-top design, the actual profile and depth varies throughout
its length.
Fig. 5. Concrete is placed using a Bunyan striker tube
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al. 95
 Fig. 6. Comparative stress distribution in parabolic and
trapezoidal profiles owing to horizontal forces from
swelling soils
2.2. Cross-regulators with self-regulating gates
Cross-regulator gates were built to a performance specification
and are self-regulating, float-operated and arranged in 13 pairs
down the length of the main canal system, including PHLC
and Maira Branch. The gates are free surface type with falls of
up to 1.2 m, except for those at the outlets of the two large
siphons and Baja tunnel, which are orifice type operating at
heads of up to 4 m. In order to deter vandalism, all gates are
enclosed in 3 m high walls with locking access doors. The largest
gates weigh 26 t each (Fig. 8).
These are radial gates with a trapezoidal-shaped skin plate on
the upstream side, a combined float and counterweight on the
downstream side and a second counterweight above the trunnion
axis. The trapezoidal shape prevents binding of the cheeks during
gate opening, and hence permits a very small opening force,
which is provided only by the buoyancy of the float. As the water
level downstream drops owing to increased irrigation
consumption, the float falls, opening the gate to increase the flow
in the canal. When water consumption decreases, the float rises,
closing the gate and reducing the discharge. By changing the
weight in the float it is possible to adjust the water level at which
the gate is fully closed. By changing the weight in the
counterweight it is possible to adjust the water level at which the
gate is fully open. In order to improve stability of operation
and prevent hunting, the gate float works inside a chamber
connected to the canal downstream level by an adjustable
opening. In addition the skin plate has an air–water chamber
open at the bottom (in water) and with a small opening at the top
connected to the atmosphere. As the gate moves air is
admitted (when the gate opens) or expelled (when the gate closes)
15 334
3900
Fig. 7. Cross-sectional profile of parabolic and equivalent
trapezoidal canals (dimensions in mm)
96 Water Management 158 Issue WM3 Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Fig. 8. Orifice-type float-operated self-regulating gate for
downstream control
through the small orifice, creating additional damping and
reducing gate oscillations. These features are shown in Fig. 9. The
sequence of operation between adjacent reaches of the canal is
shown in Fig. 10.
During commissioning of the canal, several adjustments were
made to increase the damping effect and to ensure that each pair
of gates performed slightly differently in order to prevent
hunting between the pair. An important on-site modification was
the closure of the float chamber and its reconnection by pipe
to the canal at a distance of 50 m downstream, where there was
no turbulence created by the flow through the gate.
To prevent jamming, there is always a small clearance between
the sides of a self-regulating gate leaf and the canal walls or
the opening side walls. Hence, when closed, the gate does not
cut off the flow completely. Isolating gates are installed upstream
of the orifice gates, designed for closing against the flow in
an emergency. All cross-regulators are equipped with two
self-regulating gates in parallel so that the structure can operate
even if one gate is taken out of service for maintenance.
2.3. Cross-drainage works
The main canal route traverses two wide valleys. A comparison of
designs for aqueducts and inverted siphons indicated that for the
lengths and available heads involved, inverted siphons were
cheaper and far less disruptive in terms of land acquisition. The
two inverted siphons are among the largest ever built for this
purpose. Kundal siphon (Fig. 11) is 1800 m long and Badri siphon
is 2200 m long. Both are 3.2 m dia. steel tubes encased in mass
concrete.
Smaller cross-drainage structures take the main canal across
numerous nullahs (mountain watercourses subject to flash
flooding). Culverts were adopted for deeply incised nullahs, many
having an inclined drop within the barrel in order to arrest gully
erosion through natural accumulation of sediment. Most such
nullahs filled with silt after one or two storms. Super-passages
with chute outfalls were used in terrain having a steep cross-fall
in which large amounts of rock debris are moved during floods
(Fig. 12).
Laycock et al.
 Counterweight

Float keeps gate closed

Damping chamber with top hole when downstream water level
is high

Target downstream water level

Reduced water level

float lowers and gate opens

Fig. 9. Operating principles of self-regulating gates

2.4. Maira Branch canal cracks eventually sealed themselves and no embankment
Maira Branch runs for 45 km to the tail of the Upper Swat failures resulted.
system and required major rehabilitation. It was converted to a
level-top canal in order to carry the principle of downstream
3. TUNNELS
control down to the heads of all distributary canals. The canal is
unlined and the existing earth banks had to be raised by up to 3.1. Gandaf tunnel
1.5 m in places. This created longitudinal settlement cracking Gandaf tunnel is 4700 m long and 3.4 m dia. It connects the
owing to sudden stressing of the original banks. However, these new canal to Tarbela Reservoir through a stub tunnel, which had

Wedge storage

Gates closed, with water

ponded

Outlets opened,
wedge storage starts
depleting

Irrigation outlets open

Water level reduces,

gate opens,
wedge storage depleted
in adjacent reach

Gates open throughout the

system to replenish wedge
storage in downstream
reaches

Gates close when target

downstream water level is
attained

Fig. 10. Downstream control in adjacent canal reaches

Water Management 158 Issue WM3 Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al. 97

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.

 Fig. 11. Kundal siphon is 1800 m long and 3.2 m dia.
been previously constructed at the same time as Tarbela
Dam in 1976. In order to utilise the 120 m head, it was
designed as a pressure conduit with provision for future
construction of a hydropower station at its downstream end.
A tapping is also incorporated for a future pressure pipeline
to serve the Janda Boka irrigation area, hence avoiding the
need for pumping when this proposed 5000 ha scheme is
developed.
Geological conditions varied from loose alluvial gravel to hard
rock including carbonaceous schist, sugary and karstic limestone
and igneous intrusions. In hard rock, NATM drill-and-blast
excavation with shotcrete was used throughout, with secondary
lining of reinforced concrete (Fig. 13). (NATM is the New
Austrian tunnelling method, in which shotcrete is applied
immediately after excavating each blast, and the tunnel
perimeter is monitored for subsequent deflection before
determining which type of secondary lining, if any, is to be used.)
Difficulties were encountered when varying rock types occurred
across the tunnel face. Narrow zones of soft schist or sugary
limestone called for additional support measures and disrupted
the drilling operations. These problems were largely overcome by
Fig. 12. Super-passages were used for diverting storm water
and debris in steep terrain
98 Water Management 158 Issue WM3
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Fig. 13. Shuttering for concrete lining in Gandaf tunnel
using lattice girder supports and extensive rockbolting with
additional shotcreting.
In the karstic limestone, groundwater pressures of up to 80 m
head were encountered. Forward drilling for 40 m was carried
out to locate and drain karstic cavities and fissures. In some
cases it took three days to relieve the pressure enough to proceed
with advancing the tunnel face. Drainage flows of up to
100 litres/s had to be controlled and pumped to the surface.
Pre-cast segmental lining with internal steel secondary lining
was used over the downstream 1200 m, which is in loose
water-bearing alluvium comprising sand, gravel and boulders.
A tunnel boring machine (TBM) was used to place segmental
pre-cast concrete with steel secondary lining. Cut-and-cover
methods were used over a 200 m length close to the outlet, with
a steel liner encased in concrete.
Two intermediate access shafts of 10 m dia. were sunk, one at the
boundary of the alluvium and hard rock and the other at the
junction of the cut-and-cover and bored sections.
3.2. Baja tunnel
Baja tunnel takes the main canal 1200 m through a mountain
ridge. It has a horseshoe profile, 4.8 m wide. Geological
conditions were mainly hard quartzite, with zones of limestone
and schist, which proved far less problematic than Gandaf.
3.3. Gandaf outlet works
Discharge through Gandaf tunnel is controlled through four
Howell–Bunger free discharge valves, with butterfly guard valves
(Figs 14 and 15). These valves were chosen, unhooded, to simplify
the stilling basin design. An automatic supervisory control and
data acquisition (SCADA) control system relates the discharge to
water level in the canal headreach.
At its downstream end the cut-and-cover tunnel connects to a
high-pressure penstock. This is a manifold with six branches: a
600 mm dia. pipe to supply Janda Boka, a 2000 mm dia. branch,
currently closed, to supply the future powerhouse, three main
outlets 1600 mm dia. each and a fourth outlet 600 mm dia.
(Fig. 16). These four branches lead to butterfly valves of the same
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al.
 Fig. 14. The Gandaf outlet valves in operation
diameter located upstream of four cone outlet valves, three
1400 mm dia. and one 450 mm dia. The butterfly valves provide
emergency closure in case of malfunction or failure of the
cone outlet valves as well as isolating facilities to permit
maintenance of any cone outlet valve without disturbing the
operation of the other outlets. Drainage of the whole penstock is
through a 300 mm dia. pipe draining to the stilling basin.
The total discharge to the canal may vary between zero and
30.6 m3/s. It is expected that, for most of the year, two of the
1400 mm discharge valves will be used for water releases, with
the third held in reserve for use when it is necessary to pass the
highest discharges, or if one valve has to be taken out of service
for maintenance. The 450 mm valve is intended to be deployed
for the discharge of small flows, which would otherwise require
one 1400 mm valve to operate at a smaller opening than is
desirable.
The cone outlet valves operate according to the following
rules.
(a) The total discharge through all the valves and power station,
when built, shall not exceed 30.6 m3/s.
(b) The discharge through any one of the 1400 mm valves shall
not exceed 12 m3/s and the discharge through the 450 mm
Fig. 15. Testing the Howell–Bunger valves
Water Management 158 Issue WM3
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Fig. 16. Installing the Gandaf outlet penstock manifold
valve shall not exceed 1.7 m3/s (based on an allowable
velocity of 6 m/s through the upstream butterfly valve).
(c) None of the free-discharge valves shall be operated at an
opening of less than 5%.
3.4. Gandaf intake
Construction of Tarbela Dam in the 1970s had included the
Gandaf intake shaft, together with a short stub tunnel and
underground stilling basin. The tunnel had been closed by a steel
bulkhead which now had to be removed by divers, after
equalising the pressure on both sides by filling the shaft against
closed isolating gates. The stilling basin had been intended for
use with an underground power station, with the main tunnel
free-flowing. This was filled in after the detailed design was
changed to a pressure tunnel with control and power generation
at its downstream end.
The intake shaft, 4.9 m dia. for most of its length enlarging to
8.5 m at the bottom, is 80 m deep. It houses six sliding bonneted
gates, each 2 m  0.9 m, arranged in three pairs working in
parallel. In each pair, the downstream gate acts as the service gate
and the upstream gate acts as the guard gate.
With flow regulation at the outlet there is no longer a
requirement for the gates to operate at partial openings. In
normal operation they will be fully open but will close in an
emergency, or for inspection and maintenance. The gates are
operated by hydraulic cylinders, one per gate, with latching
mechanisms that keep the gates in the fully open position without
the need for oil pressure.
Downstream of the bonneted gates is a paddle-type overspeed
device that will automatically close the intake gates should the
water velocity in the tunnel exceed a pre-set value, thus
indicating that a serious fault has probably occurred
downstream.
3.5. Control and telemetry
Opening of the six intake gates can only be done at the intake
shaft. The master control panel is located in the control room of
the Tarbela power station. It is connected to the equipment in the
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al. 99
 intake shaft by cables, and to the outlet structure by a radio link.
The master control panel has the following functions
(a) monitor the condition of the equipment in the intake shaft
(b) monitor the total discharge through the tunnel and the canal
water level
(c) impose a maximum discharge at times of water shortage
(d) provide voice communication with the outlet structure
control room
(e) provide emergency closure of all six intake gates either
manually or automatically (activated by the overspeed
device)
( f ) provide a printout of discharged flows and other events
for record purposes.
The total discharge through the Gandaf outlet is accurately
measured through an ultrasonic flowmeter installed at the end of
the cut-and-cover tunnel. Water level is measured in the canal
head reach by three ultrasonic devices. A single piezoelectric
device is installed in the stilling basin. The measured water flow
and the water level in the canal are transmitted to the master
control panel at Tarbela power station through the outlet control
room and the radio link.
The outlet control system operates at three levels. The lowest
level is individual manual control of the cone outlet and butterfly
valves through the respective local control panels. These controls
are intended for testing and commissioning and in an emergency
should the other control systems fail.
The next control level is an emergency control desk. This is a
hard-wired system with minimum number of interlocks that
permits regulation of each individual valve and at the same time
displays their positions, discharges, and so on. This system is
intended as a backup system to be used should the computerised
system fail.
The main control system is fully computerised with two human–
machine interfaces (HMIs), each consisting of industrial-grade
personal computer (PC), flat screen thin film transistor (TFT)
colour display, keyboard and mouse. Any significant discrepancy
between the two will initiate an alarm. Should the ‘high water
level alarm’ or the ‘low water level alarm’ in the escape weir be
Fig. 17. SCADA control screens
100 Water Management 158 Issue WM3 Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
activated this will mean that either the control system has been
unable to regulate the water level adequately—that is, the control
system is defective—or a major problem has occurred in the canal
system. In such circumstances an alarm will sound and both
HMIs will be prevented from controlling the equipment, with
control passing automatically to the emergency control desk.
Typical screen displays are shown in Fig. 17.
The control system operates along the following general
performance criteria.
(a) The system must respond to changes in the outlet basin water
level, caused by changes in downstream water demand,
producing progressive changes in discharge passed into the
canal from Gandaf tunnel.
(b) The system must be stable under all operating conditions, and
short-term fluctuations in discharge (‘hunting’) must be
minimised.
(c) There must be no loss of water over escapes on the first reach of
the canal, other than in exceptional conditions, such as heavy
rainfall or rapid emergency shutdown of the canal.
The discharges from the cone outlet valves are controlled in
such a way that the water level in the main canal is maintained
within a pre-set range, irrespective of variations in pressure in
the penstock immediately upstream of the outlet valves or
variations in water level in Tarbela Reservoir.
The control system includes the following facilities for use in
automatic operation.
(a) An algorithm which estimates the discharge through each
cone outlet valve based on the water pressure upstream
of the valve, the valve opening and a database of valve
characteristics; the value thus obtained will be corrected,
if necessary, based on the total discharge as measured by
the ultrasonic flow measuring system.
(b) An algorithm to compare the readings from the pressure
transducers, taking into account valve openings, and identify
potentially faulty transducers and raise alarms.
(c) The option of operating the valves either in tandem, or
with one of the valves used for ‘trimming’ and the others
adjusted less frequently.
Laycock et al.
 Fig. 18. Pipeline inlet from main canal
Audible and visual alarms will be raised by the control system,
reporting any non-compliance with the operating criteria and
recommending corrective action.
4. TOPI PIPELINE AREA
About 4000 ha of new irrigation land are under gravity
command of the PHLC. The design of the system, as
downstream-controlled with intermediate storage within the
main canal, enabled the Topi area to be designed as a
low-pressure pipeline distribution system. Apart from a small
pilot project at Mardan, this is the first irrigation scheme in
Pakistan to be designed in this way. It enables equitable
distribution of water down to the tail end of the system, but
requires a different conceptual approach to design and operation.
Apart from advantages in equitable distribution of water,
pipelines offer cost savings over open canals in the rugged
topography of this area. They also cause less disruption and
conflict over land tenure boundaries, which in this area of steep
terrain are extremely fragmented, with as many as 20 separate
landowners to the hectare in some places.
The system was designed as semi-closed concrete pipelines with
400–900 mm dia., under a maximum working pressure of 5 m.
Pressure control is through float-operated Harris valves, enclosed
Fig. 19. Chamber for Harris float valves
Water Management 158 Issue WM3
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Fig. 20. Installation of Harris float valve
in concrete chambers to prevent interference (Figs 18–20). End
users can obtain water at any time by opening valves in the field,
subject to prearranged daily scheduling. However, in practice
the Irrigation Department was reluctant to introduce a new
management system and consequently the farm distribution
pipelines were not installed and the more familiar open
watercourses are used instead. It is hoped that the full pipeline
distribution network will be completed in the future.
5. REHABILITATION WORKS
The project included rehabilitation of 42 000 ha of irrigation and
drainage infrastructure under the command of the USC. For
minor canals and watercourses, pre-cast, parabolic channel
sections were introduced in the Swabi SCARP Project. These were
so successful and popular with the farmers that they were
continued in the PHLC project (Fig. 21). Local entrepreneurs are
now manufacturing these units in various sizes for private
development as well as for the upgrading of minors under the
agricultural development component of the PHLC, where they
have been used for rehabilitating canals up to a capacity of
0.62 m3/s.
On distributary channels, outlets were reconstructed as
proportional division structures (Fig. 22). These were provided
Fig. 21. Pre-cast parabolic canals have become ubiquitous in the
area, for both new and rehabilitated watercourses
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al. 101

Fig. 22. Proportional division structure constructed under
rehabilitation of existing distributaries
with refusal gates so that flow could be rejected by farmers
without recourse to the usual practice of diverting unwanted
water into the drainage system. Drop structures, most of
which were 80 years old, were replaced with new concrete
falls. Canal lining was installed through villages and in
unstable soils.
Subsurface drainage was introduced in areas subject to
waterlogging. This resulted in immediate and dramatic
improvements in crop production over 8000 ha. Surface drainage
improvements were carried out by enlarging main drainage
channels and reconstructing falls, bridges and channel
revetments.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The primary objective of the PHLC project was to improve
socio-economic conditions of the rural population by
removing the major constraints on agriculture of inadequate
irrigation supplies, waterlogging and frequent flooding.
Improvement in irrigated agriculture is being achieved
through
(a) alleviating the present shortage of irrigation water supplies to
an area of about 36 000 ha at the tail end of the USC
(b) reclaiming 8000 ha of waterlogged land
(c) providing new irrigation and drainage infrastructure for
5100 ha in the Topi priority area
(d) making sufficient water available via the PHLC to permit
future irrigation development of 20 000 ha in the command
of the USC.
What do you think?
To comment on this paper, please email up to 500 words to the editor at journals@ice.org.uk
Proceedings journals rely entirely on contributions sent in by civil engineers and related professionals, academics and students. Papers
should be 2000–5000 words long, with adequate illustrations and references. Please visit www.thomastelford.com/journals for author
guidelines and further details.
102 Water Management 158 Issue WM3
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Water Management 2005.158:93-102.
Innovative aspects to the design and construction of this
project included
(a) downstream control on main system canals
(b) in situ parabolic main canal
(c) piped distribution systems with downstream control
(d) pre-cast parabolic units for small canals.
The canal system and automatic gates were commissioned in late
2003 and are operating as planned, with little management effort
required. Tail-end shortages in the command area of Maira
Branch are reported to have been alleviated completely for the
first time in 90 years. Further development upstream under USC
command has commenced, utilising water resources freed up by
the PHLC serving downstream areas.
Management effort along the main canal system is limited to
operating the distributary head gates, with no routine
involvement on the main canals at all. There is therefore no
wastage of water through incorrect operation of the main canals.
The pre-cast parabolic canals have proved so successful that they
can now be seen throughout the province, manufactured in
numerous private pre-casting yards. The only part of the works
not yet operating as planned is the Topi area with its demand-
scheduled semi-closed pipeline network. Owing to a contracting
dispute the Harris regulating valves were not fully installed
and the pipes are running on a supply schedule. However, the
valves can be installed at a later opportunity.
7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The project was designed by PHLC Consultants consisting of:
Lahmeyer International GmbH, Germany; Binnie and Partners
(Overseas) Limited, UK; Hunting Technical Services (Limited),
UK; National Development Consultants (Registered), Lahore; and
BAK Consulting Engineers (Registered), Peshawar. Agricultural
development is being implemented separately by the provincial
government through its Department of Agriculture. The project
design and construction was administered through WAPDA
and the NWFP Irrigation Department. The main works were
financed through a loan from the Asian Development Bank.
Main contractors were STFA, Turkey; Siemens, Pakistan; Sarwar,
NWFP; and Khyber Grace, NWFP.
REFERENCES
1. DONALDSON M., BANGASH H. and STACEY D. Swabi salinity
control and reclamation project. Proceedings of the Institution
of Civil Engineers, Water and Maritime Engineering, 2003,
156, No. 1, 85–95.
Pehur high-level canal, NWFP, Pakistan Laycock et al.