GTFC 2020

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GTFC
COURSE BOOKLET
PONDICHERRY MARITIME ACADEMY – ELEMENTARY FIRST AID (EFA) BOOKLET
INDEX
1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF LIQUEFIED GAS TANKERS.……………………………..03
2. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF CARGO OPERATIONS……………………………………..13
3. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED GASES
….............................................................................................................45
4. KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF TANKER SAFETY CULTURE AND
SAFETY MANAGEMENT……………………………………………………………………..57
5. FIRE OR EXPLOSION ON A BERTH……………………………………………………..62
6. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF HAZARD CONTROL...............................................81
7. UNDERSTANDING OF INFORMATION ON A SAFETY DATA SHEET (SDS)
………………...............................................................................................89
8. FUNCTION AND PROPER USE OF GAS-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND
SIMILAR EQUIPMENT ………………............................................................94
9. PROPER USE OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES
……………………………………………………………………………………….…………....96
10. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES
IN ACCORDANCE WITH LEGISLATION AND INDUSTRY GUIDELINES AND
PERSONAL SHIPBOARD SAFETY RELEVANT TO LIQUEFIED GAS TANKERS
……………….............................................................................................100
11. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF FIRST AID WITH REFERENCE TO A MATERIAL
SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS)………………................................................109
12. FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE FIGHTING OPERATIONS…………………………..112

Page 1 of 142
13. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF EMERGENCY PROCEDURES INCLUDING
EMERGENCY SHUTDOWN………………………………………………………………..120
14. . BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON HUMAN AND
MARINE LIFE…………………………………………………………………………………125
15. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF SHIPBOARD PROCEDURES TO PREVENT
POLLUTION…………………………………………………………………………………..129
16. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF
SPILLAGE: POTENTIAL HAZARDS OF A LARGE LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS
SPILL DURING MARINE TRANSPORTATION ……………………………………..132
Page 2 of 142
1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF LIQUEFIED GAS TANKERS
1.1 Types of liquefied gas tankers

Types of Gas Carriers
Gas carriers range in capacity from the small pressurised tankers of between 500 and 6,000
m3 for shipment of propane, butane and the chemical gases at ambient temperature up to
the fully insulated or refrigerated seagoing tankers of over 100,000 m3 capacity for the
transport of LNG and LPG. Between those two distinct types is a third tanker type – semi-
pressurised gas carrier. These very flexible tankers are able to carry many cargoes in a fully
refrigerated condition at atmospheric pressure or at temperatures corresponding to carriage
pressure of between five and nine bar
The movement of liquefied gases by waterways is now a mature industry, served by a fleet of
many tankers, a network of export and import terminals and a wealth of knowledge and
experience on the part of various people involved.
Gas carriers have certain features common with other tankers used for the carriage of bulk
liquids such as oil and chemical tankers. A feature almost unique to the gas carrier is that the
cargo is kept under positive pressure to prevent air entering the cargo system.
This means that only cargo liquid and cargo vapour are present in the cargo tank an d
flammable atmospheres cannot develop. Furthermore, all gas carriers utilize closed cargo
systems when loading or discharging, with no venting of vapour being allowed to the
atmosphere. In the LNG trade, provision is always made for the use of a vapour return line
between tanker and shore to pass vapour displaced by the cargo transfer. In the LPG trade
this is not always the case as, under normal circumstances during loading, reliquefaction is
used to retain vapour on board. By these means cargo release to the atmosphere is virtually
eliminated and the risk of vapour ignition is minimised.
Gas carriers must comply with the standards set by the Gas Codes or national rules, and with
all safety and pollution requirements common to other tankers. The safety features inherent
in the tanker design requirements have helped considerably in the safety of these tankers.
Equipment requirements for gas carriers include temperature and pressure monitoring, gas
detection and cargo tank liquid level indicators, all of which are provided with alarms and
ancillary instrumentation. The variation of equipment as fitted can make the gas carrier one
of the most sophisticated tankers afloat today. There is considerable variation in the design,
construction and operation of gas carriers due to the variety of cargoes carried and the
number of cargo containment systems utilised. Cargo containment systems may be of the
independent tank type (pressurised, semi-pressurised or fully refrigerated) or of the
membrane type.
Fully pressurised tankers
Most fully pressurised LPG carriers are fitted with a number of horizontal cylindrical or
spherical cargo tanks and have capacities up to 6,000 m3. Fully pressurised tankers are still
Page 3 of 142
being built in numbers and represent a cost-effective, simply way of moving LPG to and from
smaller gas terminals.
Semi-pressurised tankers
With the development of metals suitable for containment of liquefied gases at low
temperatures, semi-pressurised tankers were developed. By installing a reliquefaction plant,
insulating the cargo tanks and making us e of special steels, the thickness of the pressure
vessels, and hence there weight, could be reduced. These carriers, incorporating tanks either
cylindrical, spherical or bi-lobe in shape, are able to load or discharge gas cargoes at both
refrigerated and pressurised storage facilities.
Fully refrigerated tankers
Fully refrigerated tankers are built to carry liquefied gases at low temperature and
atmospheric pressure between terminals equipped with fully refrigerated storage tanks. The
tankers have prismatic-shaped cargo tanks fabricated from 3.5% nickel steel, allowing the
carriage of cargoes at temperatures as low as –48°C, marginally below the boiling point of
pure propane.
Prismatic tanks enable the tanker’s cargo carrying capacity to be maximized, thus making the
fully refrigerated tanker highly suitable for carrying large volumes of cargo such as LPG,
ammonia and vinyl chloride over long distances.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers
LNG is carried at its boiling point, being –162°C. LNG containment systems have developed
considerably. LNG carriers are fitted with independent cargo tanks or with membrane tanks.
At about the same time as the development of fully refrigerated LPG carriers was taking
place, naval architects were facing their most demanding gas carrier challenge. This was the
transport of LNG. Natural gas, another clean, non-toxic fuel, is now the third most important
energy source in the world, after oil and coal, but is often produced far from the centres of
consumption.
Because a gas in its liquefied form occupies much less space, and because of the critical
temperature of liquefied methane, the ocean transport of LNG only makes sense from a
commercial viewpoint if it is carried in a liquefied state at atmospheric pressure; as such, it
represents a greater engineering challenge than shipping LPG, mainly because it has to be
carried at a much lower temperature; its boiling point being -162°C.
The pioneering cargo of LNG was carried across the Atlantic Ocean in 1958 and by 1964 the
first purpose-built LNG carriers were in service under a long-term gas purchase agreement.
LNG containment system technology has developed considerably since those early days:
now about one-half of the LNG carriers in service are fitted with independent cargo tanks and
one-half with membrane tanks. The majority of LNG carriers are between 125,000 and
135,000 m3 in capacity.
In the modern fleet of LNG carriers, there is an interesting exception concerning ship size.
This is the introduction of several smaller ships of between 18,000 and 19,000 m3 having
been built in 1994 and later to service the needs of importers of smaller volumes.
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1.2 General arrangement and Construction:
A cargo containment system is the total arrangement for containing cargo including, where
fitted:
 A primary barrier (the cargo tank);

 Secondary barrier (if fitted);
 Associated thermal insulation;
 Any intervening spaces, and
 Adjacent structure, if necessary, for the support of these elements.
For cargoes carried at temperatures between -10°C and -55°C the tanker's hull may act as
the secondary barrier and in such cases it may be a boundary of the hold space.
The basic cargo tank types utilised on board gas carriers are in accordance with the list
below:
 lndependent Type 'A' (fully ref.)

 lndependent Type 'B' (typical LNG tank)
 Independent Type 'C' (fully pressurised)
 Membrane (typical LNG tank)
Individual legislations may use differing definitions for tank types
Independent Tanks
lndependent tanks are completely self-supporting and do not form part of the tanker's hull
structure. Moreover, they do not contribute to the hull strength of a tanker. As defined in the
IGC Code, and depending mainly on the design pressure, there are three different types of
independent tanks for gas carriers: these are known as Types 'A', 'B' and 'C'.
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Type 'A' tanks
Type 'A' tanks are constructed primarily of flat surfaces. The maximum allowable tank design
pressure in the vapour space for this type of system is 0.7 barg; this means cargoes must be
carried in a fully refrigerated condition at or near atmospheric pressure (normally below 0.25
barg).
Figure 33.1 shows a section through this type of tank as found on a fully refrigerated LPG
carrier. This is a self-supporting prismatic tank which requires conventional internal stiffening.
In this example e the tank is surrounded by a skin of foam insulation. Where perlite insulation
is used, it would be found filling the whole of the hold space.
The material used for Type 'A' tanks is not crack propagation resistant. Therefore, in order to
ensure safety, in the unlikely event of cargo tank leakage, a secondary containment system is
required. This secondary containment system is known as a secondary barrier and is a
feature of all tankers with Type 'A' tanks capable of carrying cargoes below -10°C.
For a fully refrigerated LPG carrier (which will not carry cargoes below -55°C) the secondary
barrier must be a complete barrier capable of containing the whole tank volume at a defined
angle of heel and may form part of the tanker's hull, as shown in the figure. In general, it is
this design approach which is adopted. By this means appropriate parts of the tanker's hull
are constructed of special steel capable of withstanding low temperatures. The alternative is
to build a separate secondary barrier around each cargo tank.
Page 6 of 142
The IGC Code stipulates that a secondary barrier must be able to contain tank leakage for a
period of 15 days. On such tankers, the space between the cargo tank (sometimes referred to
as the primary barrier) and the secondary barrier is known as the hold space. When
flammable cargoes are being carried, these spaces must be filled with inert gas to prevent a
flammable atmosphere being created in the event of primary barrier leakage.
Type ' B ' tanks
Type 'B' tanks can be constructed of flat surfaces or they may be of the spherical type. This
type of containment system is the subject of much more detailed stress analysis compared to
Type 'A' systems. These controls must include an investigation of fatigue life and a crack
propagation analysis.
The most common arrangement of Type 'B' tank is a spherical tank as illustrated in Figure
33.2(a). This tank is of the Kvaerner Moss design. Because of the enhanced design factors, a
Type 'B' tank requires only a partial secondary barrier in the form of a drip tray.
The hold space in this design is normally filled with dry inert gas. However, when adopting
modern practice, it may be filled with dry air provided that inerting of the space can be
achieved if the vapour detection system shows cargo leakage. A protective steel dome covers
the primary barrier above deck level and insulation is applied to the outside of the tank. The
Type 'B' spherical tank is almost exclusively applied to LNG tankers; seldom featuring in the
LPG trade.
A Type 'B' tank, however, need not be spherical. There are Type 'B' tanks of prismatic shape
in LNG service. The prismatic Type 'B' tank has the benefit of maximizing tanker-hull
volumetric efficiency and having the entire cargo tank placed beneath the main deck.
Where the prismatic shape is used, the maximum design vapour space pressure is, as for
Type 'A' tanks, limited to 0.7 barg. A drawing of a self-supporting prismatic Type 'B' tank is
shown in Figure 33.2(b).
Type 'C' tanks (fully pressurised)
Type 'C' tanks are normally spherical or cylindrical pressure vessels having design pressures
higher than 4 barg. The cylindrical vessels may be vertically or horizontally mounted. This
Page 7 of 142
type of containment system is always used for semi-pressurised and fully pressurised gas
carriers. In the case of the semi-pressurized tankers it can also be used for fully refrigerated
carriage, provided appropriate low temperature steels are used in tank construction. Type 'C'
tanks are designed and built to conventional pressure vessel codes and, as a result, can be
subjected to accurate stress analysis. Furthermore, design stresses are kept low. Accordingly,
no secondary barrier is required for Type 'C' tanks and the hold space can be filled with either
inert gas or dry air and for fully pressurised tankers normal air may be allowed.
In the case of a typical fully pressurised tanker (where the cargo is carried at ambient
temperature), the tanks may be designed for a maximum working pressure of about 18 barg.
For a semi-pressurised tanker the cargo tanks and associated equipment are designed for a
working pressure of approximate ly 5 to 7 barg and a vacuum of 0.3 barg.
Typically, the tank steels for the semi-pressurised tankers are capable of withstanding
carriage temperatures of -48°C for LPG or -104°C for ethylene. (Of course, an ethylene
carrier may also be used to transport LPG.) Figure 33.3 shows Type 'C' tanks as fitted in a
typical fully pressurised gas carrier. With such an arrangement there is comparatively poor
utilisation of the hull volume; however, this can be improved by using intersecting pressure
vessels or bi-lobe type tanks which may be designed with a taper at the forward end of the
tanker. This is a common arrangement in semi-pressurised tankers as shown in Figure 33.4.
Membrane Tanks (Membrane - 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)
The concept of the membrane containment system is based on a very thin primary barrier
(membrane - 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick) which is supported through the insulation. Such tanks are
not self-supporting like the independent tanks outlined in 33.2.1; an inner hull forms the load
bearing structure. Membrane containment systems must always be provided with a secondary
barrier to ensure the integrity of the total system in the event of primary barrier leakage. The
membrane is designed in such a way that thermal expansion or contraction is compensated
Page 8 of 142
without over-stressing the membrane itself. There are two principal types of membrane
system in common use both named after the companies who developed them and both
designed primarily for the carriage of LNG. These two companies have now combined into one
and future developments can be expected.
GTT 96 Membrane system
Figures 33.5(a) and 33.5(b) show the GTT 96 system comprising a thin lnvar primary barrier.
lnvar is a stainless steel alloy containing about 36 per cent nickel and 0.2 per cent carbon.
This is attached to the inner (cold) surface of perlite-filled plywood boxes used as primary
insulation. These boxes have thickness of between 200 and 300 millimetres. These, in turn,
are attached to an identical inner layer of lnvar (the secondary barrier) and, finally, a further
set of similar perlite-filled boxes is used for secondary insulation. lnvar is chosen for the
membranes because of its very low coefficient of thermal expansion, thus making expansion
joints, or corrugation, in the barriers unnecessary.
Newer designs of the GTT 96 system utilise lnvar membranes of 0.7 millimetres thickness in
strakes of 0.5 metres width and strengthened plywood boxes to hold the perlite insulation.
The perlite is processed with silicon to make it impervious to water or moisture. The thickness
of the insulation boxes can be adjusted to obtain the required amount of boil-off. Figure
33.5(b) shows a section through the basic GTT 96 containment system.
GTT Mk III
The GTT Mk III system, shown in Figure 33.6(a), features a primary barrier of stainless steel
(1.2 millimetres in thickness) having raised corrugations, or waffles, to allow for expansion
and contraction. In the original Mark I design, the insulation that supports the primary
membrane consisted of laminated balsa wood panels held between two plywood layers; the
Page 9 of 142
face plywood formed the secondary barrier. The balsa wood panels were interconnected with
specially designed joints comprising PVC foam wedges and plywood scabs and were
supported on the inner hull of the tanker by wooden grounds.
In the Mark III design the balsa wood insulation is replaced by reinforced cellular foam.
Within the foam there is a fibreglass cloth/aluminium laminate acting as secondary barrier.
Figure 33.6(b) shows a cutaway section through the GTT Mk III containment system.
Semi-Membrane Tanks
The semi-membrane concept is a variation of the membrane tank system. The primary
barrier is much thicker than that in the membrane system, having flat sides and large
radiused corners. The tank is self-supporting when empty but not in the loaded condition.
In this condition the liquid (hydrostatic) and vapour pressures acting on the primary barrier
are transmitted through the insulation to the inner hull as is the case with the membrane
system. The corners and edges are designed to accommodate expansion and contraction.
Although semi-membrane tanks were originally developed for the carriage of LNG no
commercial-size LNG carrier has yet been built to this design. The system has however, been
adopted for use in LPG tankers and several Japanese-built fully refrigerated LPG carriers have
been delivered to this design.
Integral Tanks
Integral tanks form a structural part of the tanker's hull and are influenced by the same loads
which stress the hull structure. Integral tanks are not normally allowed for the carriage of
liquefied gas if the cargo temperature is below –10°C. Certain tanks on a limited number of
Japanese-built LPG carriers are of the integral type for the dedicated carriage of fully
refrigerated butane.
Materials of Construction and Insulation Construction Materials
The choice of cargo tank materials is dictat ed by the minimum service temperature and, to a
lesser degree, by compatibility with the car goes carried. The most important property to
consider in the selection of cargo tank materials is the low-temperature toughness. This
consideration is vital as most metals and alloys (except aluminium) become brittle below a
certain temperature.
Treatment of structural carbon steels can be used to achieve low-temperature characteristics

and the Gas Codes specify low-temperature limits for varying grades of steel down to -55°C.
Reference should be made to the Gas Codes and classification society rules for details on the
various grades of steel.
According to the Gas Codes, tankers carrying fully refrigerated LPG cargoes may have tanks
capable of withstanding temperatures down to -55°C. Usually, the final temperature is chosen
by the shipowner, depending on the cargoes expected to be carried. This is often determined
by the boiling point of liquid propane at atmospheric pressure and, hence, cargo tank
temperature limitations are frequently set at about -46°C. To achieve this service
temperature, steels such as fully killed, fine-grain, carbon-manganese steel, sometimes
alloyed with 0.5 per cent nickel, are used.
Page 10 of 142
Page 11 of 142
Where a tanker has been designed specifically to carry fully refrigerated ethylene (with a
boiling point at atmospheric pressure of -104 °C) or LNG (atmospheric boiling point -162°C),
nickel-alloyed steels, stainless steels (such as Invar) or aluminium must be used for the
material of tank construction.
Tank Insulation
Thermal insulation must be fitted to refrigerated cargo tanks for the following reasons:
 To minimise heat flow into cargo tanks, thus reducing boil-off.

 To protect the tanker structure around the cargo tanks from the effects of low
temperature.
Insulation materials for use on gas carriers should possess the following main characteristics:
 Low thermal conductivity.

 Ability to bear loads.
 Ability to withstand mechanical damage.
 Light weight.
 Unaffected by cargo liquid or vapour.
The vapour-sealing property of the insulation system, to prevent ingress of water or water
vapour, is important. Not only can ingress of moisture result in loss of insulation efficiency
but progressive condensation and freezing can cause extensive damage to the insulation.
Humidity conditions must, therefore, be kept as low as possible in hold spaces. One method
to protect the insulation is to provide a foil skin acting as a vapour barrier to surround the
system.
Table 33.1 provides information on the insulation materials normally used in gas
carrier construction, together with approximate values for their thermal conductivities at
10°C.
Thermal insulation may be applied to various surfaces, depending on the design of the
containment system. For Type 'B' and 'C' containment systems, insulation is applied directly
Page 12 of 142
to the cargo tank's outer surfaces . For Type 'A' cargo tanks insulation can be applied either
directly to the cargo tank or to the inner hull (if fitted) although its application to the cargo
tank is more common.
As most insulation materials are flammable, great care is required at times of construction or
refit to ensure that fires are avoided.
2. Basic knowledge of cargo operations
2.1 Piping systems and valves

Cargo Pipelines
Gas carriers are fitted with liquid and vapour manifolds. These are connected to liquid and
vapour headers — or pipelines — (see Figure 32.2 ) with branches leading into each cargo
tank. The liquid loading line is led through the tank dome to the bottom of each cargo tank;
the vapour connection is taken from the top of each cargo tank. On semi-pressurised and
fully refrigerated LPG tankers a vapour connection is taken from the vapour header to the
cargo compressor room where reliquefaction of the boil-off takes place. After reliquefaction
the cargo is piped, via a condensate return line, to each cargo tank.
Cargo pipelines are not allowed beneath deck level on gas carriers; therefore, all pipe
connections to tanks must be taken through the cargo tank domes which penetrate the main
deck. Vapour relief valves are also fitted on the tank domes; these are piped, via a vent
header, to the vent riser.
The vent risers are fitted at a safe height and safe distances from accommodation spaces and
other such gas-safe zones as specified in the applicable Gas Codes.
Provision must be made in the design and fitting of cargo pipelines to allow for thermal
expansion and contraction. This is best achieved by the fitting of expansion loops or by using
the natural geometry of the pipework, as appropriate. In a few specific cases, expansion
bellows may be fitted and, where this is planned, corrosion resistant materials should be
used. Where expansion bellows are fitted in vapour lines, it should be ensured that their
pressure rating at least meets the liquid pipeline design criteria. The use of bellows in liquid
lines is not recommended. Furthermore, expansion bellows are often subject to a
considerable amount of wear and tear while a tanker is in service — in particular, sea-water
corrosion must be carefully avoided otherwise pin hole leaks are liable to develop.
It is also important not to alter or adjust adjacent pipeline supports once the tanker has
entered into service since they form an integral part of the expansion arrangements.
Furthermore it should also be noted that parts of pipeline systems are fitted with strong
anchor points to resist lateral or vertical displacement from surge pressures. Similarly, when
replacing parts such as bolts and restraining rods, care must be taken to ensure that the new
parts are of the correct material for the service.
Removable spool pieces are taken in or out of pipelines to interconnect sections of line for
special operational reasons such as using the inert gas plant or ensuring segregation of
incompatible cargoes. These spool pieces should not be left in position after use but should be
removed and pipelines blanked to ensure positive segregation.
Page 13 of 142
LNG vessel cargo piping systems comprise of the following:

Liquid lines (or Headers)
Liquid lines are comprised of butt welded, cryogenic stainless steel pipeline connecting each
of the cargo tanks to the cargo manifolds by means of a common line. At each tank, there is
a manifold which connects to the loading and discharge lines from the tank to allow for the
loading and discharge of cargo. This manifold connects to the cargo pump discharge lines, the
loading line and the spray line. All
sections of the liquid line outside the cargo tanks are insulated and covered with a moulded
cover to act as a tough water and vapour tight barrier.
Vapour lines
The vapour lines are comprised of cryogenic stainless steel pipeline connecting each of the
cargo tanks by means of a common line to the vapour manifold, the compressor room and
the forward vent mast. The line to the compressor room allows for the vapour to be used in
the following procedures:
 Sent ashore during cargo loading by means of the HD compressors in order to

 control pressure in the cargo tanks.
 During voyages, the boil-off gas is sent to the engine room via the LD
 compressor and heater for use as fuel in the boilers.
 During repair periods, the gas may be vaporised and used to purge-dry the
cargo tanks, if required.
The line to the forward vent mast acts as a safety valve to all tanks and is used to control the
tank pressure during normal operations. All sections of the vapour line outside the cargo
tanks are insulated and covered with a moulded cover to act as a tough water and vapour
tight barrier.
Spray lines
The spray lines are comprised of cryogenic stainless steel pipeline connecting the spray pump
in each tank to the stripping/spray header and serves the following functions by supplying
LNG to:
Page 14 of 142
1. The spray rails in each tank, used for cooldown and gas generation.
2. The main liquid line, used for cooling down lines prior to cargo operations.
3. Priming of discharge lines in the cargo tanks to prevent line surge when
starting cargo pumps.
4. Supply of LNG to the vapourisers for gas generation to the compressors and heaters.
All sections of the spray line outside the cargo tanks are insulated and covered with a
moulded cover to act as a tough water and vapour tight barrier.
Fuel gas line
During transportation of LNG at sea, gas vapour is produced due to the transfer of heat from
the outside sea and air through the tank insulation. In addition, energy is absorbed from the
cargo motion due to the vessel’s movement. Under normal power conditions, the boil-off is
used as fuel in the ship’s boilers.
The gas vapour is taken from the vapour header and passed on into the LD compressor. It
then passes through the LD heater before going to the boilers.
The main gas isolating valve is located immediately forward of the accommodation block and
a nitrogen purging connection will also be located at this point. From the point of entry into
the machinery space, the pipe runs through a ventilated duct which is served by vent fans
situated on the open deck to draw the surrounding air to the atmosphere. The vent duct is
fitted with gas detection.
Vent line
During normal operations, the pressure in the tanks is controlled by the use of the boil-off
gas in the boilers as fuel, or controlled via the forward vent mast and the common vapour
line.
Each cargo tank is also fitted with an independent means of venting, comprising of two lines
exiting the tank top into their own pilot operated relief valve. From here the gas passes
through a line into a vent mast where it is vented to atmosphere.
All vent masts are protected by the N2 purge and fire smothering system. At certain points
along the vent line, sample points are fitted to facilitate inerting and aeration of the system
during refit. Sections of the vent line outside the cargo tanks are insulated with a rigid
polyurethane foam covered with a molded GRP cover to act as a tough water and vapour
tight barrier.
Inerting / Aeration line

The system comprises of a flanged line which supplies inert gas or dry air to the cargo tanks
and pipelines for inerting and drying during refit periods.
The line is connected to the gas header and the liquid header by means of a spool piece. By
selective use of the spool pieces and flexible hoses, it is possible to inert or aerate all tanks or
a single cargo tank
Page 15 of 142
Cargo Valves
Isolating valves for cargo tanks must be provided in accordance with applicable Gas Codes.
Where cargo tanks have a MARVS great er than 0.7 barg (Type ‘C’ tanks according to the IGC
code), the liquid and vapour connections on the tank dome (except relief valve connections)
should be fitted with a double valve arrangement. This should comprise one manually
operated valve and a remotely operated isolation valve fitted in series.
There are some possible exemptions: e.g. one manual valve and one excessive flow valve, or
two manual valves. For very small sample points and gauge connections, it is possible to use
only one valve; in this case an orifice should be in place to avoid excessive flow.
Remotely operated emergency shut-down valves are provided at the liquid and vapour
manifolds for all gas carriers. Figure 31.1 shows the piping system on a cargo tank dome
including the valving arrangement. This particular drawing is typical for a semi-pressurised
tanker.
The types of isolation valve normally found on gas tankers are ball, globe, plug or butterfly
valves. These valves are usually fitted with pneumatic or hydraulic actuators.
Ball valves for liquefied gas service are provided with a means of internal pressure relief. This
is usually a hole drilled between the ball cavity and the downstream side of the valve. Valves
must be of the fail-safe type.
Page 16 of 142
Emergency Shut-down (ESD) Systems
At a number of locations around the tanker (bridge front, gangway, compressor room and
cargo control room, emergency control station), pneumatic valves or electric push buttons
are provided. When operated, these controls close remotely actuated valves and stop cargo
pumps and compressors (where appropriate). This provides an emergency-stop facility for
cargo handling. Such emergency shut-down (ESD) is also required to be automatic upon loss
of electric control or valve actuator power. Individual tank filling valves are required to close
automatically upon the actuation of an overfill sensor in the tank to which they are
connected. ESD valves may be either pneumatically or hydraulically operated but in either
case they must be fail-safe; in other words they must close automatically upon loss of
actuating power.
A vital consideration, particularly during loading, is the possibility of surge pressure

generation when the tanker’s ESD system is actuated. The situation varies from terminal to
terminal and is a function of the loading rate, the length of the terminal pipeline, the rate of
valve closure and the valve characteristic itself. The phenomenon of surge pressure
generation is complex and its effects can be extreme, such as the rupture of hoses or hard
arm joints. Precautions are, therefore, necessary to avoid damage and sometimes, loading
jetties are fitted with surge tanks.
Terminals should confirm tanker’s ESD valve closure times and adjust loading rates
accordingly or place on board a means to allow the tanker to actuate the terminal ESD
system and so halt the flow of cargo before the tanker’s ESD valves start to close. In this
respect consultation between the ship and shore must always take place, to establish the
parameters relevant to surge pressure generation and to agree upon a safe loading rate .
Relief Valves for Cargo Tanks and Pipelines
Best practice requires at least two pressure relief valves of equal capacity to be fitted to any
cargo tank, including a system to avoid both valves being closed at the same time. Both
valves must be open during operations.
The types of valves normally fitted are either spring-loaded or pilot-operated. Pilot-operated
relief valves may be found on all tank-types while spring-loaded relief valves are usually only
used on pressurized Type ‘C’ tanks. The use of pilot-operated relief valves on fully
refrigerated tanks ensures accurate operation at the low-pressure conditions prevailing; their
use on Type ‘C’ tanks allows variable relief settings to be achieved using the same valve.
This may be done by changing the pilot-spring. Figure 31.2 shows a typical pilot-operated
relief valve. Other types of pilot valve are available for adjustment of set pressure and
blowdown pressure.
Adjustable settings for pilot-operated relief valves are used mainly in two different roles.
Firstly, they may be used to provide a set pressure (not exceeding the MARVS) but higher
than normal. This is known as the harbour setting. Secondly, on Type ‘C’ tanks, they can be
adjusted to permit a means of reducing the MARVS.
Whenever such valves are used for more than one pressure setting, a proper record must be
kept of changes to the pilot valve springs. The pilot assembly cap must always be re-sealed
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after such changes and this will ensure that no unauthorised adjustments can be made. When
relief valve settings are changed, the high pressure alarm should be adjusted accordingly.
Cargo tank relief valves exhaust via the vent header. From there, the vapour is led to
atmosphere via one or more vent risers. Vent riser drains should be provided. These drains
should be closed and checked regularly, to ensure no accumulation of rain water in the riser.
Any accumulation of water has the effect of altering the relief valve operation due to
increased back pressure.
Pressure relief valves on tanks require routine maintenance and for further information on
this subject the manufacturer’s literature should be referenced.
The Gas Codes’ best practice requires all pipelines which may be isolated, when full of liquid,
to be provided with relief valves to allow for thermal expansion of the liquid. These valves
usually exhaust back into cargo tanks.
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Cargo Pumps:
Cargo pumps fitted on board gas carriers are normally of centrifugal design and may be
either of the deepwell or submerged type. They may operate alone or in parallel with one
another. They may also operate in series with a deck-mounted booster pump and a cargo
heater: this would happen during discharge of LPG to pressurised storage (see Section 31.3).
Some fully pressurised tankers discharge cargo by pressurising tanks with vapour and
booster pumps are fitted to speed the cargo transfer.
Running pumps in parallel and in series
During a gas carrier discharge, cargo pumps are usually run in parallel but, when a
refrigerated tanker discharges to pressurised storage, cargo tank pumps are run in series
with a booster pump, as explained in Section 32.7.3. When pumps are run in parallel, their
individual pump characteristics can be combined to give, for example, a flow/head curve for
two, three or four pumps when running together.
Taking the pump characteristic as given in Figure 31.3, the flow/head curve for running two
pumps in parallel can be easily plotted by doubling the flow rate at the appropriate head for a
single pump. This is shown in Figure 31.4. Similarly, when running three pumps in parallel,
the flow rate at the appropriate head can be obtained by multiplying the single pump flow
rate, at the same head, by three. Thus, a series of curves can be built up from the pump
characteristic curve of a single pump.
When pumps are run in series, again the individual pump characteristics curves can be
combined to give the appropriate curve for the series configuration. Figure 31.5 shows how
this can be done using, for example, two similar pumps in series (see again Figure 31.3). This
time, for each value of flow rate, the appropriate head developed by a single pump is doubled
to give the resultant head.
The foregoing arguments relate only to pump performance. For a full assessment of a
tanker’s discharge performance the effect of head difference from the cargo tank to the
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manifold and of pipeline resistance between cargo pump and manifold should be subtracted
from pump performance.
The cargo flow rates achieved by any pump or combination of pumps will depend upon the
back pressure encountered due to static head (difference in liquid levels of receiving tank and
tank being discharged) and the resistance to flow in the pipeline. To determine the flow rate
for a particular pipeline set-up, the shore pipeline flow characteristic must be superimposed
upon the tanker’s pumping characteristic. This is dealt with in Section 32.7 but it should be
noted that the system resistance may be steep enough to restrict the flow shown in Figures
31.4 and 31.5.
The minimum necessary pumping power should be used in order to reduce heat input to the
cargo and to limit the rise in saturated vapour pressure of the delivered cargo
Deepwell pumps
Deepwell pumps are the most common type of cargo pump for Gas carriers. Figure
31.6 shows a typical deepwell pump assembly. The pump is driven electrically or hydraulically
(through a sealing arrangement) by a motor which is mounted outside the tank. The drive
shaft is held in carbon bearings inside the cargo discharge tube and these bearings are
lubricated and cooled by the cargo flow.
The centrifugal impeller is mounted at the bottom of the cargo tank and frequently comprises
two or three stages together with a first stage inducer: this latter is used to minimise the
NPSH requirement of the pump. Shaft sealing at the cargo tank dome consists of a double
mechanical seal flushed with lubricating oil. This stops cargo leakages to atmosphere. The
accurate alignment of the motor coupling, thrust bearing and mechanical oil seal is important.
Furthermore, the length of the drive shaft c an be a problem and the longer it becomes the
more support is needed. Accordingly, it is often found that the larges t types of tankers are
fitted with submerged pumps.
Submerged motor pumps
Submerged motor pumps are installed at the bottom of cargo tanks and enable very low
pump-down levels to be achieved. They are fitted on some of the larger gas carriers. The
pump and electric motor are integrally mounted on the same shaft so eliminating the need for
a mechanical seal or coupling. Power is supplied to the motor through specially sheathed
cables. Electrical cabling is passed through a hazardous area junction box in the tank dome
and then, by flexible cables to the motor terminals. The older mineral insulated copper
sheathed cable used inside cargo tanks has been superseded in modern tankers by flexible
stainless steel armoured insulated power cables.
These pumps are cooled and lubricated by car go flow and are, therefore, prone to damage
due to loss of flow. Accordingly, the pump is protected from dry running by safety devices
such as an under-current relay, a low discharge pressure switch, or a low tank level switch.
Figure 31.7 shows a typical submerged pump/motor assembly for a gas carrier. Submerged
pumps need to be designed for the particular grades of cargo found on the ship’s Certificate
of Fitness.
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For example, contrary to the hydrocarbon gases, ammonia is an electric conductor and can
also be a particularly corrosive cargo for some materials such as copper wires and electrical
insulation. Pump design must take this into account. To preserve the electric motor, pumps
used for ammonia have the electric stator enclosed in a ‘can’.
Booster pumps
Booster pumps are usually of the centrifugal type. They may be vertically or horizontally
mounted on deck in the appropriate discharge line. In these positions, they will be driven by
an increased safety (E Exe) (see Section 31.8) electric motor. Alternatively, they may be in
the cargo compressor room. When fitted in the compressor room, they are driven through a
gas-tight bulkhead by an electric motor installed in the electric motor room. Figures 31.8
and 31.9 show examples of these types of pump. The particular pumps shown are fitted with
double mechanical seals. The seal flushing system should be well maintained to ensure
continuing reliability.
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Ice prevention at cargo pumps

The formation of ice or hydrates may occur in tankers carrying refrigerated or semi-
pressurised LPG. Furthermore, hydrates may be transferred from the terminal during loading
operations. Hydrates from the shore can be removed by cargo filters in the terminal loading
lines.
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Hydrate formations may enter cargo pumps, block lubricating passages, unbalance impellers
and seize bearings. To prevent such damage it is common practice to inject a small quantity
of freezing-point depressant into the cargo pump, especially submerged pumps, to facilitate
de-icing. Because of the danger of methanol contamination to certain LPG cargoes, injection
of this product should not normally be allowed without cargo receivers’ agreement. When
deepwell pumps are not in operation, it is recommended that manual rotation of the shafts be
carried out during cool-down and loading to prevent freezing of the impellers.
2.2 Cargo handling equipment:

Cargo handling and monitoring equipments for Liquefied Gas carriers Liquefied gas carriers
fitted with cargo, booster, ballast and stripping pumps, lines, eductors and their associated
instrumentation and controls should be in good order and evidence of regular testing should
be kept. Instrumentation, valves and pipe work should be clearly marked to indicate their
service and where applicable the compartment to which they relate.
Equipment used for Cargo Operations, varies with the type of vessel and its age. Some of the
equipment which may be found on board is listed below. Other items of equipment will be
found on board and the instruction manuals for the equipment and Ship Specific Operating
Manuals should be consulted for details.
1. Inert Gas and Dry Air Generator

2. Nitrogen Generator
3. Cargo / Spray pumps
4. Compressor ( High & Low Duty)
5. Cargo Heaters (High and Low Duty)
6. LNG Vaporizer
7. Forcing Vaporizer
8. Mist Separator
9. Vacuum Pumps
10.Fixed Gas detection Systems
11.Emergency shutdown system (ESD) and Cargo Tank Protection System
12.Ship Shore Link
13.Relief Systems
14.Cargo Tank Gauging Systems
Inert gas, dry air & Nitrogen generator

Many LNG vessels are equipped with an inert gas generator which may also be used to
produce dry air. The inert gas and/or dry air is used for the inerting and gas freeing of cargo
tanks, cargo pipes and void spaces when required prior to and after a refit or inspection
period.
Inert gas generator:

Inert gas means a gas (e.g. nitrogen) or mixture of gases, containing insufficient oxygen to
support combustion. Many LNG vessels are equipped with an inert gas generator which may
also be used to produce dry air. The inert gas and/or dry air is used for the inerting and gas
freeing of cargo tanks, cargo pipes and void spaces when required prior to and after a refit or
inspection period.
The operating principle is based on the combustion of a low sulphur content fuel and the
cleaning and drying of the exhaust gases. The inert gas plant includes an inert gas generator,
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a scrubbing tower unit, two centrifugal fans, an effluent water seal, a fuel injection unit, an
intermediate dryer unit (refrigeration type), a final dryer unit (adsorption type) together with
an instrumentation / control system.
Inert gas is produced by the combustion of gas oil supplied by the fuel oil pump with air
provided by blowers, in the combustion chamber of the inert gas generator. Good combustion
is essential for the production of a good quality, soot free, low oxygen inert gas.
The products of the combustion are mainly carbon dioxide, water and small quantities of
oxygen, carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides and hydrogen. The nitrogen content is generally
unchanged during the combustion process and the inert gas produced consists mainly of 86%
nitrogen and 14% carbon dioxide. Initially, the hot combustion gases produced are cooled
indirectly in the combustion chamber by a sea water jacket. Thereafter, cooling of the gases
mainly occurs in the scrubber section of the generator where the sulphur oxides are washed
out. The sea water for the inert gas generator is supplied by one of the ballast pumps.
Before delivery out of the generator, water droplets and trapped moisture are separated from
the inert gases by a demister. Further removal of water occurs in the intermediate dryer
stage, where the refrigeration unit cools the gas to a temperature of about 5 degree C. The
bulk of the water in the gas condenses and is drained away with the gas leaving this stage via
a demister. In the final stage, the water is removed by absorption process in a desiccant
dryer.
The oxygen level controls the ratio of the air/fuel mixture supplied to the burner. The oxygen
content must be below 1% by volume and the inert gas must have an acceptable dewpoint
and minimal levels of soot. These minimum levels can be found in the ship specific cargo
information book.
The inert gas generator can produce dry-air instead of inert gas with the same capacity. For
the production of dry-air:
1. There is no combustion in the generator.
2. There is no measure of oxygen content.
3. The oxygen signal is overridden when the mode selector is on dry-air production
After the processes of cooling and drying and, subject to satisfactory dew point, the dry air is
supplied to the cargo system.
The testing of the IG system should be included within the vessel’s planned maintenance
system along with maintenance routines recommended by the plant manufacturers. Any
defects to the IG Plant must be reported to the management office.
The following precautions should be observed:-
1. The whole system should be visually checked before starting up, in particular the
deck non return valves.
2. The piping system to the vent outlet should be opened to release any pressure
and prevent back-flow. Temporary connections / spool pieces to the cargo
system should be connected.
3. The scrubber water supply should be started before beginning combustion.
4. The gas produced should be vented to atmosphere until it is of sufficiently good
quality for use. It is important that the gas is clean. Reducing the oxygen level
to very low levels can result in excessive soot being delivered with the IG
5. The gas quality should be continually monitored while the plant is in use.
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6. After use, the temporary connections / spool pieces to the cargo system must be
disconnected and the flanges blanked securely.
Nitrogen generator
Most LNG vessels are equipped with nitrogen generators, installed in the engine room, which
produce gaseous nitrogen for:
 The pressurisation of the barrier insulation spaces.

 As seal gas for the HD and LD compressors.
 For fire extinguishing in the vent mast risers.
 For purging the fuel gas system and various parts of the cargo piping.
The operating principle is based on the hollow fibre membranes through which compressed
air flows and is separated into oxygen and nitrogen. The oxygen is vented to the atmosphere
and the nitrogen is stored in a buffer tank.
The nitrogen generators are equipped with an oxygen analyzer, which continually monitors
the oxygen content in the nitrogen output. If the level of oxygen rises above 1% of the
design value, then an alarm is activated. If the level of oxygen rises further, the high alarm
operates, redirecting the flow to atmosphere and closing the discharge line to the buffer tank.
It is important to appreciate that the exhaust from the nitrogen plant will be oxygen-rich
compared to the surrounding atmosphere.
The testing of the nitrogen system should be included within the vessel’s planned
maintenance system along with maintenance routines recommended by the plant
manufacturers. Any defects to the N2 Plant must be reported to the management office.
1. The whole system should be visually checked before starting up.

2. Temporary connections / spool pieces to the cargo system should be connected.
3. The gas produced should be vented to atmosphere until it’s of sufficiently good
quality for use. The gas quality should be continually monitored while the plant
is in use.
Nitrogen from shore

When vessels fitted with only an inert gas plant are to load oxygen-critical cargoes, supply of
pure nitrogen should be taken from shore as the quality of ship-generated inert gas is
inadequate. Supply of nitrogen is normally by road tanker or barge in liquid form and
therefore a nitrogen vaporiser is needed to inert the cargo tanks prior to loading these
cargoes.
Inert Gas Systems

Inert gas has an important role in maintaining safety aboard a gas carrier and the inert gas
system should be kept in good working order. Regardless of frequency of use it should be
tested regularly to prevent deterioration and enable any faults to be detected and rectified.
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The following precautions should be observed:
 The whole system should be visually checked before starting up, in particular the
deck nonreturn valves.
 The piping system to the vent outlet should be opened to release any pressure
and prevent back-flow, and the temporary connections to the cargo system
fitted.
 The scrubber water supply should be started before beginning combustion.
 The gas produced should be vented to atmosphere until it is of sufficiently good
quality for use.
 The air supply should be adjusted to produce the best quality inert gas possible:
oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and soot levels should be controlled
(see paragraph 4.6.2). If the air supply is reduced in order to lower the oxygen
concentration the gas produced may often have a high soot content which can
clog driers, non-return valves etc.
 The gas quality should be continually monitored while the plant is in use,
 After use, the temporary connections to the cargo system must be disconnected
and the flanges blanked securely.
Cargo & spray pumps

LNG ships are typically fitted with submerged, electric, centrifugal cargo pumps. The motor
windings are cooled by the pumped LNG which also serves to lubricate and cool the pump and
motor bearings. As the LNG serves as both lubricant and coolant, it is critically important that
the pumps are never allowed to run dry, even for short periods.
In addition to main cargo pumps, each tank will also be served by a spray pump. This pump
is of limited capacity, typically around 50m3/hr, and will be used for the following:
1. To cool down the liquid header prior to discharging.

2. To cool the cargo tank during a ballast voyage prior to arrival at the loading
terminal by discharging LNG to the spray nozzles in the tanks.
3. In exceptional circumstances, to pump LNG from the tanks to the vapourisers
when forced vaporisation of LNG to the boilers is required.
4. To enable the tanks to be stripped as dry as possible for reasons such as tank
entry.
In the case of total cargo pump failure, provision is made for Moss ships to discharge under
pressure.
On LNG vessels where cargo pumps are 440V supply, insulation test are to be carried out
before arrival in both the loading port and discharge ports. Also during insulation test, air
temperature and humidity must be recorded.
The insulation tests will establish that all pumps are operational and to allow time for the
preparation of emergency pumping arrangements should it be necessary.
On newer LNG vessels, the insulation test should be done before pump removal and after
pump’s re-installation in the tank during DD period and it is not necessary to take readings
monthly. However if cargo tanks are in a gas free condition and pumps have not been
operated for some considerable time, readings should be taken before the pumps are brought
into operation again. The preferred time may be when LNG is being loaded.
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Reference should be made to on board documentation for procedures for starting, stopping
and operating cargo and spray pumps, together with the specific arrangements for rigging
emergency cargo pumps.
Compressor ( High & low duty)

High duty (HD) compressors are installed in the compressor room on deck and are routinely
used for compressing the LNG vapour for return to shore during cargo tank initial cool down,
cargo loading, tank purging and to circulate heated cargo vapour through the tanks during
warming up. Low duty (LD) compressors are installed in the compressor room on deck and
are routinely used for compressing the LNG vapour produced by natural boil-off to a sufficient
pressure to be used in the boilers as fuel.
The HD and LD compressors are normally driven by electric motors or steam, installed in an
electric motor room segregated from the compressor room by a gas tight bulkhead. The drive
shafts penetrate the bulkhead with a gas tight shaft seal.
Cargo heater ( High & low duty)

Steam heated cargo heaters are provided for the following functions:
1. Heating the LNG vapour, delivered by the HD compressors, to the specified
temperature for warming up the cargo tanks before gas freeing.
2. Heating the boil-off gas, delivered by the LD compressors, or by free-flow, prior
to supplying it to the boilers or venting to atmosphere.
The heaters are typically heat exchangers of the shell and tube type. The number of plugged
tubes in cargo condensers, heaters or vaporizers should not exceed 25%.
LNG Vaporizer
The LNG vaporiser is a shell and tube type heat exchanger that is used for
vaporising LNG liquid for the following operations:
 Exceptionally, when discharging cargo at the designrate without the availability
of a vapour return from the shore. If the shore is unable to supply vapour
return, liquid LNG is fed to the vaporiser by using one stripping pump or by
bleeding from the liquid header. The vapour produced leaves the vaporiser at
approximately –140 degree C and is then supplied to cargo tanks through the
vapour header.
 Vapour pressure in the cargo tanks will normally be maintained at 110kPa abs.
(minimum 104 kpa) during the whole discharge operation. Additional vapour is
generated by the tank sprayer rings, the LNG being supplied by the
stripping/spray pump. If the back pressure in the discharge piping to shore is
not sufficient to have a minimum of 300kPa at the inlet to the vaporiser, a
stripping/spray pump will be used to supply liquid to the vaporiser.
 Purging of cargo tanks with vapour after inerting with inert gas and prior to cool
down. LNG is supplied from the shore to the vaporiser via the stripping/spray
line. The vapour produced at the required temperature of +20 degree C is then
passed to the cargo tanks.
 Emergency forcing by manual operation. The LNG vaporiser can function as the
forcing vaporiser when the forcing vaporiser has failed.
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Forcing vaporizer
The forcing vaporiser is used for vaporising LNG liquid to provide gas for burning in the
boilers to supplement the natural boil-off. The LNG is supplied by a stripping/spray pump.
LNG flow is controlled by an automatic inlet feed valve which receives its signal from the
Boiler Gas Management System.
Each forcing vaporiser is equipped with a temperature control system to obtain a constant
and stable discharge temperature for various ranges of operation. The temperature of the gas
produced is adjusted by spraying a certain amount of bypassed liquid into the outlet side of
the vaporiser through a temperature control valve and liquid injection nozzles.
Mist separator
The mist separator shall prevent liquid from entering the compressors. It receives natural boil
off from the cargo tanks and forced boil off gas from the forcing vaporizer.
Vacuum pumps
On GT96 membrane cargo containment vessels, the vacuum pumps where fitted are used to
evacuate the atmosphere within the primary and secondary spaces in the following cases:
1. To replace air with nitrogen for inerting.
2. To replace methane with nitrogen for gas freeing before dry docking after there
has been a leakage of cargo.
3. To test the tightness of the membranes at regular intervals or after membrane
repairs
4. When the associated tank is opened up.
5. It also helps pull the tank membrane on to the associated supports and
insulation when the cargo tank is not pressurised.
Care must be taken to ensure that the pressure within the primary space is not reduced
below that in the secondary space as there is a danger of distorting the secondary barrier by
lifting it off its supporting insulation. A maximum pressure difference of 3kPa should not be
exceeded.
Fixed gas detection systems

There are two types of gas detection system commonly used on board LNG carriers, a
sampling system and a gas detection system incorporating remote heads. The sampling
system draws gas samples from each monitored location into a central analyser located in a
‘safe’ area. Typically, samples will be drawn from cargo areas in a pre-programmed sampling
sequence and will be passed through an infrared analyser. The system alarms if pre-set limits
are exceeded.
Remote detector heads may also be used to monitor gas concentrations. The signal from
flameproof infrared gas detectors will be passed to a central control unit having visual and
audible alarm functions.
Cargo emergency shutdown (ESD) system for Liquefied Gas carriers

The Emergency Shut Down (ESD) system is a requirement of the IMO Code for the carriage
of liquefied gases in bulk and is a recommendation of SIGTTO. All members of the ship’s
company must be aware of locations and the methods of activating and testing the
Emergency Shut Down System specific to their vessel. The Emergency Shut Down System is
a quick closing system, which may be activated automatically or manually. It will close all
deck valves and shut down all cargo machinery.
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ESD will be initiated by one of the following:
 Manual activation by personnel using the ESD pushbuttons

 Blackout of the ship
 Shore activation of their ESD system
 Fusible links around each tank domes, manifold and compressor house in case of fire
 Cargo tank Very High level alarm
 
 Low tank pressure
 Hold/cargo tank differential pressure
 Low cargo valves hydraulic pressure
 Low control air pressure
 Fire extinguisher system released
The initiation of ESD will lead to the following:
 All ESD manifold loading valves will close 
 The gas compressors will trip 
 The main discharge and spray pumps will trip
 All shore pumps will trip 
 Master gas valve to engine room will close 
 Inert gas generator will trip
The requirement of the cargo Emergency Shutdown (ESD) system are to stop cargo liquid
and vapour flow in the event of an emergency and to bring the cargo handling system to a
safe, static condition. The earlier method of cargo shut down comprise of manual trip points
and automatic fire sensors that can initiate remote closure of emergency shutdown valves
"for shutting down liquid and vapour cargo transfer between ship and shore"
This emergency trip, when activated, must also stop cargo pumps and compressors.
However, these provisions do not necessarily provide adequate protection, particularly

against overflow, during other operations involving the transfer of liquid and vapour on board.
It must be recognised that operations such as reliquefaction or cargo tank spraying may be
routine operations at sea. These deficiencies eliminated by introducing cargo emergency
shutdown (ESD).
The ESD system minimises potential risks during the transfer of liquefied gases between ship
and shore loading and unloading installations. It provides a quick and safe means of stopping
the transfer of cargo and isolating ship and shore cargo systems in a controlled manner,
either manually or automatically, in the event of fault conditions that affect the ability of the
operator to control safely the transfer of cargo. Most export terminals, and an increasing
number of import terminals, now have a second level of protection providing for the rapid
disconnection of the loading arms from the ship. These two levels of cover are known as
ÈSD-1' and ÈSD-2'.
The emergency shutdown (ESD) system is a requirement of the IMO code for the carriage of
liquefied gases in bulk and is a recommendation of SIGTTO. It is fitted to protect both the
ship and terminal in the event of power loss, cryogenic or fire risks, on either the ship or in
the terminal.
The system will stop the flow of LNG liquid and vapour by shutting down the pumps and gas
compressors as well as manifold and shipside valves, by the activation of a single control.
Shut down of the cargo system can be initiated either manually or automatically if certain off-
limit conditions occur.
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The ship's ESD system is active at all times, whether at sea or in port. When at sea all
manifold and tank filling valves are held in the shut position and the cargo and spray pumps
are held in the off position. The cargo compressors may be operated as normal, but will stop
if an ESD is initiated. The shore ESD input is blocked in the At Sea DCS condition.
Manual emergency shut down push buttons are situated strategically around the ship, at
locations that include the wheelhouse, cargo control room, fire control station, manifold
platforms and tank liquid domes. In addition, manual activation of the shore ESD system will,
through the ship/ shore link, set off the ship’s ESD.
Automatic shut down for fire is initiated by fusible plugs which are generally located at each
tank dome, manifold platform, and in the cargo compressor and electric motor rooms. ESD1
may also be initiated automatically under conditions such as the following:
1. Blackout of the ship.
2. Vapour header pressure falls below pre-set limit.
3. Individual tank pressure falls below pre-set limit.
4. Extreme liquid level in any cargo tank.
5. Low cargo valve hydraulic pressure.
ESD2 is normally initiated by the terminal and will result in all the actions as for ESD1, plus
the initiation of a dry break of the shore arm from the ship. ESD2 may be initiated manually,
for example, in the event of a terminal emergency, or automatically, for example, if the ship
moves outside the movement envelope of the chicksans.
The automatic disconnection of shore arms can be a violent and potentially dangerous
operation and it is important that personnel at the manifold are warned to leave the area
before ESD2 activation.
Each ship must have procedures for testing the function of ESD systems which must be
tested prior to arrival in port and also immediately before commencing cargo operations.
Ship shore link
Linked ship/shore emergency shut down systems have been recommended by
SIGGTO since the early days of LNG transportation and are now mandated by IMO.
The ship and terminal emergency systems are linked via a ship-shore umbilical that
carries ESD, telecommunications and data signals.
Relief systems
As required by IMO, each cargo tank is fitted with two pressure/vacuum relief valves.
In addition, on membrane ships, the primary and secondary insulation spaces around
each tank are protected by two pressure relief valves. On Moss Rosenberg ships, hold
spaces around each tank are similarly protected.
The cargo tank relief valves vent to their associated vent mast riser. The valves are of
the pilot operated relief valve type. A cargo tank pressure sensing line relays the
pressure directly to the pilot operating valve. In this manner, accurate operation is
assured at the low pressures prevailing inside the tank.
It is extremely important that the vent mast is checked at regular intervals and
drained of any accumulation of water. This is to ensure that the relief valves operate
at their correct settings which would otherwise be altered if any water were to
accumulate in the vent mast and flow onto the valve assembly.
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In addition to the cargo tank and hold or interbarrier space relief valves, each section
of the cargo pipework that can be isolated by two valves will be fitted with an
overpressure relief valve. Arrangements for safely relieving pressure in the lines to
the cargo tanks will vary from ship to ship.
Cargo tank gauging systems

All gauging systems used are specifically designed for the extreme low temperatures
experienced on LNG carriers.
Various systems may be fitted to a vessel dependent upon the owner’s specifications
and cargo containment system. There will generally be at least two independent
gauging systems fitted to each tank, in addition to low, high and high-high level
alarms
FLOAT ACTUATED GAUGES – these employ a float connected by an invar tape to a

tensator spring. This spring acts as a counter balance system, maintaining a constant
tape tension at the float. This ensures that the float maintains the same level of
immersion irrespective of the amount and weight of the tape paid out. The accuracy
of this system is dependent upon tank construction and on the operating conditions,
however the accuracy should remain within 1 cm.
CAPACITANCE TYPE GAUGES – these gauges operate using the variation of electrical
capacitance between two probes when a liquid level changes. A coaxial sensor is
installed within a tank, and is constructed of a number of individual segments,
depending upon the height of the tank. As the liquid level in the tank changes, the
capacitance varies.
RADAR TYPE GAUGES – these gauges operate by generating and transmitting radar
waves from a generating device mounted externally on the tank. As the speed of the
radar waves is known, if the time needed by the signal to reach the cargo liquid level,
bounce back and be picked up by the antenna, can be measured accurately, the cargo
ullage can be calculated.
ULTRASONIC TYPE GAUGES – these gauges operate in a similar manner to an echo
sounder, where the time taken for a sound wave to be reflected back through the
liquid is accurately measured, and then used to calculate the liquid level.
All cargo measuring systems in use are highly accurate, and form part of the Custody
Transfer System, which is checked and verified by an independent organisation during
vessel dry docking periods. A certificate of accuracy for the system will be issued.
Generally if any ship repairs are carried out on any gauging system, it will be
necessary for the gauge to be re-calibrated and a new certificate issued.
The vessel will carry out and record comparison checks of the various gauging
systems in use during each cargo operation, to enable the early detection of any
problems with any of the systems. Where the completion of these tests reveals any
significant errors the Company is to be advised immediately with a request for
attention.
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2.3 Loading , Unloading and Care in transit and Tank cleaning, Purging, gas
freeing and inerting:
Pre-arrival check items by a gas carrier before a terminal alongside The daily operation of a
liquefied gas carrier involved potential hazards. It should be noted that cargo pipes, valves
and connections and any point of leakage at sssthe gas cargo may be intensely cold. Contact
may cause severe cold burns.
Pressure should be carefully reduced and liquid cargo drained from any point of the cargo
transfer system, including discharge lines, before any opening up or disconnecting is begun.
Some cargoes such as ammonia have a very pungent, suffocating odour and very small
quantities may cause eye irritation and disorientation together with chemical burns. Seafarers
should take this into account when moving about the vessel, and especially when climbing
ladders and gangways. The means of access to the vessel should be such that it can be
closely supervised and is sited as far away from the manifold area as possible. Crew members
should be aware of the location of eye wash equipment and safety showers.
Everyone involved in liquefied natural gas transportation takes safety very seriously. There
are many lives and a great deal of money at stake. Government and industry work together
to make sure these ships are designed, maintained, and manned with safety in mind;
industry maintains them with oversight by periodic government inspection, and government
sets the standards for crew training.
The popular perception of liquefied natural gas is that it is inherently dangerous. While it
possesses a set of hazards that need to be managed, when look- ing at the actual incidents
involving liquefied natural gas, there are very few that put the surrounding area and public in
danger. The rigorous attention to detail, coupled with the constantly emerging technology,
should continue to give LNG one of the better safety records for a hazardous material.
Within 5 days of the ship’s estimated time of berthing, the following checks and tests shall be
carried out, and the results recorded. These records are to be made available to the gas
terminal upon request.
(1) Deck water spray line

(2) Water curtain
(3) Gas free condition of hold space
(4) Alarm function of fixed gas detection equipment
(5) Cargo gauging system and alarm set points.
(6) Emergency Shutdown System (ESD), all the relevant system shall be tested prior to
arrival port and time needed to shut should be confirmed around 25 up to 30 seconds.
(7) Operation of cargo system remote control valves and their position indicating systems.
(8) Confirm Cargo transfer emergency stops fully operational and date of last test.
(9) Confirm tank high level and pressure alarms operational.
(10) Confirm that remotely operated manifold valves have been operated through a
complete open/closed cycle, functioning and advise valve type(ball, gate, etc)and actual
closing time. The corresponding records shall be produced by the master on the ship arrival
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at berth. Any defects or deficiencies must be reported to the terminal as an addendum to

the Pre-Arrival information notice.
Deep well cargo pump and booster pump mechanical seals are free of oil leaks.
What is Custody Transfer Measurement (CTM) System on board gas carrier?

(1) The CTM is a system which allows the quantity of cargo on board at any time to be
accurately calculated and therefore provide a means by which the amount of cargo that is
transferred either internally or between the ships and shore to be accurately quantified.
Such a system can be used on LNG carriers because the cargo is always same whereas on
other type of vessels such as oil or LPG, large differences can occur between the cargoes
carried on each voyage.
(2) There are two primary types of measuring system used currently on LNG carriers:
I. Based on capacitance measuring system
II. Based on radar gauging system
(3) The verification and accuracy check of custody transfer measurement system is
conducted at each dry dock.
Records of the calibration of key cargo instrumentation, including temperature and pressure
gauges
(1) There should be records of the regular checking and calibration of instrumentation,
particularly cargo tank temperature and pressure gauges and reliquefaction plant
instruments.
(2) Calibration should be carried out preferably at intervals not exceeding 30 months.
(3) Calibration of instrumentation is often difficult whilst the vessel is in service and it is
usually carried out during repair periods. However, comparisons between local and remote
thermometer readings and cross checking with cargo vapour pressure (from tables) provide
a practical cross-reference, particularly for high purity cargoes such as Polymer Grade
Propylene.
Preparation for loading LNG cargo -Operation procedures and precautions for gas carriers
Loading LNG cargo after dry docking : LNG is a cryogenic substance and its main component
is methane. It gasifies violently when directly introduced into a cargo tank at ambient
temperature, rapidly increases the internal pressure of the cargo tank and makes the
atmosphere into a flammable condition.
In addition, the cargo tank is rapidly cooled, resulting tremendous thermal stress on cargo
tank skins and cargo piping systems. To avoid such damages, the preparatory work for cargo
loading after dry docking must be done in the following sequence. During dry dock all the
compartments of an LNG carrier are kept gas free. After leaving the dry dock the vessel has
to be prepared to load cargo, for that the following points to be considered with priority.
Drying of Cargo Tank
During dry docking or inspection, cargo tanks which have been opened and contained humid
air, must be dried to avoid the formation of ice when they are cooled down and the formation
of corrosive agents if the humidity combines with sulfur and nitrogen oxides which might be
present in excess in the inert gas.
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The drying operation need not be performed independently by using dry air, instead during
inerting operation by supplying dry inert gas, drying operation can be achieved. During such
operation special attention is required to the delivery temperature of inert gas to prevent
condensation of humid air inside the tank.
Dry air, with a dew of -70ºC to -40ºC, can be produced by the onboard IGG system.
i)It is essential that cargo tanks are thoroughly inspected for cleanliness, free of liquid, any
loose objects and all fittings are properly secured. Once this inspection has been completed,
the cargo tank should be securely closed and drying operation can be started
ii) During drying operation, measure the atmosphere at different levels at regular intervals.
When the dew point of the cargo tank drops below than the planned temperature, finish the
drying operation.
Drying of Hold Spaces
The drying operation of a hold space is carried out in order to prevent tank insulation damage
due to condensation of moisture inside it prior to initial cool down operation and periodically
during a voyage. Fresh air is dehumidified by the IGG and sent to a hold space as dry air with
a dew point of -70ºC to -40ºC through its bottom section, humid air inside the hold space is
released through the vent pipe provided in the upper portion of the tank. The hold space
should be maintained at a higher pressure than the atmospheric pressure.
Operation procedures and precautions:
i) Before delivering dry air into a hold space, completely dry up the bottom section of the
hold space, particularly the bilge well.
ii) When drying a hold space after completing the inerting operation of a cargo tank,
purge relevant equipments and inerting/aerating lines with dry air to prevent the ingress of
inert gas into the hold space. This is because the hold space holding dry air sent into it is kept
almost sealed till the next dry docking and, in addition, about 15% CO2 gas is present in the
inert gas, which may corrode aluminum cargo tanks and destroy insulation materials.
iii) During drying operation, measure the atmosphere at different levels at regular
intervals. When the dew point of the hold space drops below than the planned temperature,
finish the drying operation.
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Inerting of Cargo Tanks
Before introducing the cargo into the tanks, the moisture content and oxygen content in the
tanks shall be reduced simultaneously.
Cargo tanks filled with air shall be dried and inerted with inert gas supplied from the inert gas
generator on board. Inert gas shall be led into the bottom of the cargo tank through the
liquid filling line and displaced air shall be vented to the atmosphere through the vapour line
and the vent mast. Drying and inerting shall be finished when the dew point and also the
oxygen content in the cargo tank are less than the planned level.
The dew point and oxygen content shall be periodically measure by a portable instrument at
the sampling lines in way of cargo tank dome.
Inerting of Annular Space for Moss type vessels
The space between the surface of a cargo tank and insulation is called annular space,
insulation space or wedge space. Annular Space is inerted with nitrogen gas and continuously
supplied from N2 generator through the N2 bleed line in service in order to ensure adequate
path in the insulation space for the gas detection system.
A safety valve is installed in the N2 bleeding line of each hold in order to avoid over pressure
of the insulation space.
Inerting Inter Barrier Spaces (IBS) and Insulation Spaces (IS) for Membrane type vessels
The space between the primary and the secondary barrier is called inter-barrier space (IBS).
The space between the secondary barrier and the inner hull is called insulation space (IS).
The pressure in these spaces shall be regulated at a pressure slightly above atmospheric
pressure in order to prevent any air ingress.
In normal operation, IBS and IS shall be purged with nitrogen in relation with atmospheric
pressure variations and cooling or warming of the spaces during loading or unloading, and
IBS should be continuously purged with nitrogen if gas is detected by micro-leakage of the
membrane.
The Nitrogen provides a dry and inert medium for the following purposes:
i) To prevent formation of flammable mixture in the event of any LNG leak.

ii) To permit easy detection of an LNG leak through a barrier
iii) To prevent corrosion
In addition each space shall be protected against over pressure by two (2) pilot operated
safety valves.
During cargo loaded, as normal procedure, maintain the IBS pressure at or below cargo tank
pressure and maintain the IS pressure at or above the IBS pressure.
Gassing-up
After lay-up or dry dock, the cargo tanks are filled with inert gas or nitrogen. If the purging
has been done with inert gas, the cargo tanks have to be gassed up and cooled down when
the vessel arrives at the loading terminal. This is because, inert gas contains about 14%
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carbon-dioxide, which will freeze at around -60ºC and produces a white powder which can
block valves, filters and nozzles. During gassing up, the inert gas in the cargo tanks is
replaced with warm LNG vapor.
This is done to remove carbon dioxide and to complete drying of the tanks. Supply of LNG for
gassing up
LNG liquid is supplied from the terminal to the liquid manifold where it passes to the
stripping/spray header via the appropriate ESDS liquid valve. It is then fed to the main
vaporizer and the LNG vapour produced is passed at a temperature warmer than the dew
point temperature existing within the cargo tanks through the vapor header and into each
tank via the vapor suction fitted in the upper part of the tank.
This method of gassing up is called “Piston Flow Method”. In this the lighter specific gravity
LNG vapor is injected from top and the heavier IG is displaced from bottom.
Requirement to purge with Nitrogen
At the start of the operation, the piping system and main vaporizer contain inert gas.
Consequently to avoid the formation of water condensate or solid CO2, the supply line to the
vaporizer from the manifold has to be first purged with Nitrogen either by using the ships or
shore supplying.
Completion criteria
When 5% methane (% figure will be specified by the particular port authority) is detected at
the vent mast riser, the exhaust gas is directed ashore.
The operation is considered complete when the methane content, as measured at

the top of the cargo filling pipe, exceeds 98% by volume.
Due to local regulations on venting methane gas to the atmosphere, some
port
authorities may require the entire operation to be carried out with the exhaust gases being
returned to shore facilities.
Initial Cool Down
Cool down is an operation to pre-cool cargo tanks and lines required before taking on
cryogenic LNG. Cargo tank cool down is carried out by spraying LNG through the spray
nozzles of each cargo tank, using LNG received from the shore terminal. The cool down
operation from an ambient temperature (from a condition after gassing up) to a planned
temperature, is called ‘initial cool down’ and is to be differentiated from an ordinary cool
down operation carried out on ballast voyage.
Before LNG can be introduced into the cargo system of an LNG vessel, the system, and in
particular the cargo tanks, have to be cooled down to a temperature close to that of the LNG
which is to be loaded. The reasons for this are as follows:
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Vapor generation
If LNG is introduced directly into warm tanks, the LNG will almost immediately turn into
vapour. LNG has a liquid to gas expansion ratio 1: 600. Therefore, to enable the liquid to be
loaded into the tank at a reasonable loading rate, necessity of large compressors would be
required to remove the vapour generated in the process.
By reducing the cargo tank temperature, the amount of heat that is available to transfer into
and heat the LNG is minimized. Consequently the amount of vapour generated can be
maintained within reasonable limits.
Cargo tank Material
Most cargo tanks are constructed of stainless steel which is a material, that retains its
flexibility and strength characteristics over the temperature range being considered (-180ºC -
50ºC). However problems could occur if the material is subjected to very local and rapid
cooling such as when a small droplet of LNG comes into contact with a warm tank wall.
Because of the transfer of the heat from the wall into the liquid, the temperature at the
particular point will decrease rapidly causing large thermal stresses to arise between the point
and the surrounding material. This could lead to stress cracking.
Pipe tower construction

The tower which supports the pipe-work within the tank is constructed of stainless steel bars.
If subjected to rapid cooling thermal stress within the material can be excessive, leading to
the material cracking.
All three reasons are of equal importance as each, if not carefully controlled, can have a
significant impact on the tank structure and overall safety of the vessel.
Before arrival at a terminal prior loading
The following checks and procedures are to be regarded as the minimum before cargo
operations can commence.
1. Preparation and approval by the Master of a Cargo plan including valve line up.
2. Calculation of Drafts, Stress and Stability for the vessel throughout the cargo operation
and the forthcoming voyage.
3. Cargo lines walked and checked, in correct status, particular attention to be paid to
valves and blinds that are not frequently moved. After dry dock or maintenance
particular attention is to be paid to blanks, flanges etc that may not have been
tightened correctly.
4. Remote and if applicable local valve operation and remote indicators to be verified as in
synch with each other.
5. argo pumps, spray/stripping pumps and where appropriate compressor motors to be
megger tested and the results are logged. Operation of ballast valves and pumps to be
verified.
6. Ballast water has been exchanged in line with international, Port State/Terminal and
company requirements.
7. Fire fighting equipment including hoses, dry powder units/guns and other appropriate
safety equipment in place and fully operational.
8. HD compressors ready for operation.
9. Sufficient Nitrogen is available for the cargo operation and forthcoming voyage.
Nitrogen equipment is operational and correctly lined up.
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10.High High Alarms tested and verified as operational.

11.Overflow alarms and activation of the ESD system tested and recorded as operational.
Onboard procedures for loading LNG cargo - gas carrier guide

LNG is liquefied natural gas, which is the very cold liquid form of natural gas.LNG carriers are
generally specialised ships transporting LNG at its atmospheric pressure boiling point of
approximately -162 degree C, depending on the cargo grade.LNG carriers were typically in
the range 80-135,000 m3 up until 2006.
Before loading operations begin, the pre-operational ship/shore procedures must be
thoroughly discussed and followed. Appropriate information exchange is required and the
relevant parts of the ship/shore safety check list should be completed.
Line Cool Down

The terminal should be instructed to begin pumping at a slow rate for approximately
15 minutes, in order to gradually cool down the terminal piping and the ship’s headers.
Slowly increase the terminal pumping rate until the liquid main and spray headers have
cooled down (approximately 15/20 minutes). Cargo tank pressures should be monitored
closely and if required the HD compressor should be adjusted in order to maintain a constant
vapour pressure.
Note !
In order to avoid the possibility of pipe sections hogging, (contracting at the bottom more
than at the top and thus causing flanges and long pipe sections to be stressed) the liquid
header and crossovers must be cooled down and filled as quickly as possible.
Prior to commencing the loading operation the cargo pipelines have to be cooled.
The primary reasons for cooling the cargo lines are:
i) To minimize the possibility of leaks being created at joints with valves or other sections of
pipeline as they contract when cargo is passed.
ii) To reduce the possibility of sudden shock loadings on bellows as pipes contract rapidly.
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To avoid the formation of vapor locks in the pipelines when cargo is introduced. If LNG is
introduced into a warm pipeline the initial cargo will vaporize, create a large pressure that
can ‘block’ the loading of the liquid. It is then possible that this vapour will then condense
very rapidly as the temperature reduces below the condensation point, allowing the liquid to
surge along the pipeline possibly resulting in damage to the pipelines, valves or connections.
Air purge of loading arms

After the connection of loading arms, air should be purged from the loading arms and the tips
of manifold pipes. N2 gas is lead into the loading arms from injection lines connected to the
arms, and then pressurize up to about 4 to 6 kg/cm2G.
After pressurization, the ship’s liquid manifold vent valve and vapor manifold vent/drain valve
are opened to release air and N2 gas into the atmosphere. While this operation is repeated
two or three times, a leak test (with soap solution) is conducted at the same time. Air purge
comes to an end when the oxygen content of the purged gas has dropped below 2%.
Loading Arms Cool Down

The cool down of the loading arms is performed from shore side by use of a small capacity
pump. At a discharge port, the arms are cooled down by sending in LNG by ship’s spray
pump.
Loading Operation
LNG is loaded via the loading manifolds to the liquid header and then to each tank filling line.
The boil-off and displaced vapour leave each tank via the vapour suction to the vapour
header. The vapour is initially free-flowed to shore via vapour crossover manifold and, as
tank pressure rises, one compressor is brought into operation to increase the gas flow to
shore and limit the vapour main and cargo tank pressure.
As the loading rate increases, it is important to monitor the tank pressures and to start one
HD compressor. If the compressors are unable to cope with the volume of boil-off and
displaced gas, it will be necessary to reduce the loading rate.
Bulk loading
When all lines and valves are fully cooled the vessel can commence ramping up the loading
rate in the sequence agreed with the terminal. Deballasting should be commenced in
accordance with the cargo plan. The cargo should be evenly distributed during the loading.
Ensure the HD compressors are adjusted in line with loading rate to ensure that the tank
vapour pressure remains at a level safely below the lifting pressure of the relief valves.
Ensure Nitrogen system is performing correctly.
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Moss vessels will require the temperature gradient (with particular reference to the equator)
to remain within certain limits, the tank temperatures are therefore to be closely monitored.
Hourly temperatures are to be recorded in order that if required the vessel can verify that
temperature has stayed within the manufacturers tolerances.
If not already started membrane ships should start appropriate cofferdam heating.
Communications with the terminal should be tested on a frequent basis. Remote gauging
devices and valve position indicators should be verified against local readouts at regular
intervals during the operation. Moorings should be diligently attended and vessel movement
with respect to loading arms closely monitored, if required additional persons are to be called
to assist with the moorings. If at any time the OOW is in doubt a senior officer or the Master
should be called.
Topping off
As the vessel approaches completion of cargo operations the tanks should be staggered in
line with the cargo plan, typically this would leave a gap of 10 to 15 minutes between
completion of each tank. The terminal is to be notified well in advance and in line with the
agreed procedure that the vessel is topping of and will need to reduce loading rate.
Notification should be made at least 30 minutes before reducing rate.
Note: Membrane tanks normally fill to 98% where as Moss vessels normally fill to 99.5%. On
all vessels the independent alarms activate at preset filling levels, the upper alarm activates
the ESD if previous alarms are ignored.
Deballasting
The deballasting operation is carried out simultaneously with the cargo loading operation.
Before any de-ballasting commences, all ballast surfaces should be visually checked and
confirmed as free from oil or other pollutants. This check must be carried out through
inspection hatches / tank lids. This is particularly important for ballast tanks which are
situated adjacent to fuel oil tanks. If fitted, gas detection
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/ sampling systems may not indicate the presence of hydrocarbons particularly in small
quantities.
Deballasting is initially carried out by gravity discharge until the level in the ballast tanks
approach the vessels water line when the ballast pumps are used.
The ballast should be adjusted to keep a small stern trim to aid with the stripping of the
ballast tanks. The flow rate of the ballast should be adjusted to keep the ship within 1 meter
of the arrival draft or as specified by the terminal. Deballasting should normally be completed
before the start of the topping off of the cargo tanks.
Filling Rate of Cargo Tanks

The IGC Code (International Code for the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying
Liquefied Gases in Bulk) came into force on July 1, 1986, in accordance with the International
Convention on the Safety of Life at Sea, 1983 (the 1974 SOLAS Convention, as amended in
1983), and, following this, the Regulations Relating to the Carriage and Storage of Dangerous
Goods by Ship was revised in Japan. The IGC Code contains a chapter for “Filling Limits for
Cargo Tanks”.
LNG carriers registered in Japan are NK-class ships and constructed on the basis of NK’s
“Rules and Guidance for the Survey and Construction of Steel Ships – Part N”. These rules
reflect the IGC Code, as it is, and, as a result, our LNG carriers, though built before the
enforcement of the ’83 SOLAS Convention, meet requirements for new ships in the IGC Code.
Behaviour of LNG in the cargo tanks

When loaded in the cargo tanks, the pressure of the vapour phase is maintained substantially
constant, slightly above atmospheric pressure.
The external heat passing through the tank insulation generates convection currents within
the bulk cargo, causing heated LNG to rise to the surface where it vaporizes. The heat
necessary for vaporization comes from the LNG, and as long as the vapour is continuously
removed by maintaining the pressure as substantially constant, the LNG remains at its boiling
temperature.
If the vapour pressure is reduced by removing more vapour that is generated, the LNG
temperature will decrease. In order to make up the equilibrium pressure corresponding to its
temperature, the vaporization of LNG is accelerated, resulting in an increase heat transfer
from LNG to vapour.
If the vapour pressure is increased by removing less vapour than is generated, the LNG
temperature will increase. In order to reduce the pressure to a level corresponding to the
equilibrium with its temperature, the vaporization of LNG is slowed down and the heat
transfer from LNG to vapour is reduced.
LNG is a mixture of several components with different physical properties, particularly the
vaporization rates; the more volatile fraction of the cargo vaporizes
at a greater rate that the less volatile fraction. The vapour generated by the boiling of the
cargo contains a higher concentration of the more volatile fraction than the LNG.
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Onboard procedures for discharging LNG cargo - gas carrier safety guide Liquid is pumped
ashore by use of two submerged pumps installed at the bottom of each tank. In the process,
the cargo tank pressure shows a decreasing tendency as the LNG level drops in the tank,
resulting from the discharge of LNG. Conversely, shore tank pressure shows an increasing
tendency with the receipt of LNG.
By use of the pressure difference between shore and vessel cargo tanks, LNG gas in the shore
tank is sent to the vessel cargo tank. However, when LNG is discharged at a higher rate, the
vessel cargo tank shows a declining tendency and, therefore, LNG gas is forced into the
vessel cargo tank with a shore blower, to maintain the vessel tank pressure. As another way,
part of the LNG to be discharged is vaporized with a vaporizer of the vessel and the BOG is
delivered to cargo tanks.
Procedure for LNG discharging with vapour return
Confirm liquid manual/automatic manifold valves are open. Manually close the liquid manifold
cool down valves.
Prior to cargo pump start, confirm that all liquid branch valves are closed and all filling valves
are opened. Also notify the engine room to verify that sufficient generator capacity is
available. Start the cargo pumps as per established guidelines. It is important that the shore
is made aware of when pumps will be coming on line and the consequent changes in their
tank pressures then can expect.
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The usual procedure is to start two pumps on re-circulation on one tank, then commence
discharge from the tank. This usually takes 5 minutes. A similar procedure is then applied to
the other tanks with a 5 min period between each tank. Once all pumps are running on 60 %
load then slowly increased in turn to maximum specified load.
As tank pressure falls, request receiving terminal to start to send vapour back to the ship and
maintain tank pressure at agreed level. Monitor the following items during discharge.
1. Cargo tank level

2. Cargo tank pressure
3. Cargo pump motor load and discharge pressure
4. Draft, trim and heel
5. Ship condition
If stripping is planned for several tanks, it is recommended to keep the tank levels slightly
different in each tank in accordance to the established “ramp down” procedures.
Request the receiving terminal to stop the return gas blower to keep adequate tank pressure.
After discharging, at least one filling valve is kept open to avoid pressurization of the liquid
line. Liquid draining and vapour purging of the arms is performed after completion of cargo
discharging. After completing of draining and purging, the following operations are carried
out.
 Final gauging after discharging
 Arm disconnection and de-icing (if necessary)
 Water curtain is stopped.
NB refer to ship specific cargo manual regarding maximum and minimum allowable liquid
levels for sea passage.
Discharging without vapour return
In rare instances such as gassing up a new terminal it may be necessary to discharge without
the use of a shore return. In this instance the LNG is bled from the main liquid line to the
vaporizer. The rate of vaporization is adjusted to maintain a constant tank pressure.
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Cargo heel
Subject to the trading patterns of the vessel and any particular requirements of the charterer,
a cargo heel may be required. The heel quantity is allowed for in the discharge plan and the
pumps are to be stopped at the required ullages. Each ship will have its own specific
instructions within the Operating manual, detailing the required quantities and the procedures
to be followed in taking tanks down to this level. The heel figures should be carefully
calculated, to ensure that there is maximum outturn of cargo at the discharge port,
consistent with being able to arrive at the loadport with tanks cooled down by the onboard
retained heel.
(Note: When the liquid level reaches 1 metre or less, avoid stopping the pump if at all
possible until the cargo has been fully discharged. If the shore facility is unable to accept the
liquid for intermittent periods it is better to keep the pump going and recirculate back into the
tanks until discharge can be resumed and completed.)
All LNG remaining in the downward leg of the loading arms and manifold connection is to be
drained to the tanks through the liquid line assisted by nitrogen pressure from ashore. The
LNG and vapour manifolds are then purged with nitrogen until an acceptable hydrocarbon
content is reached.
The retention of heel is subject to much discussion, and will vary with the type of vessel. On
membrane vessels on shorter ballast voyages it is acceptable to carry a small amount of heel
in each of the cargo tanks, and generally this will maintain the tank bottom temperature
sufficiently cold that the vessel is able to berth and commence loading without additional tank
cooldown being necessary. Care should be taken that the spray pump can be started at any
time during the voyage if required.
On longer voyages it is usual for the heel to be retained in one tank, with others “heeled” out.
Additional spraying may be necessary when cargo tank temperature is higher than the ATR
(arrival temperature requirement) which is generally accepted as being < -130 degC.
Terminal requirements should also followed as appropriate. The intention being for the vessel
to arrive without the requirement for extended cooldown and delays at the load port.
NOTE, on long ballast voyages with large quantities of heel retained in one tank, it is essential
that the quantity of heel carried does not exceed the quantity corresponding to a 10% of the
tank height
On Moss vessels, it is usual for the heel to be retained in one tank, with others “heeled” out.
After departure the LNG in the “heeled” out tanks will be further reduced by transferring
cargo to the dedicated holding tank. The tanks are then sprayed on passage to cooldown to a
level where loading take place without delay at the loadport.
Occasionally on shorter voyages, Moss vessels will retain the heel distributed across all tanks.
At the last discharge before the vessel is scheduled to warm up, say for drydock, all tanks are
generally heeled out as far as possible, to avoid leaving excessive quantities of LNG which
needs to be warmed up and vented to atmosphere on passage to the docking port
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Draining / purging
The procedures for draining / purging of the manifold lines and ships liquid lines are the same
whether the ship has been loading or discharging. This is done by using a Nitrogen “punch”
method. After completion of loading or discharging, this operation is carried out prior to
disconnecting the liquid and vapour arms.
On completion the manifold ESD valves are closed and the spray line is lined up from the
manifold to all tanks via the spray return valves. The cool down valve on each manifold is
kept closed. Then the terminal raises the pressure within the arms to a certain level (normally
around 4 kgs/cm2). Then the spray cool down valve are opened up and LNG liquid and
vapour in the liquid arm is fed to the cargo tanks through the spray line by Nitrogen (N2)
pressure.
Vapour in the vapour arm is fed to the cargo tanks through the vapour header by N2 gas
supplied from the terminal. Draining is normally carried out by pressuring the arms one by
one.
The procedure is repeated until the arm is completely free of liquid and the hydrocarbon level
is below 1% by volume. Remember that the allowed hydrocarbon concentration might vary
from terminal to terminal.
Draining of the ships liquid lines is done by opening up the spray bypass valve at the
manifold. As the pressure increases in the liquid line the liquid will be led through the spray
line and back to the cargo tank.
Vapour from shore valve

After any discharge operation, when the shore vapour arm has been disconnected and the
vapour manifold closed, the vapour from shore valve is to be re-opened and then left open at
least 20%. This will allow any increase in pressure, during the subsequent line warm up, to
be transferred via the vapour header to the individual cargo tanks.
Any excessive increase in pressure within the cargo tanks will initially be regulated by the
automatic vent valve to the forward vent riser. If the pressure is not controlled sufficiently by
the automatic vent valve, then individual tank relief valves will operate to vent pressure via
the individual mast risers. “
2.4 Emergency shutdown (ESD) blocking and override

The ESD system will have a facility to activate a “block” or “override”. Under normal vessel
operating procedures the ESD system will be fully active, There may be occasions when it will
be necessary to inhibit part or all of the system.
The “At Sea” condition” will be selected prior to the shore connection being disconnected after
the cargo operations have been completed. The “At Sea” condition has the following effect:;
 Isolates the shore connection from the ESD logic
 Locks the cargo pumps in the OFF condition
 Positions the manifold valves in the CLOSED position
 Positions the cargo tank filling valves in the CLOSED position
 Allows the low duty compressors to run if the ESD or low duty system trips are
not activated
 Allows the high duty compressors to run if the ESD or high duty system trips are
not activated
Prior to any cargo operations in port, the “At Sea” condition must be switched to the “In Port”
position to allow the ESD system to be fully active.
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After any emergency shutdown of the cargo system, it may be necessary to “Override” the
system. Before the system is switched to “Override” the cause of the shutdown must be
determined. The “override” facility should only be used when absolutely necessary to allow
recovery from an emergency condition. As soon as the emergency condition is corrected, the
ESD should be returned to the normal condition and the “override” facility switched off.
Before the ESD is overridden, the Master must be fully appraised of the situation, and must
give his approval for the “Override” to be switched on.
It must be noted that on any occasion that the ESD is not in its normal operational condition,
any cargo related emergency situation on board the ship and or terminal, will not result in
activation of the ESD, and full shut down of the cargo system will not take place.
ESD Testing
LNG vessels must always conduct pre-arrival ESD system tests 48 hours before arrival at any
load or discharge port. Additionally in the event of an extended voyage, the ESD system
should again be tested at intervals of not more than 30 days from the previous test.
These tests must include, but not be limited to:
 Cargo Emergency Shutdown system test, including all push buttons and trips (These
may be tested in rotation).
 All Cargo and Ballast valves operated.
 Manifold valve timings checked.
 Check the operating parameters of nitrogen generators and barrier space pressures
(where applicable).
 Barrier space water detection (where applicable).
 Mast riser nitrogen snuffers.
 Ship-Shore interface connection operations.
Successful completion of these tests must be logged on form LNG02 and recorded in the deck
log book. Prior to loading / discharge operations in port, additional ESD testing in both the
warm and cold conditions will be carried out as part of the pre-transfer ship-shore checklist.
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3. Fire safety and fire fighting operations
3.1 Tanker Fire Organisation and action to be taken
3.2 Special hazards associated with cargo handling and transportation of liquefied gases in
bulk
3.3 Fire fighting agents used to extinguish gas fires
3.4 Fixed fire fighting foam system operations
3.5 Portable fire fighting foam operations
3.6 Fixed dry chemical system operations
3.7 Basic knowledge of spill containment in relation to other fire fighting operations
INTRODUCTION: If a fire occurs, the action taken in the first few moments is vital. The man
on the spot should raise the alarm and assess the situation. The emergency plan should be
implemented. With liquefied gas fires it is essential to isolate the fuel source before
extinguishing the flames to minimise the danger of a potentially flammable gas cloud
forming.
FIRE-FIGHTING ORGANISATION The requirements for fire-fighting equipment are laid

down by national and international regulations and are not covered in this guide. General fire-
fighting theory is included in the International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
(ISGOTT).
Company regulations will be tailored to individual ships, and will cover organisation and
training of personnel and maintenance of fire-fighting equipment. Fire-fighting cannot be
successful unless all equipment is operational and all personnel are well trained in the use of
the equipment and in emergency procedures.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR FIGHTING LIQUEFIED GAS FIRES
Isolating the Source The main considerations in fighting a liquefied gas fire are the large
quantity of vapour given off by the liquid and the considerable heat generated by the flames.
In the event of fire every effort should be made to isolate the fuel source: dry powder or
water sprays should be used on local fires which prevent access to valves. The flames should
not be extinguished before the source of fuel has been shut off, to prevent a potentially
flammable gas cloud forming and being re-ignited downwind or by surfaces heated in the
original fire. If the fuel source cannot be isolated it is safer to let the fire burn while
continuing to cool the area.
Use of Dry Powder It is not beneficial to use low expansion foam or water for liquefied gas
fires because their application increases the rate of vapourisation. Dry powder is used instead
although it provides a negligible cooling effect. Cooling is required to prevent re-ignition until
all liquid has dispersed and the area is free from flammable vapour. It is best achieved by
water from fitted spray systems or hand hoses. Sprays from hand hoses are excellent in
protecting firefighters from the radiant heat of a liquefied gas fire.
Care should be taken to ensure that the limited capacity of dry powder extinguishing systems
is used effectively, especially when being used with other fire-fighting media. It is possible to
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waste a large proportion unless there has been careful planning of large scale fire-fighting
operations. A fire in stores or machinery spaces may affect the cargo and increase boil-off.
This can be reduced by cooling the area with water sprays, use of reliquefaction plant
(provided the power supply is still available) or both.
However, a water jet should never be used on a liquid fire. If a fire occurs in a cargo
equipment space, such as a compressor room, the source of fuel should be cut off and the
fire attacked in the first instance with dry powder. If necessary all personnel should be
evacuated, the compartment closed down and the fixed fire-fighting system activated. The
area should be cooled with water sprays. As soon as the fire has been extinguished, the
space should be ventilated carefully to disperse any vapour.
Vent Mast Fires Ignition can be caused at the vent mast by a lightning strike or other source
of ignition when venting a flammable vapour. The following actions should be considered:
 stopping venting;
 injecting inert gas into the vent if possible;
 spraying the mast head with water. Venting may be resumed when the mast head and
its surroundings are cool and the electrical storm is over.
Fires Near to the Ship In the event of a fire in the immediate vicinity of the ship, whether
ashore or aboard another vessel, the following actions should be considered:
 making ready the ship's fire-fighting organisation and equipment;

 stopping all cargo and bunkering operations;
 isolating and disconnecting hoses;
 closing all compartment openings;
 bringing the main engines to immediate readiness.
Carrying liquefied gases in bulk
A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which, at ambient temperature and at
atmospheric pressure, would be a gas.The same liquefied gas at the same temperature, in a
closed container, will always have the same pressure. Therefore, butane at the same
temperature has an identical pressure irrespective of whether the container is the tank of a
gas carrier, a simple gas cigarette lighter, a storage tank, or a domestic gas bottle All are
pressurised containers.
Most liquefied gases are hydrocarbons and the key property that makes hydrocarbons the
world’s primary energy source – combustibility – also makes them inherently hazardous.
Because these gases are handled in large quantities, it is imperative that all practical steps
are taken to minimize leakage and to limit all sources of ignition.
Gases are always liquefied for transportation in bulk simply because more cargo can be fitted
in a given volume. Typically, but dependent upon the product, 1 volume of liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) is equivalent to over 250 volumes of vapour and 1 volume of liquefied
natural gas (LNG) equivalent to 600 volumes of vapour. Carrying and handling liquefied gas
cargo onboard poses significant potential hazards including risk of injury or death,threats to
environment and each person working on a gas carrier and terminal ashore needs to
understand the risks involved, obtain the necessary training and take all the needed
precautions.
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LNG used as fuel for ships gas engines is the best choice as far as the emissions of CO2, SOx
and NOx are concerned. When considering the life-time cost for a gas engine , LNG is also the
best fuel. Our site is based on trans-ocean transport of liquefied gases in bulk
, various gas carrier operation, onboard safety procedure, safe cargo loading , unloading
, care at sea passage & other industry relevant safe practices
All gas cargoes are transported in liquid form (ie they are not carried as a gas in its vapour
form) and, because of their physical and chemical properties, they are carried either at:
 pressures greater than atmospheric, or at temperatures below ambient, or a

combination of both.The Principal Products - Whilst the hydrocarbon gases methane,
ethane, propane and butane may be regarded principally as fuels, the LPGs are also
important as feedstock in the production of the chemical gases.
Therefore, gas carriers are generally grouped as follows:
 Fully Pressurised
 Semi-pressurised and Refrigerated
 Fully Refrigerated
The liquefied natural gas (LNG) industry in the United States and other countries was
developed to link huge gas reserves in geographically remote parts of the world with regions
in need of more natural gas. For example, Japan and Korea import LNG to meet almost all
their natural gas needs, and half of Spain's natural gas demand is met through the importing
of LNG.
are taken while carrying through sea transports.
Vessels involved in the LNG trade are generally recognised as integral parts of the overall
projects in which they serve. This means that their safety and security feature very
prominently in the minds of the LNG sellers and buyers who believe that the vessels also
carry their individual reputations. This concern is most evident when the vessels are
alongside loading or discharging terminals where any type of incident could reflect adversely
on the terminal owner's business.
The carriage of liquefied gases in bulk began in the late 1920s and the earliest ships carried
butane and propane in pressure vessels at ambient temperature. The subsequent
development refrigeration techniques and, more particularly, materials suitable for
containment at low temperature permitted the carriage of cargoes at temperatures below
ambient.
In the late 1950s these gases began to be carried commercially in a partially refrigerated
state in ships equipped with pressure vessels made with material tolerant of low
temperatures. By the mid-1960s fully refrigerated LPG ships were in service carrying cargo at
atmospheric pressure; ethylene and LNG ships had also entered service. In the meantime
ammonia had become a common cargo, and “chemical” gases such as butadiene also became
commercially important.
The process of liquefaction changing a gas to a liquid may be achieved in one of three ways:
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 Reducing its temperature by refrigeration at atmospheric pressure.

 Applying pressure at ambient temperature.
 A combination of the above.
WHERE DO THE PRODUCTS COME FROM?
LNG is produced from natural gas. LPG may be produced either from natural gas or from
refining crude oil.
Different forms of liquefied gas cargo require different transport modes, means and storing
methods.
Gases and liquids have to be contained in some form. They may be stored into tank
containers or flasks, or alternatively be moved without packaging in pipelines and special
carriers.
When gas is moved in tanks onboard ships, it is often liquefied by low temperature. This is a
highly specialised form of transport requiring not only expensive, purpose built carriers, but
also special terminals and handling equipment. There are two forms of gas which are shipped
by sea, liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). The advantages of
cooling gases can be evidenced in the simple arithmetic that liquid gasses can be reduced by
about 600%.
are taken to minimize leakage ,to limit all sources of ignition and prevent marine
pollution.The majority of liquefied gases are clean, non-polluting, products and create no
danger to the marine environment. If however certain liquefied gases spill on to the sea you
should be aware that they may:
 create large quantities of vapour sea water rapidly vapourises the liquid gas- which
may cause a fire or explosion or a health hazard.
 generate toxic vapours, which can drift, sometimes over a considerable distance.
 dissolve in seawater and cause local pollution
The cargo Data Sheets will give information on pollution, if any Pollution is most likely to
occur during cargo or bunkering operations:
1. if the operation is not correctly monitored

2. if the cargo hose or loading arm connections are not properly made
3. when disconnecting cargo lines that have not been drained.
4. if moorings are not checked and excessive strain is placed on the cargo connections or
the ship "breaks out" of the berth.
5. if cargo equipment is not properly maintained
Carrying low temperatures cargoes
When carrying low temperature, or cryogenic, cargoes this introduces other potential hazards
like frosbite. If exposed to severe cold flesh will become frozen. At first the skin becomes red
(but turns subsequently white); the affected area is painless but is hard to the touch. If left
untreated the flesh will die and may become gangrenous.Wherever you are at risk of contact
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with very cold liquids always wear sufficient clothing to protect your entire body in cargo
areas full PPE (personal protective equipment) may be required.
Treatment:
1. remove any clothing that may restrict circulation to the frozen area of the skin
2. immediately immerse the affected area in a water bath having a temperature of
between 40ºC and 46ºC until it has thawed
3. do not `massage' the affected area
4. obtain urgent medical assistance
Caution ! AVOID SKIN CONTACT WITH UNINSULATED PIPES AND VALVES IN THE CARGO
AREA
Fire involving LNG & LPG cargo - various fire fighting agents & safety aspects
Natural gas contains numerous component gases but by far the greater percentage is
methane (CH4), which represents between 60 and 95 per cent of the total volume. This fact
is important when considering the safety aspects for fire-fighters tackling an LNG fire.
During the initial period of vaporisation of the gas, ignition may be accompanied by a flash of
varying proportions.However, because the velocity of propagation of a flame is lower in
methane than in other hydro-carbon gases, it is unlikely that future ignition will have flash
effect. The fire-fighting plan should be well thought out in advance and a concentrated effort
made rather than ‘hit and run’ tactics, as these will only consume the vessel’s extinguishing
facilities without extinguishing the fire. Before attempting to tackle a large fire, you should
seriously consider allowing the fire to burn itself out.
Should an attempt to extinguish the fire be made, extensive use of ‘dry powder’ should be
employed from as many dispensers as can be brought to bear. Fire-fighters should be well
protected against heat radiation and possible flash burns, and approach the fire from an
upwind direction. Power dispensers should sweep the entire area of the fire, but direct
pressure of powder jets on to the surface of the liquid should be avoided. Should dry powder
guns be used, fire-fighters should be well practised in their use and be prepared for some
kick-back effect.They should also be made aware that there is no cooling effect from the use
of dry powder, and that re-ignition after a fire has been extinguished is a distinct possibility.
In the initial stages it is always preferable to isolate the fire by shutting off the source of
fuel.This may not, however, always be possible. A final warning when tackling an LNG fire is
that water should not be used directly, as this will accelerate vaporisation of the liquid.This is
not to say that surrounding bulkheads and decks cannot be cooled down with water sprays,
provided that water running off is not allowed to mix with burning LNG.
Dry powder :
Dry powder is provided both in large fixed installations and portable extinguishers. Any part
of the deck can be reached by at least two hoses from the fixed installations.
Water extinguishing :
Water is not a suitable medium for fighting an LNG fire directly as it will cause a massive
expansion of the fire, through an increase in the rate of vaporisation of the liquid to gaseous
state. Water is however essential as a cooling medium for the area surrounding an LNG fire
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and to protect personnel who may need to approach the site. Water is also essential for
protecting steel work from the effects of extreme cold in the event of a liquid spill.
CO2 :
A CO2 extinguisher system is available for cargo compressor rooms, electric motor rooms,
inert gas dryer room and on some ships cargo control room. Ships plans should be consulted
for what is applicable to the concerned vessel.
How to tackle LNG fire ?
The rapid vaporisation of any exposed LNG prevents any ignition of the liquid itself and an
LNG fire is thus a cold vapour fire.
Ignition of a flammable mixture of natural gas vapour requires a spark of similar ignition
energy as would ignite other hydrocarbon vapours. The auto-ignition temperature of methane
in air (650°C) is higher than other hydrocarbons.
Electrostatic ignition of LNG is not a hazard during normal operations. This is because the
permanent, positive pressure in LNG tanks maintained by gas boil-off prevents air entering
these spaces to form flammable mixtures in tanks or lines.
The velocity of propagation of a flame is lower in methane than nearly all other hydrocarbons.
Unless ignition occurs during the initial rapid vaporisation period, it is most unlikely that any
flash will accompany an ignition. The term ‘lazy flame’ has been aptly used to describe the
spreading characteristics of an LNG fire.
Burning of LNG vapours produces a similar flame size and heat radiation to other hydrocarbon
fires, but little smoke is produced.
From a fire fighting viewpoint, LNG/cold vapour fires have the characteristics of both liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbon fires.
The procedure for fighting these fires is:
1. Isolate the source of leak, stop loading/discharging, and shut all manifold valves.
2. Sound the alarm.
3. Provide protection for adjacent equipment and for fire-fighters.
4. Attack fire with a maximum rate of application of dry powder. Do not agitate the
surface of any pool of LNG.
5. Remain on guard against possible re-ignition.
The exact procedure will depend upon the nature of the incident. Before attempting to fight
large fires, thought should be given to the desirability of letting a fire burn itself out. Such
strategy runs the risk of the fire spreading and greater damage being caused, but other
factors to take into account are:
 The possibility that the dry powder capacity may be exhausted before the fire is
extinguished, or, if the fire is extinguished, reserves have been run so low that any
reignition could not be contained.
 The risk of damage to life and property if an un-ignited flammable mixture drifted in
light wind conditions to an area of high ignition risk.
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The following fire fighting agents may be used:
Water spray systems
It is a requirement that a series of water spray nozzles are located at each tank liquid and
vapour dome, at the midships manifold, on the compressor house, on the forward bulkhead
of the accommodation block and around the midships cargo control room if applicable. The
water for the operation of these nozzles is fed from a pump and line system independent
from, but cross connected with, the ship's fire main. In addition to the above system, the
sides of the accommodation block may be protected by spray nozzles supplied with water
from the fire main via isolating valves.
Water should NOT be used to extinguish LNG fires as it increases the vaporisation rate and
hence the burning rate. However a water spray or fog should be used to protect personnel
and to cool areas adjacent to the fire. The qualities that make water unsuitable for fighting
LNG fires make it an ideal medium for spraying LNG spillages to increase evaporation rate
and prevent re-ignition, provided that the LNG is not actually burning.
Care is necessary to avoid water running off adjacent structures and aggravating burning
LNG, or splashing into spill trays which may contain LNG, thus causing it to overflow onto
unprotected steelwork. Spill trays and areas under manifolds are in any case floodable with
water to protect hull steelwork from damage due to exposure to the intense cold of LNG.
Water jets can be used to deflect burning jets from impinging on other tanks. Care should be
taken to avoid extinguishing the fire with the consequent danger of re-ignition of large
volumes of flammable gas.
Dry chemical powder
Dry chemical fixed installations are provided on Gas Carriers. Manufacturer’s instructions
should be referred to for details of operation and maintenance procedures. Whenever a dry
powder hose has been in use, it should be blown clear with nitrogen to prevent any possibility
of blockage. The extinguishing power of dry chemical powders depends on the chemical
reaction of the small particles when exposed to flame. They are flame inhibiting agents and
have been widely proven in LNG fire tests.
The maximum possible rate of application of dry powder is desirable. As many high velocity
jets as possible should be brought to bear at once, preferably in a down wind direction. Jets
should be aimed with the objective of reducing boil-off rate by sweeping over the whole fire
area and on no account must the surface of an LNG pool be agitated. Possible re-ignition
must be guarded against
Correct use of dry chemical powder equipment is essential if reserves are not to be wasted
and the fire is to be successfully extinguished. Extinction with dry powder is obtained by
maximising the rate of application and minimising any agitation of pools of LNG. This may be
achieved by coordinating a simultaneous attack with all available applicators. A first-aid shot
with only one hose or monitor may be warranted with small fires, but continuous individual
efforts can never be as successful as a simultaneous attack with as many applicators as
possible being brought to bear.
Operators must be adequately protected and positioned to obtain down wind line-of-sight
application, with the powder jet slightly depressed below the horizontal. Powder jets should
be swept rapidly back and forth over the entire fire area. The direct impact of powder jets on
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pool surfaces or leaks should be avoided. Where possible, powder should be aimed at vertical
surfaces immediately behind the seat of the fire.
The high discharge rate hoses are as much as one man can handle and the reaction force and
consequences of wasting or misdirecting powder requires that great care be taken in their
use. If the above techniques are adopted, tests have shown that LNG fires can be readily
extinguished. In fact extinction has often proved unexpectedly easy.
Re-ignition of LNG and vapour by burning paintwork, or other sources, must be expected.
Water sprays should be activated as soon as possible to cool steel work and speed
vaporisation.
Gas smothering systems
Although CO2 and nitrogen smothering systems are not suitable for use in exposed open air
applications, they are otherwise the most efficient agent for fighting liquid and vapour fires.
By diffusing in a burning mixture, they lower the oxygen content and render the mixture
inert. If the flames can be separated from the liquid, the boil-off rate will also be reduced.
Nitrogen is more effective and less dangerous to personnel than CO2 but CO2 is more easily
stored.
How to tackle LPG fires ?
The highest priority of action must be given to stopping the gas flow to limit the amount of
flammable material available, and contain the fire in as small an area as possible. This may
happen automatically with the operation of the Emergency Shut Down System. Fire fighters
must wear protective clothing and self-contained compressed air breathing apparatus.
Tackling the fire requires the use of two media, water and dry powder.
Large quantities of water spray are to be used:
1. To protect fire fighters and those assisting the rescue of trapped personnel from
spaces.
2. To cool surfaces exposed to heat.
3. To prevent heat radiation through steel bulkheads.
The normal extinguishing medium for LPG fires is dry powder, which is propelled by nitrogen.
The Master is to ensure that all Officers are familiar with the operation of this equipment, and
the technique to be used in fighting a LPG fire.
The best results are achieved by applying dry powder at a maximum rate by using as many
guns as possible from upwind. The guns must sweep rapidly backwards and forwards over the
fire area. If a liquid spillage is involved, the surface of the spillage must not be disturbed by
direct impact. Dry powder guns discharge at not less than 4 kilos per second. The initial recoil
and subsequent force exerted by discharge means that in order to avoid the wastage of dry
powder, a second person may be needed to help the operator maintain control of the gun.
If it is judged preferable to allow a flame to burn from a controlled leak, such as a pipe
fracture, water spray is to be used to contain the fire without extinguishing the flame.
Either CO2 or Halon are fitted to the Cargo Control Room, Compressor Room and Motor Room
on LPG ships.
Competence 5: Respond to emergencies:

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Fire or Explosion on a Berth
Action by Tankers:
Should a fire or explosion occur on a berth, the tanker or tankers at the berth must
immediately report the incident to the terminal control room by the quickest possible
method (VHF/UHF, telephone contact, sounding tanker’s siren, etc). All cargo,
bunkering, deballasting and tank cleaning operations should be shut down and all
cargo arms or hoses should be drained ready for disconnection.
The tanker’s fire-mains should be pressurised and water fog applied in strategic
places. The tanker’s engines, steering gear and unmooring equipment must be
brought to a state of immediate readiness. A pilot ladder, or equivalent, should be
available to be deployed on the offshore side.
Action by Tankers at Other Berths:
On hearing the terminal alarm being sounded or on being otherwise advised of a fire
at the terminal, a tanker at a berth not directly involved in the fire should shut down
all cargo, bunkering and ballasting operations. Fire-fighting systems should be
brought to a state of readiness and engines, steering gear and mooring equipment
should be made ready for immediate use.
Fire on a Tanker at a Terminal or on the other Tanker Action by Tanker Personnel:
If a fire breaks out on a tanker while at a terminal or alongside another tanker, the
tanker must raise the alarm by sounding the recognised alarm signal consisting of a
series of long blasts on the tanker’s whistle, each blast being not less than 4 seconds
in duration unless the terminal or the other tanker has notified the tanker of some
other locally recognised alarm signal. All cargo, bunkering or ballasting operations
must be stopped and the main engines and steering gear brought to a standby
condition.
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Once the alarm has been raised, responsibility for fighting the fire on board the tanker(s) will
rest with the Master or other Responsible Person assisted by the tanker’s crew. The same
emergency organization should be used as when the tanker is at anchor or under way with an
additional group under the command of a responsible person to make preparations, where
possible, for disconnecting marine arms or hoses from the manifold.
On mobilization of the terminal and, where applicable, the civil fire-fighting forces and
equipment, the Master or other Responsible Person, in conjunction with the professional fire-
fighters, must make a united effort to bring the fire under control.
Action by Terminal Personnel:
On hearing a tanker sounding its fire alarm, the person in charge of a berth should
immediately advise the person in charge of terminal cargo operations. This person should
sound the terminal fire alarm, inform the port authority and commence shutting down any
loading, discharging, bunkering or deballasting operations that may be taking place. The
terminal’s fire emergency plan should be activated and this may involve shutting down cargo,
bunkering and ballast handling operations on tankers on adjacent or neighboring berths. All
other tankers at the terminal should be informed of the emergency and, where considered
necessary, make preparations to disconnect marine arms or hoses and bring their engines
and steering gear to a state of readiness.
Where there are fire-fighting tugs, the person in charge of terminal cargo operations will
summon them to assist in fighting the fire until a decision is made by the person in overall
control whether or not to use them to assist in the evacuation of unaffected tankers
The person in charge of terminal cargo operations should be responsible for summoning any
outside assistance, such as the civil fire brigade, rescue launches, medical aid and
ambulances, police, harbour authority and pilots. The above emergency procedures may be
summarized for the information of visiting tankers in a fire instructions notice.
Action by the Other Tanker:
Should a fire or explosion occur on a tanker while alongside another tanker, the following
actions should be taken:
➢ Stop the transfer.
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➢ Sound the emergency signal.

➢ Inform crews on both tankers of the nature of the emergency.
➢ Man emergency stations.
➢ Implement emergency procedures.
➢ Drain and disconnect cargo hoses.
➢ Send mooring gangs to stations
➢ Confirm main engine is ready for immediate use.
➢ Advise standby boat of the situation and any requirements.
➢ In addition, Masters should decide jointly, particularly in cases of fire,
whether it is to their mutual advantage for the tankers to remain alongside
each other.
The basic actions, as listed above, should be included in individual STS (ship to ship)
contingency plans and be consistent with the ships’ Safety Management System.
International Shore Fire Connection (if required)
All terminals that handle international tankers should be provided with means to enable the
fire-mains on board and ashore to be inter-connected.
The International Shore Fire Connection provides a standardized means of connecting two
systems where each might otherwise have couplings or connections that do not match.
The flanges on the connection should have the dimensions shown on Figure 26.2. It should
have a flat face on one side and on the other should be a coupling that will fit the hydrant or
hose on the tanker or shore, as appropriate.
If fixed on a tanker, the connection should be accessible from both sides of the tanker and its
location should be clearly marked.
Figure 26.2 - Details of International Shore Fire Connection
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To inter-connect the two fire-mains, a fire hose having a shore connection on the end is led to
its counterpart and the flange joints are bolted together. The shore connection should be
ready for use whenever a tanker is in port.
Emergency Release Procedures
Means should be provided to permit the quick and safe release of the tanker in an
emergency. The method used for the emergency release operation should be discussed and
agreed, taking into account the possible risks involved
Competence 2: Take Precautions to prevent hazards:
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4Basic knowledge of the physical properties of liquefied gases
4.1 Properties and characteristics:

There are four major phases of matter: solids, liquids, gases and plasmas. Starting from a
solid at a temperature below its melting point, we can move through these
phases by increasing the temperature. First, we overcome the bonds or intermolecular forces
locking the atoms into the solid structure, and the solid melts.
At higher temperatures we overcome virtually all of the intermolecular forces and the liquid
vapourises to form a gas (depending on the ambient pressure and on the phase diagram of
the substance, it is sometimes possible to go directly from the solid to the gas phase in a
process known as sublimation). If we increase the temperature to extremely high levels,
there is enough energy to ionise the substance and we form a plasma. This course is
concerned solely with the properties and behaviour of gases.
As we shall see, the fact that interactions between gas phase particles are only very weak
allows us to use relatively simple models to gain virtually a complete understanding of the
gas phase.
Characteristics of the gas phase
The gas phase of a substance has the following properties:
1. A gas is a collection of particles in constant, rapid, random motion (sometimes referred
to as ‘Brownian’ motion). The particles in a gas are constantly undergoing collisions
with each other and with the walls of the container, which change their direction −
hence the ‘random’. If we followed the trajectory of a single particle within a gas, it
might look something like the figure on the right.
2. A gas fills any container it occupies. This is a result of the second law of
thermodynamics i.e. gas expanding to fill a container is a spontaneous process due to
the accompanying increase in entropy.
3. The effects of intermolecular forces in a gas are generally fairly small. For many gases
over a fairly wide range of temperatures and pressures, it is a reasonable
approximation to ignore them entirely. This is the basis of the ‘ideal gas’
approximation, of which more later.
4. The physical state of a pure gas (as opposed to a mixture) may be defined by four
physical properties:
P – the pressure of the gas
T – the temperature of the gas
V – the volume of the gas
N – the number of moles of substance present
In fact, if we know any three of these variables, we can use an equation of state for the gas
to determine the fourth. Despite the rather grand name, an equation of state is simply an
expression that relates these four variables. In Sections 4 and 5, we will consider the
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equation of state for an ideal gas (one in which the intermolecular forces are assumed to be
zero), and we will also look briefly at some models used to describe real (i.e. interacting) gas.
Gases and vapours
The difference between a ‘gas’ and a ‘vapour’ is sometimes a source of confusion. When a gas
phase of a substance is present under conditions when the substance would normally be a
solid or liquid (e.g. below the boiling point of the substance) then we call this a vapour phase.
This is in contrast to a ‘fixed gas’, which is a gas for which no liquid or solid phase can exist at
the temperature of interest (e.g. gases such as N2, O2 or He at room temperature).
As an example, at the surface of a liquid there always exists an equilibrium between the
liquid and gas phases. At a temperature below the boiling point of the substance, the gas is in
fact technically a vapour, and its pressure is known as the ‘vapour pressure’ of the substance
at that temperature. As the temperature is increased, the vapour pressure also increases.
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the substance is equal to the ambient
pressure is the boiling point of the substance.
Measurable properties of gases
What we mean when we talk about the amount of gas present (usually expressed in moles)
or the volume it occupies is fairly clear. However, the concepts of pressure and temperature
deserve a little more discussion.
Pressure
Pressure is a measure of the force exerted by a gas per unit area. Correspondingly, it has SI
units of Newtons per square metre (Nm-2), more commonly referred to as Pascals (Pa).
Several other units of pressure are in common usage, and conversions between these units
and Pascals are given below:
1 Torr = 1 mmHg = 133.3 Pa
1 bar = 1000 mBar = 100 000 Pa
In a gas, the force arises from collisions of the atoms or molecules in the gas with the surface
at which the pressure is being measured, often the walls of the container.
Note that because the motion of the gas particles is completely random, we could place a
surface at any position in a gas and at any orientation, and we would measure the same
pressure.
The fact that the measured pressure arises from collisions of individual gas particles with the
container walls leads us directly to an important result about mixed gases, namely that the
total pressure p exerted by a mixture of gases is simply the sum of the partial pressures p of
the component gases (the partial pressure pis simply the pressure that gas i would exert if it
alone occupied the container). This result is known as Dalton’s law.
p=Σipi Dalton’s law (3.1)
Measurement of pressure
Pressure measurement presents a challenge in that there is no single physical effect that can
be used over the entire range from extremely low to extremely high pressure. As we shall
see, many ingenious methods have been devised for measuring pressure. At pressures higher
than about 10−4mbar, gauges based on mechanical phenomena may be used. These work by
measuring the actual force exerted by the gas in a variety ofways, and provide an absolute
measurement in that the determined pressure is independent of the gas species. At lower
pressures, gauges tend to rely on measuring a particular physical property of the gas, and for
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this reason must generally be calibrated to give correct measurements for the gas of interest.
In this category, transport phenomena gauges measure gaseous drag on a moving body or
exploit the thermal conductivity of the gas, while ionization gauges ionize the gas and
measure the total ion current generated. The operating principles of some of the most
common types of pressure gauge are outlined below.
U-tube manometer
Range: 1 mbar to atmospheric pressure
Type: mechanical
This gauge consists of a U tube filled with mercury, silicon oil or some other non-volatile
liquid. One end of the tube provides a reference pressure pref, and is either open to
atmospheric pressure or sealed and evacuated to very low pressure. The other end of the U-
tube is exposed to the system pressure to be measured, psys. The gas at each end of the
tube applies a force to the liquid column through collisions with the liquid surface. If the
pressures at each end of the tube are unequal then these forces are unbalanced, and the
liquid will move along the tube until the forces are balanced. At the equilibrium point, the
liquid in its new position exerts a force per unit area p = ρgAh, where ρ is the density of the
liquid, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and Ah is the height difference between the two
arms of the U- tube. Since this quantity must be equal to the original pressure differential
between the two arms of the U-tube, the system pressure is therefore psys = pref + ρgAh.
Bourdon gauge
Range: 1 mbar – high pressure (at least tens of bar) Type: mechanical
A Bourdon gauge works on essentially the same principle as a party blower. As shown in the
diagram below, the gauge head contains a ‘C’ shaped fine-walled
hollow metal tube (called a Bourdon tube). When pressurised, the cross section of the tube
changes and the tube flexes and attempts to straighten. The tube is connected by a gearing
system that transforms the flexion of the tube into rotation of a pointer, which indicates the
pressure on a scale.Capacitance
manometer
-6 5
Range: 10 – 10 mbar
Type: mechanical
A capacitance manometer (also known

as a baratron) contains a thin metal
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diaphragm that is deflected when the pressure changes. The deflection is sensed
electronically via a change in capacitance between the diaphragm and one or more fixed
electrodes. One side of the diaphragm is maintained at a reference pressure, and the
measured capacitance therefore allows an absolute pressure to be determined. The above
diagram and some of thosefollowing were taken from
http://www.lesker.com/newweb/Gauges/
gauges_technicalnotes_1.cfm.
Pirani gauge
-4
Type: transport
A Pirani gauge contains a metal wire that is heated by an electrical current. At the same time,
collisions with the surrounding gas carry heat away from the wire and cool it, with the net
effect being that the wire temperature settles at some equilibrium value. If the pressure is
lowered, heat is carried away less effectively and the temperature of the wire increases, while
an increase in pressure leads to more effective cooling and a decrease in the wire
temperature. The temperature of the wire may therefore be used to measure the pressure. In
practice this is achieved by monitoring the electrical resistance of the wire, which is
temperature-dependent.
Thermocouple gauge
-4
Range: 1000-10 mbar
Type: transport
Thermocouple gauges work in a very similar way to
Pirani gauges, except that a thermocouple is used to
measure the temperature of the wire directly,
rather than inferring the temperature from a
measurement of the resistance.
Hot cathode ionization gauge (Bayard-Alpert gauge)

-3 -10
Type: ionization
A hot cathode gauge consists of a heated filament that emits
electrons, an acceleration grid, and a thin wire detector.
Electrons emitted from the filament are accelerated towards
the grid, and ionise gas molecules along the way. The ions
are collected at the detection wire, and the measured ion
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current is proportional to the gas pressure. This type of

ionization gauge has the advantage that there is a linear
dependence of the ion
current on the gas pressure. Like any ionization

gauge, correction factors need to be applied for
different gases to account for differences in electron-
impact ionization probability.
Cold cathode ionization gauge (Penning gauge)
-2 -7
Range: 10 – 10
Mbar
Type: ionization
A cold cathode gauge (see figure on right) works on a similar
principle to a hot cathode gauge, but the mechanism of
ionization is somewhat different. There is no filament to produce
electrons, simply a detection rod (the anode) and cylindrical
cathode, to which a high voltage (~4kV) is applied. Ionization is
initiated randomly by a
cosmic ray or some other ionizing particle entering the gauge head (this occurs more
frequently than you might think!). The electrons formed are accelerated towards the anode.
A magnetic field causes them to follow spiral trajectories, increasing the path length through
the gas, and therefore the chance of ionizing collisions. The ions are accelerated towards the
cathode, where they are detected. More free electrons are emitted as the ions bombard the
cathode, further increasing the signal. Eventually a steady state is reached, with the ion
current being related to the background gas pressure. The relationship is not a linear one as
in the case of a hot cathode gauge, and the pressure reading is only accurate to within
around a factor of two. However, in its favour, the Penning gauge is more damage resistant
than a hot cathode gauge.
Temperature
The temperature of a gas is a measure of the amount of kinetic energy the gas particles
possess, and therefore reflects their velocity distribution. If we followed the velocity of any
single particle within a gas, we would see it changing rapidly due to collisions with other
particles and with the walls of the container. However, since energy is conserved, these
collisions only lead to exchange of energy between the particles, and the total number of
particles with a given velocity remains constant i.e. at a given temperature, the velocity
distribution of the gas particles is conserved.
Note that temperature is a direct result of the motion of atoms and molecules. In a solid this
motion is almost exclusively vibrational; in a gas it is
predominantly translational. Whatever the type of motion, an important consequence is that

the concept of temperature only has any meaning in the presence of matter. It is impossible
to define the temperature of a perfect vacuum, for example. In addition, temperature is only
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really a meaningful concept for systems at thermal equilibrium. The distribution of molecular
speeds f(v) in an ideal gas at thermal equlibrium is given by the following expression,
known as the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (this will be derived in Section 6).
-mv
m
⎛ ⎞3/2 2 exp⎛
Maxwell-Boltzmanndistribution
(3.2)
⎞
⎝2kBT
The distribution depends on the ratio m/T, where m is the mass of the gas particle and T is
the temperature. The plots below show the Maxwell Boltzmann speed distributions for a
number of different gases at two different temperatures.
As we can see, average molecular speeds for common gases at room temperature (300 K)
are generally a few hundred metres per second. For
-1 -1
example, N2 has an average speed of around 500 ms , rising to around 850 ms at 1000
-1
K. A light molecule such as H2 has a much higher mean speed of around 1800 ms at room
temperature.
We can make two observations:
1. Increasing the temperature broadens the distribution the peak to higher velocities. This
means that there ‘Fast’ particles at higher temperatures, but there will still be ‘Slow’
ones as well.
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2. Decreasing the mass of the gas particles has the as increasing the temperature i.e.
Heavier particles have a slower, narrower distribution of speeds than lighter particles.
We will consider some further consequences of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution when we

look at collisions in the next lecture. Now we will consider the measurement of temperature.
Based on our current definition, one way to measure the temperature of a gas would be to
measure the velocities of each particle and then to find the appropriate value of T in the
above expression to match the measured distribution. This is clearly impractical, due both to
the extremely high speeds of the gas particles and the difficulties associated with tracking
any given particle amongst a sea of identical particles. Instead, temperature measurements
generally rely on the process of thermal equilibration.
Thermal equilibrium and temperature measurements
If two objects at different temperatures are placed in contact, heat will flow from the hotter
object to the cooler object until their temperatures equalise. When the two temperatures are
equal, we say the objects are in thermal equilibrium. The concept of thermal equilibrium
provides the basis for the ‘zeroth law’ of thermodynamics.
If A is in thermal equilibrium with B and B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then A is also in

thermal equilibrium with C.
This provides the basis for a rather formal definition of temperature as being ‘that property
which is shared by objects in thermal equilibrium with each other’. The zeroth law may seem
very obvious, but it is an important principle when it comes to measuring the temperature of
a system. In general, it usually won’t be practical to place two arbitrary systems in thermal
contact to find out if they are in thermal equilibrium and therefore have the same
temperature. However, the zeroth law means that we can use the properties of some
reference system to establish a temperature scale, calibrate a measuring device to this
reference system, and then use the device to measure the temperature of other systems. An
example of such a device is a mercury thermometer. The reference system is a fixed quantity
of mercury, and the physical property used to establish the temperature scale is the volume
occupied by the mercury as a function of temperature. To make a temperature measurement,
the mercury is allowed to come into thermal equilibrium with the system we are making the
measurement on, and the volume occupied by the mercury once equilibrium has been
established may be converted to a temperature on our previously-established scale.
Standard mercury or alcohol thermometers therefore rely on the physical property of thermal
expansion of a fluid for temperature measurement. However, many other properties may also
be used to measure temperature. Some of these include:
Electrical resistance – the resistance of an electrical conductor or
semiconductor changes with temperature. Devices based on metallic
conductors are usually known as ‘resistance temperature devices’, or RTDs,
and rely on the more-or-less linear rise in resistance of a metal with increasing temperature.
A second type of device is the thermistor, which is based on changes in resistance in a
ceramic semiconductor. Unlike metallic conductors, the resistance of these devices dropsnon-
linearly as the temperature is increased.
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Thermoelectric effect – When a metal is subjected to a thermal gradient, a potential

difference is generated. This effect is known as the thermoelectric (or See beck) effect, and
forms the basis for a widely used class of temperature measurement devices known as
thermocouples.
Infrared emission – all substances emit black body radiation with a wavelength or frequency
distribution that reflects their temperature. Infrared temperature measurement devices
measure emission in the IR region of the spectrum in order to infer the temperature of a
substance or object.
Thermal expansion of solids – bimetallic temperature measurement devices consist of two

strips of different metals, bonded together. The different thermal expansion coefficients of the
metals mean that one side of the bonded strip will expand more than the other on heating,
causing the strip to bend. The degree of bending provides a measure of the temperature.
Changes of state – thermometers based on materials that undergo a change of state with
temperature are becoming increasingly widespread. For example, liquid crystal thermometers
undergo a reversible colour change with changes in temperature. Other materials undergo
irreversible changes, which may be useful in situations where all we need to know is whether
a certain temperature has been exceeded (e.g. packaging of temperature sensitive goods).
Experimental observations – the gas laws

Now that we have considered the physical
properties of a gas in some detail, we will move on
to investigating relationships between them. The
figure on the right illustrates the observed
relationship between the volume and pressure of a
gas at two different temperatures.
4.2 Pressure and temperature, including vapor pressure/

temperature relationship
Initially, we will focus on just one of the curves in order to look at the relationship between
pressure and volume. We see that as we increase the pressure from low values, the volume
first drops precipitously, and then at a much slower rate, before more or less leveling out to a
constant value. In fact, we find that pressure is inversely proportional to volume, and the
curves follow the equation
pV = constant Boyle’s law (4.1)
This relationship, known as Boyle’s law, suggests that it becomes

increasingly more difficult to compress a gas as we move to higher
pressures. It is fairly straightforward to explain this observation using
our understanding of the molecular basis of pressure. Consider the
experimental setup shown in the figure below, in which a gas is compressed
by depressing a plunger that forms the ‘lid’ of the container when the
plunger is at its highest position (left handside of the

figure), the volume occupied by the gas is large and the
pressure is low. The low pressure means that there are
relatively few collisions of the gas with the inside surface
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of the plunger, and the force opposing depression of the

plunger is correspondingly low. Under these conditions it
is therefore very easy to compress the gas. Once the
plunger has already been depressed some way (right
hand figure), the gas occupies a much smaller volume,
and there are many more collisions with the inside
surface of the plunger (i.e. a higher pressure). These
collisions provide a large force
opposing further depression of
the plunger, and it becomes much more difficult to reduce the volume of the gas.
The effect of temperature on pressure and volume
From the plot above, we see that for a fixed volume, the pressure increases with
temperature. In fact, this is a direct proportionality:
P ∝ T (at constant volume)
(4.2) Similarly, we find that at a fixed pressure, the volume is
linearly dependent on temperature.
V ∝ T (at constant pressure)
(4.3)
This second relationship is known as Charles’s law (or sometimes Gay-Lussac’s law). It is
often written in the slightly different (but equivalent) form
V
=
T1 T2
Charles’ law (4.4) The first two equations above may be combined to give the result
pV ∝ T
(4.5) These observations are again verynstraightforward to explain using our
molecular understanding of gases. The primary effect of increasing the temperature of the
gas is to increase the speeds of the particles. As a result, there will be more collisions with
the walls of thencontainer (or the inside surface of the plunger in our example above),
and the collisions will also be of higher energy. For a fixed volume of give an increase
in pressure. On the other hand, if the experiment is to be carried out at constant pressure,
we require that the total force exerted upwards on the plunger through collisions
remains constant. Since the individual collisions are more energetic at higher temperatures,
this may only be achieved by reducing the number of collisions, which requires a reduction in
the density of the gas and therefore an increase in its volume.
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It follows fairly intuitively from the arguments above that both pressure and volume
will also be proportional to the number of gas molecules in the sample. i.e.
pV ∝ n
(4.6)
This is known as Avogadro’s principle.
We can combine all of the above results into a single expression, which turns out to be the
equation of state for an ideal gas (and an approximate equation of state for real gases).
pV = nRT Ideal gas
law (4.7)
The constant of proportionality, R, is called the gas constant, and takes the
-1 -1
value 8.314 J K mol . Note that R is related to Boltzmann’s constant, kB, by R = NAkB,
where NA is Avogadro’s number.
This equation generally provides a good description of gases at relatively low pressures and
moderate to high temperatures, which are the conditions under which the original
experiments described above were carried out. To understand the reasons for this, and also
the reasons that the equation breaks down at high pressures and low temperatures, we need
to consider the differences between an ‘ideal’ gas and a real gas.
The ideal gas model is an approximate model of gases that is often used to simplify
calculations on real gases. An ideal gas has the following properties:
1. There are no intermolecular forces between the gas particles.
2. The volume occupied by the particles is negligible compared to the
volume of the container they occupy.
3. The only interactions between the particles and with the container walls are
perfectly elastic collisions.
Note that an elastic collision is one in which the total kinetic energy is conserved (i.e. no
energy is transferred from translation into rotation or vibration, and no
chemical reaction occurs). Of course, in a real gas, the atoms or molecules have a finite size,
and at close range they interact with each other through a variety of intermolecular
forces, including dipole-dipole interactions, dipole-induced dipole interactions, and van der
Waal’s(induced dipole – induced dipole) interactions. When applied to real gases, the
ideal gas model breaks down when molecular size effects or intermolecular forces become
important. This occurs under conditions of high pressure, when the molecules are forced close
together and therefore interact strongly, and at low temperatures, when the molecules are
moving slowly and intermolecular forces have a long time to act during a collision. The
pressure at which the ideal gas model starts to break down will depend on the nature and
strength of the intermolecular forces between the gas particles, and therefore on their
identity. The ideal gas model becomes more and more exact as the pressure is lowered, since
at very low pressures the gas particles are widely spaced apart and interact very little with
each other.
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The deviations of a real gas from ideal gas behaviour may be quantified by a parameter called
the compression factor, usually given the symbol Z. At a given pressure and temperature,
attractive and repulsive intermolecular forces between gas particles mean that the molar
volume is likely to be smaller or larger than for an ideal gas under the
same conditions. The compression factor is simply the ratio of the molar volume Vm of the
gas to the molar volume Vm of an ideal gas at thesame pressure and temperature.
The value of Z provides information on the dominant types of intermolecular forces acting in
a gas.
Z = 1 No intermolecular forces, ideal gas behaviour
Z < 1 Attractive forces dominate, gas occupies a smaller volume than an
ideal gas. Z > 1 Repulsive forces dominate, gas occupies a larger volume than
an ideal gas.
All gases approach Z=1 at very low pressures, when the spacing between particles is large on
average. To understand the behaviour at higher pressures we need to consider a typical
intermolecular potential, V(r), (see figure below) which describes the energy of interaction
between two molecules as a function of their separation. We can divide the potential
into three regions or zones, as illustrated in the diagram, and consider the value of Z in each
region.
Now that most of the basic concepts underlying the properties of gases have been
covered, we are ready to move on to a more quantitative description. The ideal gas model,
which represents a simplified approximate version of a real gas, has already been introduced.
We will find in the following sections that we can use this model as the basis for the kinetic
theory of gases. The name comes from the fact that within kinetic theory, it is assumed that
the only contributions to the energy of a gas arise from the kinetic energies of the gas
particles.
Kinetic theory is a powerful model that allows us to relate macroscopic measurable quantities
to motions on the molecular scale. In the following sections, we will use it to calculate
‘microscopic’ quantities such as average particle velocities, collision rates and the distance
travelled between collisions, and to investigate macroscopic properties such as pressure and
transport phenomena (e.g. diffusion rates and thermal conductivity).
7. Collisions with the container walls - determining pressure from molecular speeds
The measured pressure of a gas arises from collisions of the gas particles with the walls of
the container. By considering these collisions more carefully, we can use kinetic theory to
relate the pressure directly to the average speed of the gas
particles. Firstly, we will determine the momentum transferred to the container walls in a
single collision. The figure below shows a particle of mass m and velocity v colliding with a
wall of area A. Before the collision, the particle has velocity vx and momentum mvx along the
x direction. After the collision, the particle has momentum -mvx along the x direction (note
that the components of momentum along y and z remain unchanged). Since momentum
must be conserved during the collision, and the momentum of the particle has changed by
2mvx, the total momentum imparted to the wall must also be 2mvx.
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8. The Maxwell Boltzmann distribution revisited There are various ways in which
this distribution may be derived. In the following version much of the hard work is done by
means of fairly straightforward symmetry arguments.
We will start by breaking the velocity v down into its components vx, vy and vz and
considering the probability p(vx)dvx that a particle has a velocity component vx in a range
dvx i.e. lies between vx and vx+dvx. Since each velocity component may be
treated independently, according to probability theory the total probability of finding a
particle with components vx, vy, vz in the range dvx, dvy, dvz is just the
product of the probabilities for each component.
P(v ,v ,v ) dv dv dv =
x y z x y z p(vx)dvx
p(v )dv
y y p(vz)dvz
(8.1)
If we stop and think for a moment, we can reason that since the directions the
particles are travelling in are completely random and that all directions within the gas
are equivalent, the distribution function P(vx,vy,vz) can actually only depend on the total
speed v of the particle rather than on the individual velocity components.
(8.15)
Transport properties of gases

As the name suggests, a transport property of a substance describes its ability to transport
matter or energy (or some other property) from one location to another. Examples include
thermal conductivity (the transport of energy down a temperature gradient), electrical
conductivity (transport of charge down a potential gradient), and diffusion (transport of
matter down a concentration gradient). Viscosity is another transport property, since it
describes the rate at which linear momentum is transported through a fluid. We can use
kinetic theory to calculate several transport properties of gases. First however, we need to
introduce the idea of a flux.
Flux
When dealing with transport properties, we are generally interested in the rate at which
matter, energy, charge, or some other property is transported. We usually define this in
terms of a flux, which is simply the amount of matter, energy, charge etc passing
-
through a unit area per unit time. For example, mass flux is measured in units of kg m
2
s-1, energy flux is measured in units of J m-2 s-1, and so on. As described above, transport
of some property generally occurs in response to a gradient in a related property, and the
flux is generally proportional to the gradient. Note that both the flux and the gradient are
vector properties. For example, if there is a concentration gradient in some direction z,
there will be a component of mass flux in the same direction.
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4.3 TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE GENERATION
Electrostatic charge is generated in a number of ways whenever there is friction between two
bodies moving relative to one another.
Charge generation occurs in liquid systems on the molecular level at the interface of any two
unlike materials, so a static charge will be generated in any moving fluid, with positive or
negative charges moving from the fluid onto the bounding surface. The causes of electrostatic
charging include the following examples:
 Friction caused by fluid flowing in pipes
 High fluid velocities
 Fluids flowing in ungrounded pipes and hoses
 Passage of fluids through filter elements or other microporous structures
 Generated by turbulence in the liquids and by pumping elements, especially centrifugal
pumps
 Fluid discharging on to the free surface of the reservoir
 When free air is present in the liquid, for example, in bearing and paper machine
return lines
 Imparted into the liquid when component surfaces sliding is relative to one another
Fluid acquires a charge when it flows through a pipe or microporous structure, and when this
charge is carried downstream, it’s called a streaming current (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Streaming Current

In pipeline flow, the streaming current will be discharged back to the pipe walls, reservoir or
component surfaces, and the discharge rate is controlled by the characteristics of the fluid
and its additives. This charge relaxation is described by the equations below:
where:
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Qt = charge at time t
Qo = initial charge
t = charge relaxation time constant (representing 37 percent charge decay)
E = dielectric constant of liquid (approximately 2 for oils)
E0 = absolute dielectric constant of a vacuum (8.854 x 10 - 12
F/m)
K = fluid rest conductivity (pS/m)
If the component walls are conductive, then a charge will be induced on the walls, which is of
opposite polarity to the fluid. If the exterior surface is grounded, the net charge will be zero.
If not, the charge will accumulate to eventually discharge.
This will generate an electrostatic discharge where the charge discharges to a surface at
lower voltage. In doing so, it can generate a high-energy spark. If the discharge occurs in air,
the results can be both spectacular and potentially harmful (Figure 2).
Electrostatic discharge usually manifests itself as a clicking sound as charge repeatedly
increases and discharges to surfaces of lower voltage (usually earth or ground) through
sparking. The clicking frequency depends on the charging rate.
Clearly, if the discharge occurs in a flammable atmosphere the effect can be serious, but
these instances are rare. A discharge within the system is usually short-lived and
extinguished by the hydraulic fluid. This can result in etching of the discharged surface,
perhaps removing microscopic particles and leaving carbon deposits on the surface.
There is also evidence that localized discharge can result from lubricated surfaces, especially
in geared and bearing systems with a high air content. This can contribute to pitting of
surfaces.
4.4 Chemical symbols
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture
of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled down to liquid form for ease and safety of non-
pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the
gaseous state (at standard conditions for temperature and pressure). It
is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability after
vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia. The liquefaction process involves
removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and
heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is
then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately
−162 °C (−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around 25 kPa (4 psi).
A typical LNG process.
The gas produced from hydrocarbon deposits typically contains a wide range of hydrocarbon
products, which usually includes methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8)
and butane (C4H10). All these products have wide-ranging boiling points and also different
heating values allowing different routes to commercialization and also different uses. The
"acidic" elements such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2), together with
oil, mud, water, and mercury, are removed from the gas to deliver a clean sweetened stream
of gas. Failure to remove such acidic molecules, mercury, and other impurities could result in
damage to the equipment. Corrosion of steel pipes and amalgamization of mercury to
aluminium within cryogenic heat exchangers could cause expensive damage.
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The gas stream is typically separated into the Liquefied Petroleum fractions (butane and
propane), which can be stored in liquid form at relatively low pressure, and the lighter ethane
and methane fractions. These lighter fractions of methane and ethane are then liquefied to
make up the bulk of LNG that is shipped.
5.0 Basic Knowledge of the hazards associated with taker operations:
Toxicity and associated health hazards onboard liquefied gas carrier
Cargo health and safety information: Carrying and handling various liquefied natural gases
pose significant potential hazards including risk of injury or death,threats to environment and
each person working on a gas carrier and terminal ashore needs to understand the risks
involved, obtain the necessary training and take all the needed precautions.
It is important to realise that different cargo grades may well have different hazards
associated with them. Liquefied gas relate to the following hazards asphyxia, toxicity, low
temperature and flammability. The information for each liquefied gas cargo grade being
carried onboard at any one time should include:
1. Appearance
2. conditions of carriage
3. reactivity data
4. special requirements
5. physical data
6. the main hazards
7. fire and explosion data
8. associated hazards
9. health data
10.compatible materials
Gas tankers are designed such that in normal operation, personnel need at no time be
exposed to hazard from the products being transported, provided that the ship and its
equipment are properly maintained and operating instructions are observed.
Hazard avoidance depends on:
 Hazard removal
 Hazard control
 Reliance on personal protection
 Training
As per the MSDS contained in the ICS Tanker Safety Guide (Liquefied Gas) Data Sheet, at
ambient temperatures , the flammable range of methane in air is 5% to16% . In open
spaces, the visible condensation cloud provides a safe estimate of the flammable vapour
mixture. Although the visible condensation cloud may also include some zones where the gas
is either too rich or too lean and is safe so far as risk of frost burn is concerned, it is prudent
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to consider the whole visible cloud as potentially flammable and to avoid entry into the cloud,
which may also be deficient in oxygen content.
When natural gas vapours have warmed sufficiently to rise out of the visible condensation
cloud, they will have diffused to below the lower flammable limit.
5.1 Health Hazards
Personnel protection
All vessels designated for the carriage of Liquefied Natural Gas should have on board suitable
protective equipment and clothing for the protection of crew involved in cargo handling
operations. The types and quantities of protective equipment as well as additional safety
equipment should be in strict compliance with recommendations in ICS.
All ships carrying dangerous cargoes should have on board first aid equipment including
oxygen resuscitation in compliance with recommendations listed in IMO-MFAG (Medical First
Aid) and WHO-IMGS (International Medical Guide for Ships).
Since LNG is carried at cryogenic temperatures, physical contact will produce frost burns.
Such contact may occur either from a spillage or a leak, or from frosted pipes and flanges.
Personnel having to work in the manifold area, or in other areas where leakage or contact
with frosted pipes could occur, must wear clothing to cover the whole body, i.e. long-sleeved
boiler suits, gloves, goggles or safety glasses and safety helmet and shoes, in order to
minimise the risk of frost burn. Personnel not directly involved in cargo operations should
keep well clear of operational areas.
5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS

The majority of liquefied gases are clean, non-polluting, products and create no danger to the
marine environment. If however certain liquefied gases spill on to the sea you should be
aware that they may:
5.3 Reactivity of liquefied gas cargo
A liquefied gas cargo may react in a number of ways: with water to form hydrates, with itself,
with air, with another cargo or with other materials.
Reaction with Water – Hydrate Formation
Some hydrocarbon cargoes will combine with water under certain conditions to produce a
substance known as a hydrate resembling crushed ice or slush. The water for hydrate
formation can come from purge vapours with an incorrect dew point, water in the cargo
system or water dissolved in the cargo. Care should be taken to ensure that the dew point of
any purge vapour or inert gas used is suitable for the cargo concerned, and that water is
excluded from the cargo system.
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Hydrates can cause pumps to seize and equipment to malfunction. Care should therefore be
taken to prevent hydrate formation.
Certain cargoes, notably LPGs, may contain traces of water when loaded. It may be
permissible in such cases to prevent hydrate formation by adding small quantities of a
suitable anti-freeze (e.g. methanol, ethanol) at strategic points in the system. It is
emphasized that nothing whatsoever should be added to any cargo without the shipper’s
permission. For LPG mixtures a small dose of anti-freeze may be permissible, but for chemical
cargoes such as ethylene the addition of even one liter per two hundred tons could make the
cargo commercially valueless. In the case of inhibited cargoes the anti-freeze could adversely
affect the inhibitor.
If the use of anti-freeze is permitted it should be introduced at places where expansion occurs
because the resultant lowering of temperature and pressure promotes hydrate formation.
Anti-freeze additives are often flammable and toxic, and care should be taken in their storage
and use.
Inhibitor: A substance used to prevent or retard cargo deterioration or a potentially

hazardous chemical self-reaction, e.g. polymerization.
Reaction with Air
Some cargoes can react with air to form unstable oxygen compounds which could cause an
explosion. The IMO Codes require these cargoes to be either inhibited or carried under
nitrogen or other inert gas.
Reaction with Other Cargoes
Certain cargoes can react dangerously with one another. They should be prevented from
mixing by using separate piping and vent systems and separate refrigeration equipment for
each cargo. Care should be taken to ensure that this positive segregation is maintained.
To establish whether or not two cargoes will react dangerously, the data sheet for each cargo
should be consulted. This issue is also covered in various national regulations, which should
be observed.
Reaction with Other Materials
The data sheets list materials which should not be allowed to come into contact with the
cargo. The materials used in the cargo systems must be compatible with the cargoes to be
carried and care should be taken to ensure that no incompatible materials are used or
introduced during maintenance (e.g. gaskets).
Reaction can occur between cargo and purge vapours of poor quality: for instance, inert gas
with high CO2 content can cause carbamate formation with ammonia. Reaction can also occur
between compressor lubricating oils and some cargoes, resulting in blockage and damage.
Methane is an asphyxiant in high concentrations because it dilutes the amount of Oxygen in

the air below that necessary to maintain life. Due to its inactivity, Methane is not a significant
air pollutant although it is not a significant greenhouse gas and, due to it insolubility,
inactivity, and volatility, it is not considered a water pollutant.
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5.4 Corrosion Hazards:
Some cargoes and inhibitors may be corrosive. The IMO Codes require materials used in the
cargo system to be resistant to corrosion by the cargo. Care should therefore be taken to
ensure that unsuitable materials are not introduced into the cargo system. All precautions
specific to the cargo should be strictly observed.
Corrosive liquids can also attach human tissue and care should be taken to avoid contact:
reference should be made to the appropriate data sheets. Instructions about the use of
protective clothing should be observed.
Precaution against chemical burns
Chemical burns can be caused by; ammonia, chlorine, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide
and certain other chemical gases. The symptoms are similar to heat burns, excepting that the
product may be absorbed through the skin causing toxic side-effects. Chemical burns can
seriously damage the eyes.
Symptoms: A burning pain with redness of the skin; an irritating rash; blistering or loss of
skin; toxic poisoning (see later). Be sure you know where eye-baths and showers are located.
Chemical burns treatment:
 remove patient from source of contamination- including clothing

 attend first to the eyes and skin
 wash the eyes thoroughly for a minimum of fifteen minutes with large amounts of fresh
water
 wash the skin thoroughly for a minimum of fifteen minutes with large amounts of fresh
water
 seek urgent medical/first-aid attention
5.5 Explosion and Flammability Hazards:
All liquefied gases presently transported in bulk by sea, with the exception of chlorine and
nitrogen, are flammable. The vapours of liquefied gases are generally as easily ignited as
those of oil cargoes. The exception to this is ammonia vapour, which requires considerably
higher ignition source energy to ignite than the other flammable vapours. Statistically,
therefore, fires following ammonia leakage are less likely than those with other cargoes but it
would be unwise to discount thereby the possibility of an ammonia fire.
Because of the high vapour pressure and rapid vaporisation of spilled liquefied gases, the
spread of flammable vapour is likely to be more extensive than in the case of a similar liquid
spillage of oil. The chances of ignition following a spill of liquefied gas are thereby greater.
Radiation from liquefied gas fires, because of the rapidity of vapour production, may be
intense and no fire-fighting should be attempted without full fire-fighting protective clothing.
Leakage of a liquid or vapour from a pipeline under pressure will burn as a jet if ignited which
will continue as long as fuel is supplied.
A particularly destructive form of vapour burn associated with the transportation of liquefied
gas in pressurised containers is the BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion). This
arises from the rise in pressure within the container together with the weakening of the
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uninsulated and uncooled part of the container shell due to surrounding fire or due to
radiation from the ignited vapour emission from the safety relief valve. As a result, the
container suddenly splits open, releasing the pressurised liquid to atmospheric pressure. The
consequent flash of liquid vapour provides fuel for a rising fireball and parts of the ruptured
container may be projected apart with considerable violence. The BLEVE is a well known
occurrence in road and rail transportation but has never occurred in marine transportation
and is unlikely so to occur for the following reasons:
1. the likelihood of surrounding fire is small,

2. safety relief valve emissions are piped away to mast head vents
3. shipboard pressurised tanks are provided with water sprays and water for cooling
purposes is readily available.
Almost all cargo vapours are flammable. When ignition occurs, it is not the liquid which burns
but the evolved vapour. Different cargoes evolve different quantities of vapour, depending on
their composition and temperature.
Flammable vapour can be ignited and will burn when mixed with air in certain proportions if
the ratio of vapour to air is either below or above specific limits the mixture will not burn. The
limits are known as the lower and upper flammable limits, and are different for each cargo.
The risk of a flammable mixture being ignited may be substantially reduced by: preventing
leaks from developing & ensuring that there are no sources of ignition when a leak occurs and
vapours may be within the flammable range.
Cargo temperatures may be very low but so too can the flash point. For example:
 Methane has a flash point of -175 degC

 Propane has a flash point of -105 degC
 Butane has a flash point of -60 degC
Vapours and gases will only ignite if they are within the flammable range that is there is
enough oxygen present to support ignition and there is neither too little vapour (too lean),
nor too much (too rich) for the mixture to burn.
The flammable range of a gas is defined by the terms Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) and
Upper Flammable Limit (UFL), these are sometimes known as the upper and lower explosive
limits.
Combustion of vapour / air mixture results in a very considerable expansion of gases which, if
constricted in an enclosed space, can raise pressure rapidly to the point of explosive rupture.
No fuel or petroleum product is completely safe: not coal, oil, or liquefied natural gas, all of
which are carried on ships.
LNG is a fuel, and, when it becomes a gas and mixes with air, it will burn. You can never
consider anything that burns completely safe, even fairly innocuous materials like wood and
cooking oil. But some are worse than others, and liquefied natural gas is far from the worst.
When LNG vapor reaches an open flame, it easily catches fire and will burn everything within
the vapor-air mixture; the same as when natural gas burns. Due to the extra care in
designing, maintaining, and operating LNG ships, they all have excellent safety records.
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There have been some fires at shore facilities, but those are rare events. However, if a ship
catches fire, it could be very serious. That's why the LNG industry and the Coast Guard are
very careful about the movement of liquefied natural gas.
5.6 Source of Ignition
Smoking
Smoking can only be permitted under controlled conditions, the captain will decide when and
where smoking is allowed, obey all instructions about smoking, never smoke outside on the
open deck. Secret smoking is more dangerous than controlled smoking &never smoke in bed.
The designated smoking places on a gas carrier must be known to the crew, and when in port
should be agreed in writing between the master and the terminal representative before cargo
operations start.
1) The master shall designate places where smoking is permitted as

follows:
i) While mooring: Officer’s smoking room, Rating’s smoking room, Cargo control room
ii) At sea: Officer’s smoking room, Rating smoking room, Chart room, Radio office,Cargo
control room, Engine control room
(2) The master is responsible for ensuring that all persons onboard are informed of the places
in which smoking is permitted, and for posting suitable notices.
(3) The use of all mechanical lighters and portable lighters with electrical ignition sources
should be prohibited to use onboard vessels. The master shall provide the safety type of
lighters or matches at the designated smoking places
(4) The designated smoking places shall be provided with ashtrays filled with water.
(5) The designated smoking places shall not have doors or portholes which open directly to
open decks.
No Fire Except in Designated Places
(1) Naked lights, matches, electric heaters, electric iron and the like shall not be used in
areas other than the designated places.
(2) In the designated places, fire for boiling rice or water shall be used only after closing
scuttles and doors completely, and confirming safety and absence of flammable gas.
(3) Cooking Stove in Galley
While the vessel being alongside a wharf, steam type stoves may be used all the time, and
the terminal regulations shall be followed regarding other type of stoves or the like. In this
case, such stoves shall be of the type the safety of which has been mutually agreed by the
Master and the competent person of the terminal.
(4) Cleaning Filters & Gauze Wires of Ventilation for Stove in Galley
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Filters and gauze wires above stove and of ventilator should be maintained in good condition
and replaced if they become defective. Master shall instruct Catering department to check
and clean them at least once a month.
(5) Electric Heaters in Pantries
Electric heaters (hot plates, toasters, and the like) shall be fixed and used in the designated
place. They shall not be used if inflammable gas penetrates into the accommodation.
(6) Oily waste, saw dust and the like shall be stored in a well ventilated spaces where they
can be watched easily since they may cause spontaneous ignition, and they shall be stored
separately from inflammable substances, such as paints or the similar, and shall be disposed
of by an incinerator at an early opportunity.
(7) Galley extraction fans must always be clean and free of dust and grime, so that for the
most part the fire risk is minimised. The grease trap should be readily removable, for cleaning
purposes.
Portable Electrical Equipment
Portable electrical equipment (self-contained or on extension cables) should not be used

outside of accommodation spaces unless:
(1) The equipment circuit is intrinsically safe;

(2) The equipment is contained within an approved explosion-proof housing;
(3) Flexible cable are of a type approved for extra hard use, have an earth conductor, and
are permanently attached to the explosion-proof housing in an approved manner;
(4) The compartments around and within which the equipment and/or cable are to be used
are free from flammable vapour throughout the period during which the equipment is
in use; and
(5) Adjacent compartments are free from flammable vapour or have been made safe by
inerting or completely filling with water, and all connections with other compartments
that are not free from flammable vapour are firmly closed and will remain so.
If the equipment is only to be used on the tank deck, explosion-proof and other types of
certified safe equipment can be used.
Air-driven lamps of an approved type may be used in non gas-free atmospheres, although to
avoid the accumulation of static electricity on the lamp it should either be earthed or the hose
should have a resistance low enough to allow static dissipation.
Only approved safety torches or hand lamps should be used.
Small battery powered personal items such as watches and hearing aids are not significant
ignition sources when correctly used. However portable domestic radios, electronic
calculators, tape recorders, cameras and other non-approved battery powered equipment
should not be used on the tank deck or wherever flammable vapour may be encountered.
When in port, reference should be made to local regulations which may totally prohibit the
use of any electrical equipment. All portable electrical equipment should be carefully
examined for possible defects before use. Special care should be taken to ensure that
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insulation is undamaged, that cables are securely attached and remain so while the
equipment is in use, and that mechanical damage to cables is prevented.
Radio Transmitter, RADAR, VHF and radiating any signals
Main radio transmitters should not be used and the main aerials should be earthed during
cargo operations because energy may be induced into conducting objects in the radio wave
field. This energy can be sufficient to create a spark if discontinuity occurs. Heavy sparking
can also occur at the insulators, particularly in humid weather. Permanently and correctly
installed VFH equipment is not affected.
it is necessary to operate the ship’s radio in port for maintenance etc., the agreement of the
terminal and port authorities should be sought. The issue of a work permit may be necessary,
and to ensure safety the terminal may require operation at low power, use of a dummy aerial
load, or transmission only when no cargo operations are in progress.
It is advisable to consult the terminal before radar scanners or satellite communication

equipment are used, because they may include non-approved equipment such as drive
motors. The radiation itself is considered not to present an ignition hazard.
Follow the following items while being alongside the wharf:
(1) Ground a main antenna, and post up a notice which says that the radio transmission of
the main transmitter is prohibited in the Radio Office.
(2) Prohibit the use of RADAR.
(3) Change over the output with radiating any signal down to low (1 W or under).
(4) For use of the INMARSAT and coastal telephone, obtain permission of the responsible
person of the terminal.
Restriction on Private Electrical Appliances (1)
No use in private cabins
Electric appliances with built-in Nichrome wire, such as hair dryers, electric pots, and heaters.
(But they may be used in the designated smoking areas with permission of the Master).
(2) Allowed in private cabins
TVs, VTRs, radios, radio cassette recorders, cameras, electric razors, and the like. But they
shall not be used if inflammable gas penetrates into the accommodation. And they shall not
be used on the upper deck and in areas where inflammable gas is likely to exist.
(3) No wiring without permission
Electric appliances shall be used by fixed receptacles, and no wiring shall be allowed without
permission.
Maintenance of Fixed Lighting Units
Deteriorated insulation for electric cable laid on the deck, mast, and posts, and defective
surface glasses, bulbs, and others of watertight lighting fixtures shall be repaired or replaced
with new ones. But during liquefied gas handling operations, do not replace bulbs in areas
where inflammable gas is likely to exist.
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Electric appliances
As a safety measure, crewmembers should display prominent notices near all electrical
appliances, requiring the disconnection of power cord from electrical supply outlet when not
in use. All old and suspect kettles should be permanently removed from use and replaced
with new ones. A major fire incident was averted aboard a vessel due to timely intervention
of crewmembers.
An electric kettle being used on board typically consisted of a cordless stainless steel jug
fitted with a plastic base that contained the electric heating element. Power was supplied via
a male-female central connector mounted on the base unit, also made of plastic. Following a
mid-afternoon coffee break, the crew had left the mess room and had failed to notice that the
water in the kettle was still boiling and the automatic thermostat switch had not operated and
cut off the power supply to the heating coil.
Some minutes later, all the water had evaporated and without any more heat load, the
temperature rose high enough for the plastic base and kettle bottom to melt and ultimately
catch fire. The strong smell of burning plastic drew the attention of a passing crewmember,
who, after seeing the fire and smoke at the kettle's base, quickly disconnected the power
cord from the supply socket and transferred the kettle and base unit into the adjacent galley
sink. Thereafter they turned on the water and successfully extinguishing the fire.
An investigation into the incident revealed that the automatic thermostatic switch was not
working properly, while the crew was negligent in observing that the kettle was still boiling
when they had left the mess room at the end of the coffee break.
Fuel and lubricating oil
Fuel or lubricating oils can be ignited by contact with hot surface even in the absence of the
external flame or spark. Care is to be taken to ensure that fuel or lubricating oil does not
touch
hot surfaces; if leakage causes oil to spray or fall on to a hot surface, the source of oil is to be
isolated immediately.
Cargo vapour
Care is to be taken to ensure that cargo vapour (other than boiler fuel) does not enter the
engine or boiler room from any source. Particular care is necessary when LNG cargo vapour is
used as a fuel.
If, as a result of malfunction of equipment, explosion, collision or grounding damage, cargo

vapour is likely to enter the machinery space, immediate consideration is to be given to its
possible effect on the operation of any equipment. Any necessary action is to be taken; e.g.
isolating the source, closing access doors, hatches and skylights, shutting down auxiliary and
main machinery, evacuation.
Diesel engines are liable to over-speed and destroy themselves if flammable vapour is
present in the air supply and boiler control systems rendered ineffective, even at
concentrations well below the lower flammable limit (LFL). The closing of dampers in the air
supply or blocking off of the air inlet is to be considered if this situation is suspected.
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High and Low Pressure Effects
Pressures above or below the design range can damage a system, and operating personnel
should be fully aware of any pressure limitation for each part of the cargo system; pressures
should always be kept between the specified maximum and minimum.
Pressure Surge
High surge pressures (shock pressures or “liquid hammers”) can be created if valves are
opened or shut too quickly, and the pressure may be sufficient to cause hose or pipeline
failure.
Pressurized Systems
In pressurized systems, with the cargo at ambient temperature, there is normally no external
frosting to indicate the presence of liquid or vapour anywhere in the system. Checks should
be made for the presence of high pressure vapour of liquid by gauges and test cocks before
opening valves etc.
Reciprocating Compressors
If vapour trapped in a reciprocating compressor condenses, it can dilute the lubricating oil in
the crankcase which could cause bearing failure, overheating or possibly an explosion. The
crankcase heating equipment, if fitted, should be used to reduce the possibility of cargo
condensing and should be operated before the compressor is started. Liquid condensed in the
compressor may also cause mechanical damage.
Cargo Tank Pressures
Cargo tank pressure should normally be maintained above atmospheric pressure to prevent
the ingress of air and the possible formation of flammable mixtures. Positive pressures should
be maintained if the tank contains any cargo vapour or inert gas. However, many pressure
vessels are designed to withstand vacuum and it is possible to reduce tank pressure below
atmospheric without drawing in air, for example during inerting and gas freeing.
Cargo operations such as cooldown, warm-up, loading and discharge may affect pressures in
hood or inter-barrier spaces. Pressures can also be affected by climatic changes and the
variation in temperature between day and night.
Pressure in cargo tanks and hold or inter-barrier spaces should be closely monitored,
especially during cargo operations, and the equipment provided should be used to make the
necessary adjustments. Particular care is necessary with membrane or semi-membrane
systems which are vulnerable to damage from vacuum or incorrect differential pressures
because of the thin barrier material.
Pressures in cargo tanks may be maintained above atmospheric by: (1) Equalizing pressures
between tanks which contain the same cargo, or (2) Circulating cargo liquid or vapour, or
both, between tanks containing the same cargo, or (3) Circulating cargo within a tank by use
of the cargo pumps, or (4) Allowing the cargo to warm up.
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Liquid Gas Samples
Liquid gas samples should not be placed in containers which cannot withstand the pressure
created by the sample at the highest ambient temperature expected. Sufficient ullage should
be left in the container to ensure that it does not become liquid full at the highest
temperature anticipated. Liquid gas samples should be stored within the cargo area.
Sloshing
Within a range of tank filling levels, the pitching and rolling of the ship and the liquid free
surface can create high impact pressure on the tank surface. This effect is called “sloshing”
and can cause structural damage. Filling levels within this range must therefore be avoided.
However, some cargoes may be carried safely within the range specified for a particular
system if the sloshing forces are permissible; guidance should be sought from the Ship-
owner, the designer and Classification Society.
Pressure Relief Valves
Pressure relief valves depend on accurate setting of opening and closing pressures for
effective operation.
5.7 ElectroStatic Hazards:
Static Electricity can cause sparks capable of igniting a flammable gas. The cargo system of a
gas carrier is electrically bonded to the ships hull to prevent any build up of charges, bonding
connections must be maintained in good order.
Electrostatic Generation
The extent to which materials, whether solid, liquid or vapour, can generate and retain a
static charge depends on their electrical resistance. If the resistance is high, a charge can be
built up. It is also possible for a charge to build up on materials in a system with low
resistance (e.g. metals) that are electrically insulated from each other. The cargo system of a
gas carrier is electrically bonded to the ship’s hull to prevent charge build-up. It is important
that such bonding connections are maintained in an efficient condition.
Hoses are normally bonded to their flanges by the metal reinforcement, and thus provide a
continuous path to earth though the ship’s manifold and the hull. If an insulating flange is
inserted at the shore manifold, the intermediate flanges and metal reinforcement will still
provide that continuous path. A significant static electrical charge can be caused by high fluid
velocities, change from liquid to vapour / liquid droplet flow, small particles carried in a
vapour steam and by impingement.
In an un-bonded system static electricity could be generated by:
(1) Flow of liquid through pipes
(2) Flow of liquid / vapour mixtures through spray nozzle
(3) Flow of a vapour containing particles (e.g. rust) through piping.
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The risk of causing ignition by static electricity is reduced if the system is correctly bonded or
if flammable mixtures are avoided.
Steam
High velocity water droplets in a jet of steam may become charged in passing through a
nozzle and could produce a charged mist. For this reason steam should not be injected into a
tank, compartment or piping system which contains a flammable mixture. Steam may
sometimes be used to provide external heat to defrost or dry a bonded system containing
flammable liquid or vapour, but only if the surrounding atmosphere is non-flammable.
Carbon Dioxide
When liquid carbon dioxide under pressure is released at high velocity, rapid evaporation
causes cooling and particles of solid carbon dioxide may form. The solid particles in the cloud
of CO2 may become electrostatically charged. For this reason carbon dioxide should not be
released into spaces containing a flammable mixture.
Ship / Shore Insulating, Earthing and Bonding
In order to provide protection against static electrical discharge at the manifold when
connecting and disconnecting cargo hose strings and metal arms, the terminal operator
should ensure that they are fitted with an insulating flange or a single length of non-
conducting hose, to create electrical discontinuity between the ship and shore. All metal on
the seaward side of the insulating section should be electrically continuous to the ship. And
that on the landward side should be electrically continuous to the jetty earthing system.
The insulating flange or single length of non-conducting hose must not be short-circuited by
contact with external metal; for example, an exposed metallic flange on the seaward side of
the insulating flange or hose length should not make contact with the jetty structure either
directly though hose handling equipment. Simply switching off a cathodic protection system is
not a substitute for the installation of an insulating flange or a length of non-conducting hose.
Cargo hoses with internal bonding between the end flanges should be checked for electrical
continuity before they are taken into service and periodically thereafter.
A ship / shore bonding cable is not effective as a safety device and may even be dangerous.
A ship / shore bonding cable should therefore not be used.
Note: although the potential dangers of using a ship/shore bonding cable are widely
recognized, attention is drawn to the fact that some national and local regulations may still
require a bonding cable to be connected. If a bonding cable is demanded, it should first be
visually inspected to see that it is mechanically sound. The connection point for the cable
should be well clear of the manifold area. There should always be a switch on the jetty in
series with the bonding cable and of a type suitable for use in a hazardous area.
It is important to ensure that the switch is always in the “off” position before connecting or
disconnecting the cable. Only when the cable is properly fixed and in good contact with the
ship should the switch be closed. The cable should be attached before the cargo hoses are
connected and removed only after the hoses have been disconnected
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5.8 Toxicity Hazards
Some cargoes are toxic and can cause a temporary or permanent health hazard, such as
irritation, tissue damage or impairment of faculties. Such hazards may result from skin or
open-wound contact, inhalation or ingestion.
Contact with cargo liquid or vapour should be avoided. Protective clothing should be worn as
necessary and breathing apparatus should be worn if there is a danger of inhaling toxic
vapour. The toxic gas detection equipment provided should be used as necessary and should
be properly maintained.
5.9 Exposure Vapour leaks and Clouds:
Contact with liquid, or even cold vapour, will result in cold burns that, if extensive, could
prove fatal. The symptoms of ‘cold burns’ are similar to ‘hot burns’, there is extreme pain in
the affected area with attendant confusion, agitation and possibly fainting of the victim. If the
area of the burn is large, shock will inevitably develop.
While the rapid evaporation of LNG will minimise the extent of chemical burning on the skin,
cold vapour can be dangerous to the eyes. If liquid or cold vapour enters the eyes, they must
be immediately bathed with running clean sea or fresh water for at least 15 minutes.
If liquid or cold vapour comes into contact with the skin, the patient should be treated
urgently, but with great care, and the affected area immersed in tepid water until it is
defrosted.
Methane has a Threshold Limit Value (TLV) of 1,000 ppm. Above this level, it acts as an
anaesthetic to an increasing extent as the exposure increases. It is generally less harmful
than most hydrocarbons at lower levels, but safe working practices dictate that all deliberate
exposure should be avoided.
If a person is exposed to natural gas, they should be moved into fresh air immediately. Care
must be taken that the rescuer is not also exposed. Since methane has an anaesthetic effect,
a person exposed to an excessive amount of vapour will become uncoordinated and not
necessarily realise the dangers. If breathing has stopped or is weak or irregular, mouth to
mouth resuscitation should be given without delay and the resuscitation equipment brought
into use as quickly as possible. In all cases of exposure to either liquid or gas, medical advice
should be sought.
Since natural gas is both colourless and odourless in both liquid and vapour forms, it may not
always be realised that a hazard exists, so extra vigilance must be exercised when
approaching an area where free methane could be present.
Asphyxia
Asphyxia occurs when the blood cannot take a sufficient supply of oxygen to the brain. A
person affected may experience headache, dizziness and inability to concentrate, followed by
loss of consciousness. In sufficient concentrations any vapour may cause asphyxiation,
whether toxic or not.
Asphyxiation can be avoided by the use of vapour and oxygen detection equipment and
breathing apparatus as necessary.
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Anaesthesia
Inhaling certain vapours (e.g. ethylene oxide) may cause loss of consciousness due to effects
upon the nervous system. The unconscious person may react to sensory stimuli, but can only
be roused with great difficulty.
Anaesthetic vapour hazards can be avoided by the use of cargo vapour detection equipment
and breathing apparatus as necessary.
5.10 Frostbite, extremely low temperatures:
Many cargoes are either shipped at low temperatures or are at low temperatures during some
stage of cargo operations. Direct contact with cold liquid or vapour or uninsulated pipes and
equipment can cause cold burns or frostbite. Inhalation of cold vapour can permanently
damage certain organs (e.g. lungs).
Ice of frost may build up on uninsulated equipment under certain ambient conditions and this
may act as insulation. Under some conditions, however, little or no frost will form and in such
cases contact can be particularly injurious.
Appropriate protective clothing should be worn to avoid frostbite, taking special care with drip
trays on deck which may contain cargo liquid.
LNG is liquefied natural gas, which is the very cold liquid form of natural gas--the fuel that's
burned in gas stoves, home heaters, and electric power plants. When it warms back up, LNG
becomes natural gas again. You can't liquefy natural gas without cooling it.
At land natural gas is shipped by pipeline. But natural gas needs to be liquefied (cooled to
below -256 degrees F)and shipping to LNG carriers .This is the only practical way to import
from overseas countries.
All LNG ships have two hulls, in effect a "double ship" that protects the cargo in a collision or
grounding.
As liquefied gas cargoes are often shipped at low temperatures it is important that
temperature sensing equipment is well maintained and accurately calibrated.
Hazards associated with low temperatures include:
1. Low Temperature Effects in gas carrier - Causes of brittle fracture & counter measures
2. Preventive measures against spillage of low temperature cargo
3. How to cool down cargo system - a brief guide to Liquefied gas carrier
4. Low Cargo Temperature Effects -Ice Formation in gas carrier cargo system
5. Low Cargo Temperature Effects -What is rollover of Liquefied gas cargo ?
5.11 Pressure Hazards
A liquefied gas is the liquid form of a substance which, at ambient temperature and at
atmospheric pressure, would be a gas.
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are taken to minimize leakage and to limit all sources of ignition.
The Principal Products –
Whilst the hydrocarbon gases methane, ethane, propane and butane may be regarded
principally as fuels, the LPGs are also important as feedstock in the production of the
chemical gases.
Liquefied gases are normally carried as boiling liquids at either:
(1) Ambient temperature (fully pressurized ships), or
(2) Atmospheric pressure (fully refrigerated ships), or
(3) Intermediate temperatures and pressures (semi-pressurized ship, often
referred to as semi-refrigerated)
Particularly hazardous cargoes such as ethylene oxide and propylene oxide may be carried
below their boiling points to reduce boil-off and increase safety. In such cases the tank
pressure is maintained above atmospheric with nitrogen padding.
Any heat input to the cargo will vaporize some of the liquid and gradually increase the tank
pressure. Pressure vessels are designed to accommodate this increase, but on fully or semi-
refrigerated ships the boil-off is condensed by the reliquefaction system and returned to the
cargo tanks as a boiling liquid. On LNG vessels cargo tank pressure is almost always
controlled by burning the boil-off in the main propulsion system or in rare cases (e.g.
emergency) by venting it to atmosphere. If the pressure above a boiling liquid is increased,
vaporization from the surface is reduced, and vice versa.
6. Basic knowledge of hazard Control
6.1 Inerting, Drying and monitoring techniques:
Inert gas generator: Inert gas means a gas (e.g. nitrogen) or mixture of gases, containing
insufficient oxygen to support combustion. Many LNG vessels are equipped with an inert gas
generator which may also be used to produce dry air. The inert gas and/or dry air is used for
the inerting and gas freeing of cargo tanks, cargo pipes and void spaces when required prior
to and after a refit or inspection period.
The operating principle is based on the combustion of a low sulphur content fuel and the
cleaning and drying of the exhaust gases. The inert gas plant includes an inert gas generator,
a scrubbing tower unit, two centrifugal fans, an effluent water seal, a fuel injection unit, an
intermediate dryer unit (refrigeration type), a final dryer unit (adsorption type) together with
an instrumentation / control system.
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Inert gas is produced by the combustion of gas oil supplied by the fuel oil pump with air
provided by blowers, in the combustion chamber of the inert gas generator. Good combustion
is essential for the production of a good quality, soot free, low oxygen inert gas.
The products of the combustion are mainly carbon dioxide, water and small quantities of
oxygen, carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides and hydrogen. The nitrogen content is generally
unchanged during the combustion process and the inert gas produced consists mainly of 86%
nitrogen and 14% carbon dioxide. Initially, the hot combustion gases produced are cooled
indirectly in the combustion chamber by a sea water jacket. Thereafter, cooling of the gases
mainly occurs in the scrubber section of the generator where the sulphur oxides are washed
out. The sea water for the inert gas generator is supplied by one of the ballast pumps.
Before delivery out of the generator, water droplets and trapped moisture are separated from
the inert gases by a demister. Further removal of water occurs in the intermediate dryer
stage, where the refrigeration unit cools the gas to a temperature of about 5 degree C. The
bulk of the water in the gas condenses and is drained away with the gas leaving this stage via
a demister. In the final stage, the water is removed by absorption process in a desiccant
dryer.
The oxygen level controls the ratio of the air/fuel mixture supplied to the burner. The oxygen
content must be below 1% by volume and the inert gas must have an acceptable dewpoint
and minimal levels of soot. These minimum levels can be found in the ship specific cargo
information book.
The inert gas generator can produce dry-air instead of inert gas with the same capacity.
For the production of dry-air:
1. There is no combustion in the generator.

2. There is no measure of oxygen content.
3. The oxygen signal is overridden when the mode selector is on dry-air production After
the processes of cooling and drying and, subject to satisfactory dew point, the dry air
is supplied to the cargo system.
The testing of the IG system should be included within the vessel’s planned maintenance
system along with maintenance routines recommended by the plant manufacturers. Any
defects to the IG Plant must be reported to the management office.
1. The whole system should be visually checked before starting up, in particular the deck
non return valves.
2. The piping system to the vent outlet should be opened to release any pressure and
prevent back-flow. Temporary connections / spool pieces to the cargo system should
be connected.
3. The scrubber water supply should be started before beginning combustion.
4. The gas produced should be vented to atmosphere until it is of sufficiently good quality
for use. It is important that the gas is clean. Reducing the oxygen level to very low
levels can result in excessive soot being delivered with the IG
5. The gas quality should be continually monitored while the plant is in use.
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Nitrogen generator
Most LNG vessels are equipped with nitrogen generators, installed in the engine room, which
produce gaseous nitrogen for:
 The pressurisation of the barrier insulation spaces.

 As seal gas for the HD and LD compressors.
 For fire extinguishing in the vent mast risers.
 For purging the fuel gas system and various parts of the cargo piping.
The operating principle is based on the hollow fibre membranes through which compressed
air flows and is separated into oxygen and nitrogen. The oxygen is vented to the atmosphere
and the nitrogen is stored in a buffer tank.
The nitrogen generators are equipped with an oxygen analyzer, which continually monitors
the oxygen content in the nitrogen output. If the level of oxygen rises above 1% of the
design value, then an alarm is activated. If the level of oxygen rises further, the high high
alarm operates, redirecting the flow to atmosphere and closing the discharge line to the
buffer tank.
It is important to appreciate that the exhaust from the nitrogen plant will be oxygen-rich
compared to the surrounding atmosphere.
The testing of the nitrogen system should be included within the vessel’s planned
maintenance system along with maintenance routines recommended by the plant
manufacturers. Any defects to the N2 Plant must be reported to the management office. The
following precautions should be observed:-
1. The whole system should be visually checked before starting up.

2. Temporary connections / spool pieces to the cargo system should be connected.
3. The gas produced should be vented to atmosphere until it’s of sufficiently good quality
for use. The gas quality should be continually monitored while the plant is in use.
Nitrogen from shore
When vessels fitted with only an inert gas plant are to load oxygen-critical cargoes, supply of
pure nitrogen should be taken from shore as the quality of ship-generated inert gas is
inadequate. Supply of nitrogen is normally by road tanker or barge in liquid form and
therefore a nitrogen vaporiser is needed to inert the cargo tanks prior to loading these
cargoes.
Inert Gas Systems
Inert gas has an important role in maintaining safety aboard a gas carrier and the inert gas
system should be kept in good working order. Regardless of frequency of use it should be
tested regularly to prevent deterioration and enable any faults to be detected and rectified.
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 The whole system should be visually checked before starting up, in particular the deck
nonreturn valves.
 The piping system to the vent outlet should be opened to release any pressure and
prevent back-flow, and the temporary connections to the cargo system fitted.
 The scrubber water supply should be started before beginning combustion.
 The gas produced should be vented to atmosphere until it is of sufficiently good quality
for use.
 The air supply should be adjusted to produce the best quality inert gas possible:
oxygen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and soot levels should be controlled (see
paragraph 4.6.2). If the air supply is reduced in order to lower the oxygen
concentration the gas produced may often have a high soot content which can clog
driers, non-return valves etc.
 The gas quality should be continually monitored while the plant is in use,
 After use, the temporary connections to the cargo system must be disconnected and
the flanges blanked securely.
6.2 ANTI STATIC MEASURES
Static electricity can cause sparks capable of ignition a flammable gas. Some routine
operations can cause electrostatic charging, and precautions to minimize the hazard are given
below.
Putting on Anti-electrostatic Clothes and Shoes
(1) When work is carried out on the upper deck or in areas where inflammable gas is likely to
exist, anti-electrostatic clothes shall be put on. Pure cotton or wool socks and underwear are
preferable, but at least those that do not generate sparks shall be used.
(2) Such clothes shall not be put on or off in areas where inflammable gas is likely to exist,
such as on deck near tanks and compressor room.
(3) To avoid the collection of static electricity on a human body, conductive shoes shall be
used to discharge static electricity from a human body to the hull. But conductive shoes
become ineffective on the dry or newly coated deck.
Use of Electrostatic Discharge Plate
(1) Everybody who is coming out of the accommodation on to the upper deck shall touch a
Electrostatic Discharge Plate provided with near the entrance without fail to discharge static
electricity charged on his body.
(2) If the handle of a door is grounded, no gloves shall be used for going in and out at the
door.
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6.3 Ventilation
Behaviour of LNG in the cargo tanks - Dispersal of vented cargo vapours
When loaded in the cargo tanks, the pressure of the vapour phase is maintained substantially
constant, slightly above atmospheric pressure. The external heat passing through the tank
insulation generates convection currents within the bulk cargo, causing heated LNG to rise to
the surface where it vaporizes.
The heat necessary for vaporization comes from the LNG, and as long as the vapour is
continuously removed by maintaining the pressure as substantially constant, the LNG remains
at its boiling temperature.
 If the vapour pressure is reduced by removing more vapour that is generated, the LNG
temperature will decrease. In order to make up the equilibrium pressure corresponding
to its temperature, the vaporization of LNG is accelerated, resulting in an increase heat
transfer from LNG to vapour.
Cargo vapour, whether toxic or flammable, should be vented to atmosphere with

extreme caution, taking account of regulations and weather conditions.
If the temperature of the vented vapour is below atmospheric dew point, clouds of
condensed water vapour will form. Condensed water vapour (fog) is heavier than air
whereas the cargo vapour may or may not be heavier than air, depending on
temperature. The cargo vapour cloud is likely to be oxygen deficient, and should only
be entered by personnel wearing breathing apparatus. Furthermore, it should never be
assumed that the cargo vapour is contained entirely within the boundaries of the
visible water vapour cloud.
If the cargo vapour is heavier than air it may accumulate on deck and enter
accommodation spaces. Standard precautions should therefore be observed. In some
cases it may be possible to heat vapour before venting to reduce its density and assist
dispersion. If such facilities are provided they should be used.
 Any cargo vapour, whether toxic or flammable, is to be vented to atmosphere with
extreme caution, taking account of regulations and weather conditions. In some cases
venting may be prohibited.
If the vapour vented is at a temperature below the atmospheric dewpoint clouds of

water vapour will form and these are heavier than air. The cargo vapour may or may
not be heavier than air, depending on temperature. It is never to be assumed that the
cargo vapour is contained entirely within the boundaries of the water vapour cloud. The
cargo vapour cloud is likely to be Oxygen deficient and is only to be entered by
personnel wearing breathing apparatus.
Void spaces / duct keels and pipe tunnels
Because of restricted natural ventilation these spaces may be oxygen deficient. In addition,
they are adjacent to cargo holds and ballast tanks, so both hydrocarbon vapour and inert gas
may leak into them. It must be recognised that the rescue of an unconscious or injured
person may be very difficult. Hydrocarbon vapours may also be released from adjacent cargo
tanks due to leaks in pipelines or hairline cracks in the tank structure. It is therefore essential
that checks are made of these spaces for the presence of hydrocarbons.
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Some ships will be equipped with automatic detectors and recording devices for this purpose.
Ships that do not have such equipment must carry our manual checks at least weekly and the
results recorded in the table within the deck log book.
Where the Classification Society rules do not require the permanent lighting systems in these
spaces to be isolated during gas trading, the following procedures are to be complied with in
order to eliminate the hazards that could result from damaged flame proof fittings.
The space must be tested and proven gas free, before the lights are switched on.
The mechanical ventilation system is to be in operation before the lights are switched on, and
must remain in operation until after the lights are switched off.
6.4 Compatibility and Segregation
Compatibility and Segregation of cargoes in a liquefied gas carrier
When common pipeline systems are provided for various cargo-related operations,
contamination will occur when different grades of cargo are carried simultaneously. If
segregation is needed to avoid cargo contamination, shippers’ instructions and regulatory
requirements must be observed. If a common piping system has to be used for different
cargoes, great care should be taken to ensure complete drainage and drying of the piping
system before purging with new cargo.
Wherever possible, separate reliquefaction systems should be used for each cargo. However,
if there is a danger of chemical reaction, it is necessary to use completely segregated
systems, known as positive segregation, at all times, utilizing removable spool pieces or pipe
sections. This restriction should apply equally to liquid, vapour and vent lines as appropriate.
Whilst positive segregation may be acceptable for most cargoes, some substances may
require totally independent piping systems. Special treatment of certain cargoes is specified
in the relevant IMO Gas Carrier Code.
If there is any doubt about the reactivity or compatibility of two cargoes, the data sheets for
each cargo and a cargo compatibility chart should be checked and advice sought from
shippers or other authority. If this advice seems inconclusive, the cargoes should be treated
as incompatible and positive segregation provided.
(1) Where codes and regulations call for segregation, the position of the valves, blanks,
portable bends and spool pieces associated with such segregation should be carefully
arranged and clearly identified. These arrangements for segregation must be followed as part
of the approved system.
(2) If the cargoes to be carried are not compatible, the responsible officer should ensure that
the pipeline systems for each cargo are completely isolated from each other. This entails
checking that all necessary blanks are fitted or that pipe spool pieces have been removed. A
cargo log book entry should be made of the action taken.
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(3) In case where two cargoes are compatible and an apparent negligible mix is permitted,
the adjacent systems carrying the different cargoes should be isolated by al least two valves
at each connection, or by one positive visible blank.
(4) Common pipelines and associated equipment should be drained, dried, ventilated and
monitored before being used for another cargo.
(5) All temporary pipe-work should be gas-freed, monitored, disconnected and properly
stored when not in use.
In the case of inhibited cargoes the anti-freeze could adversely affect the inhibitor.
If the use of anti-freeze is permitted it should be introduced at places where expansion occurs
because the resultant lowering of temperature and pressure promotes hydrate formation.
Anti-freeze additives are often flammable and toxic, and care should be taken in their storage
and use.
6.5 CARGO INHIBITION
Inhibitor: A substance used to prevent or retard cargo deterioration or a potentially

hazardous chemical self-reaction, e.g. polymerization.
Self-Reaction
Some cargoes may react with themselves. The most common form of self-reaction is
polymerization which may be initiated by the presence of small quantities of other cargoes or
by certain metals. Polymerization normally produces heat which may accelerate the reaction.
The IMO Codes require cargoes which may self-react either to be carried under an inert gas
blanket, or to be inhibited before shipment. In the latter case a certificate must be given to
the ship, stating:
(1) The quantity and name of the inhibitor added;

(2) The date it was added and how long it is expected to remain effective;
(3) The action to be taken should the voyage exceed the effective lifetime of the inhibitor;
(4) Any temperature limitations affecting the inhibitor.
Normally there should be no need to add any inhibitor to the cargo during the voyage. If it
should become necessary, however, any such additions should be made in accordance with
the shipper’s instructions.
The inhibitor may not boil off with the cargo and it is possible for reliquefaction systems to
contain uninhibited cargo. The system should therefore be drained or purged with inhibited
cargo when shut down.
Many inhibitors are much more soluble in water than in the cargo, so to avoid a reduction in
inhibitor concentration, care should be taken to exclude water from the system. Similarly the
inhibitor may be very soluble in anti-freeze additives if these form a separate phase and the
shipper’s instructions on the use of anti-freeze should be observed. If the ship is anchored in
still conditions the cargo should be circulated daily to ensure a uniform concentration of
inhibitor.
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Certain cargoes which can self-react (e.g. ethylene oxide, propylene oxide), but which cannot
be inhibited, have to be carried under inert gas. Care should be taken to ensure that a
positive pressure is maintained in the inerted atmosphere at all times and that the oxygen
concentration never exceeds 0.2% by volume.
6.7 Atmospheric Control :
When carrying a flammable cargo, the cargo system contains liquid and vapour. The
atmosphere around the cargo tanks is normally inerted to prevent the formation of flammable
mixtures. The IMO Codes use the term “environmental control” to describe this process.
Some careful considerations are needed to ensure safety.
Hold and Inter-barrier Spaces
These spaces may have to be filled with inert gas if the cargo is flammable. Different cargo
containment systems require different procedures, as follows:
Full secondary Barrier system: Dry inert gas or nitrogen; Maintained with make-up gas
provided by the shipboard inert gas generation system, or by shipboard storage which should
be sufficient for at least 30 days at normal rates of consumption.
Partial secondary Barrier system :Dry inert gas or nitrogen; Maintained with make-up gas
provided by the shipboard inert gas generation system, or by shipboard storage which should
be sufficient for at least 30 days at normal rates of consumption. Alternatively, subject to
certain conditions, the space may be filled with dry air (see Regulation 9.2.2.2 of the IGC
Code).
No secondary Barrier system :Dry air or dry inert gas depending on the cargo; Maintained
either with dry air provided by suitable air drying equipment, or with make-up inert gas
provided by the shipboard inert gas generation system or shipboard storage.
Cargo Tanks and Piping Systems
The formation of a flammable vapour mixture in the cargo system should be prevented by
replacing the air in the system with inert gas before loading, and by removing cargo vapour
by inert gas after discharge, prior to changing cargoes or gas-freeing. Suitable pipe
connections should be provided for this purpose.
Inerting should be continued until the concentration of oxygen or cargo vapour in the space is
reduced to the required level. The tank atmosphere should be monitored at different levels to
ensure these are no pockets of excessive concentrations of oxygen or cargo vapour,
particularly in tanks with complex internal structures or bulkheads.
Some cargoes require the oxygen content in the vapour space to be kept extremely low (in
some case less than 0.2%) to prevent a chemical reaction occurring. For instance, ethylene
oxide / propylene oxide mixtures can decompose spontaneously unless special precautions
are taken to control the atmosphere; and butadiene can react with oxygen to form unstable
peroxide compounds.
The oxygen content in the tanks must be reduced as necessary before loading begins. While
such cargoes remain on board, oxygen is excluded either by keeping the ullage space full of
inert gas at a positive pressure or, in the case of butadiene, by keeping the cargo vapour
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above atmospheric pressure. In every case, shippers’ requirements should be strictly

observed.
Fig: Spherical tank containment system

Inert Gas Quality
Inert gas used for atmosphere control should be suitable for the intended purpose, regardless
of source. In particular it should:
(1) Be chemically compatible with the cargo and the materials of construction throughout the
full range of operating temperatures and pressures;
(2) Have a sufficiently low dew point to prevent condensation, freezing, corrosion, damage to
insulation etc. at the minimum operating temperature;
(3) Have an oxygen concentration not exceeding 5%, but as los as 0.2% if the cargo can
react to form peroxides;
(4) Have a low concentration of CO2 to prevent it freezing out at the anticipated service
temperature.
(5) Have minimal capacity for accumulating a static electrical

charge.
Inert Gas Hazards and Precautions
The main hazard associated with inert gas is asphyxiation of personnel due to lack of oxygen.
Asphyxiation can occur in those parts of the cargo system which have been inerted, or in
other enclosed spaces into which inert gas leaked. Nobody should enter spaces which are not
in common use until it has been established that the atmosphere will support life.
At the inert gas plant Is often situated in the engine room, great care should be taken to
ensure that cargo vapour does not flow back along inert gas supply lines; non-return valves
should be tested for effectiveness, at regular intervals. Any temporary connection between
the inert gas plant and the cargo systems should be disconnected and tightly blanked after
use.
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If a liquid nitrogen system is used, care should be taken to avoid contact with skin and eyes,
or severe cold burns will be caused. Any metal structure or component likely to come into
contact with liquid nitrogen could suffer brittle fracture unless it has been designed for a
service temperature of -196 degree C. Great care should be taken to ensure that vaporizers
are used correctly.
6.8 LPG (Liquid Petroleum Gas) testing and inspection.
LPG testing and inspection is provided for Liquefied (liquified) Petroleum Gas (LPG) products
at refineries, pipelines, and marine and shore tank cargo storage facilities.
Intertek supports clients involved with LPG production, distribution, and terminal storage
sites. LPG analytical testing, trace analysis, loss control, and quality control are available
during production, storage and cargo custody transfer. LPG testing is run to ASTM and other
accepted industry standards.
LPG quality and quantity testing:
 Ammonia, Arsine
 Carbonyl, Chloride
 Composition of Gases
 Contamination to trace ppm, ppb, and ppt levels
 Corrosion
 Density
 Hydrogen Sulfide, Sulfur
 Mercaptans, Mercury
 Moisture
 Non-condensable Gases
 Organic content
 Oxygen
 Phosphine
 Sulfur
 Total Inhibitor content
 Volatility
 Vapor Pressure
 Water
 and more.
Natural gas testing and analysis expertise.
Intertek laboratories provide natural gas quality and component analysis. Natural gas testing
includes the analysis of conventional and shale gas, LNG, and other hydrocarbon condensates
and components. Gases analyzed include hydrocarbons (C1 to C6+) such as methane,
ethane, propane, iso-butane, n-butane, iso-pentane, n-pentane, and hexane, plus heavier
molecules.
Natural gas labs test to trace detection levels for impurities. Natural gas trace impurities
include hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxygen, mercury, sulfur,
water, and other components.
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Natural Gas Tests Natural Gas Test Methods

Natural Gas Composition Analysis: ASTM D1945, GPA 2261, ISO 6974, UOP
539, GC-MS, etc.
Methane mol %
Ethane C2 mol %
Propane C3 mol %
Iso Butane C4 mol %
Normal Butane mol %
Iso Pentane C5 mol %
Normal Pentane mol %
Hexane plus Heavier mol %
Total C6 carbon mol %
Total C7 carbon mol %
Trace Metals in Natural Gas Ppm
Nitrogen mol %
Carbon Dioxide mol %
Oxygen mol %
Total Sulfur ASTM D5504, ISO 6326, etc.

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Hydrogen Sulfide ASTM D5504, ISO 6326, etc.
Water KF
Energy Calculations ASTM D3588, GPA 2172, ISO 6976
VaporDensity Calculated
Relative Density Calculated
Molecular Weight Calculated
Gross Heating Value (GHV) Calculated
Net Heating Value (NHV) Calculated
7. Understanding of information on a Safety Data Sheet (SDS)
A safety data sheet (SDS), material safety data sheet(MSDS), or product safety data sheet
(PSDS) is an important component of product stewardship and occupational safety and
health. It is intended to provide workers and emergency personnel with procedures for
handling or working with that substance in a safe manner, and includes information such as
physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid,
reactivity, storage, disposal, protective equipment, and spill-handling procedures. SDS
formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements.
SDSs are a widely used system for cataloging information on chemicals, chemical compounds,
and chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and
potential hazards associated with a particular material or product. These data sheets can be
found anywhere where chemicals are being used.
There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico-chemical, health
and/or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union
standard black diagonal cross on an orange background, used to denote a harmful substance.
A SDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing
instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting. In some
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jurisdictions, the SDS is required to state the chemical's risks, safety, and effect on the
environment.
It is important to use an SDS specific to both country and supplier, as the same product (e.g.
paints sold under identical brand names by the same company) can have different
formulations in different countries. The formulation and hazard of a product using a generic
name (e.g. sugar soap) may vary between manufacturers in the same country.
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8. Function and proper use of gas-measuring instruments and similar

equipment
Gas detection equipment is required for ensuring spaces are safe for entry, work or other
operations. Their uses include the detection of:
 Cargo vapour in air, inert gas or the vapour of another cargo.

 Concentrations of gas in or near the flammable range.
 Concentrations of oxygen in inert gas, cargo vapour or enclosed spaces.
 Toxic gases
All vessels are supplied with portable gas measuring equipment, according to the specific
requirements of the vessel owners. Personnel must fully understand the purpose and
limitations of vapour detection equipment, whether fixed or portable.
The importance of careful calibration cannot be over emphasised as the gas detection or
analysing equipment will only give accurate readings if calibration is carried out strictly in
compliance with the manufacturer’s instructions and using the correct calibration gases.
Instruments must always be checked, zeroed and spanned where applicable before every use
as per the manufacturer’s instructions.
Calibration may be required to be carried out ashore for some instruments. The Chief Officer
is responsible for the condition monitoring and maintenance of all portable and fixed gas
measuring instruments on board and ensuring sufficient span gas of the correct grade is on
board. The Chief Officer is responsible for identifying, calibrating, and adjusting all portable
gas measuring instruments available onboard. Notes:
 For all Meters on board the Manufacturer’s Operating Manual and a suitable Calibration
Kit must be on board.
 The performance of these meters is to be scrupulously monitored and repairs arranged
in the case of malfunction.
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 These meters are a high cost item and must be looked after carefully. If supplied with
carrying cases and or covers they should be used at all times.
 Meters may be combined in one instrument i.e. combined 02 meter and explosimeter.
 Toxic gas tubes have a limited shelf life
Operational checking and calibration
The difference between operational checking (zero & spanning) of an instrument and
calibration should be clearly understood:
 Checking an instrument involves spanning and zeroing the instruments using the
calibration gas of known gas content to ensure the gas readings are within
manufacturer’s stated tolerances.
 If the instrument readings are out of tolerance, than the meter will have to be
calibrated. Calibration involves applying the calibration gas of known gas content to the
instrument and then adjusting the sensor output control to read the same as the
known gas content. Gas testing equipments should be tested and if necessary re-
calibrated monthly. The results of the test should be recorded in the planned
maintenance system.
A full history of each instrument should be kept, including:
 Meter description and serial number.

 Date last calibrated onboard.
 Date last serviced ashore.
 Date next shore service due.
Instruments carried onboard
Due to the requirements of the various ship owners, the exact type of instrument will vary
from ship to ship. Each vessel will however carry instruments capable of measuring Oxygen,
Hydrogen Sulphide, Methane, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide and also the lower explosive
limit.
Combined function meters
There are certain instruments which have a combination of functions. Examples of some
types of equipment which may be carried are: Riken RX415 : this instrument measures and
monitors CH4 and O2 Riken RX515 : this instrument measures and monitors CH4, O2, CO2
and CO.
Personal monitoring meters
Some instruments can be carried in a pocket such as a Personal Oxygen Meter, used for entry
into enclosed spaces. Such instruments are intended only as a personal monitor and will give
an audible and visual alarm if the Oxygen content falls below its preset level. As monitors,
they are NOT designed for testing the atmosphere for oxygen or other gases. Care must be
taken to ensure that they are therefore not used for testing. Draeger PAC5000 : this
instrument measures O2, CO and H2S Riken GX2001 : this instrument measures LEL, O2,
H2S and CO
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Toxic gas detectors
These detectors measure relatively low concentrations of toxic gases. Such gases may include
Carbon Monoxide or Hydrogen Sulphide. The type of instrument will normally require a
special attachment or tube which the gas is aspirated through. It is necessary to know in
advance what gas is expected in order to choose the correct detection tube. The readings are
to be compared with the occupational exposure limits or threshold value limits.
Sample lines
The material and condition of sample lines can affect the accuracy of gas measurements.
Sample tubing which is cracked or blocked or which has become contaminated with oil or
other substances may seriously affect instrument readings. The tubing must always be
checked before and during use and if necessary be cleaned or replaced. It is also important to
realise the length of tubing and compare to the meter manufacturer’s instructions as to the
number of aspirations per metre length. If this is not done there is a danger that the sample
gas may not reach the meter sensor and therefore give a false reading.
9. Proper use of safety equipment and protective devices
9.1 Breathing Apparatus and tank evacuating equipment:
It is always preferable to achieve a gas free condition in a tank or enclosed space prior to
entry. Where this is not possible, entry should only be permitted in exceptional circumstances
and when there is no practical alternative. In this case breathing apparatus must be worn and
if necessary protective clothing must be worn also. There are three types of respiratory
protection.
1. Canister filter respirators

2. Fresh air respirators
3. Compressed air breathing apparatus
Canister filter respirators :
These consist of a mask with a replaceable canister filter attached through which
contaminated air is drawn by the normal breathing of the wearer. They are simple to operate
and maintain, can be put on quickly and have been used extensively as personal protection
for emergency escape purposes on ships certified for carrying toxic cargoes.
They are, however, only suitable for relatively low concentrations of gas, once used there is
no simple means of assessing the remaining capacity of the filter, filter materials are specific
to a limited range of gases and, of course, the respirator gives no protection in atmospheres
of reduced oxygen content. For these reasons, the IMO Code requirement for emergency
escape protection is now met by lightweight portable package self-contained breathing
apparatus.
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Fresh air respirators :
These consist of a helmet or face mask linked by a flexible hose (maximum length 120 feet)
to an uncontaminated atmosphere from which air is supplied by a manual bellow or rotary
blower. The equipment is simple to operate and maintain and its operational duration is
limited only by the stamina of the bellows or blower operators.
However, movement of the user is limited by the weight and length of hose and great care
must be taken to ensure that the hose does not become trapped and kinked. While in general
this respirator has been superseded by the self-contained or air line compressed air breathing
apparatus, it will be found on many ships as an always available backup to that equipment.
Compressed air breathing apparatus :
In the self-contained version (SCBA), the wearer carries his air for breathing in a compressed
air cylinder at an initial pressure of between 135 and 200 bars. The pressure is reduced at the
outlet from the cylinder to about 5 bars and fed to the face mask as required through a
demand valve providing a slight positive pressure within the mask. Working duration depends
upon the capacity of the air cylinder and the respiratory demand. Indicator and alarm
features are usually provided to warn of air supply depletion.
A typical set, providing approximately 30 minutes operation with physical exertion, may
weigh about 13kg and the bulk of the cylinder on the back of the wearer imposes some
restriction on his manoeuvrability in confined spaces. Although when properly adjusted, the
SCBA is simple and automatic in operation, its maintenance requires care and skill.
To ensure their serviceability when required, all such breathing sets must be checked monthly
and worn and operated during appropriate exercises preferably using special exercise air
cylinders in order to keep the operational cylinders always fully charged.
Although modern demand valves are designed to maintain a slight positive pressure within
the face mask, it must not be assumed that this feature will prevent leaks from the
contaminated atmosphere into an ill-fitting face mask. While face mask materials and
contours are designed to accommodate a range of typical facial shapes and sizes, it is
essential that, before entry to a dangerous space, the air tightness of the mask on the
wearer's face be thoroughly checked in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Comprehensive practical tests have shown that it is virtually impossible to ensure continued
leak tightness in operational conditions on a bearded face.
Most compressed air breathing sets may be used in the air line version (ALBA) whereby the
compressed air cylinder and pressure reducing valve are placed outside the contaminated
atmosphere and connected to the face mask and demand valve by a trailed air hose. At the
expense of decreased range ability and the need for extra care in guiding the trailing air hose,
the wearer is relieved of the weight and bulk of the air cylinder and his operational duration
may be extended by the use of large air cylinders of continuous supply cylinder changeover
arrangements.
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Escape Breathing Sets
One short-duration escape breathing apparatus is useful for each person on board LPG ships.
The total number of sets onboard is equal to the number of persona the ship is certified to
carry.
The Master is to ensure that all personnel onboard are familiar with the operation and the
limitations of these sets. In particular, newly joined personnel are to be instructed in the use
of these sets when they sign on.
It is the responsibility of the Second Officer to ensure that the compressed air cylinders are
full and that they are checked monthly or more frequently if required. On no account are
these sets to be used for operation use, inspection, rescue or fire-fighting support. They have
duration of 15 minutes and are to be used only to assist personnel escape from
concentrations of toxic vapours.
9.2 Protective clothing and equipment
In addition to breathing apparatus full protective clothing should be worn when entering an
area where contact with cargo is a possibility. Types of protective clothing vary from those
providing protection against liquid splashes to a full positive pressure gas-tight suit which will
normally incorporate helmet, gloves and boots. Such clothing is also to be resistant to low
temperatures and solvents.
Full protective clothing is particularly important when entering a space which has contained
toxic gas such as ammonia, chlorine, ethylene oxide, VCM or butadiene.
One complete set of protective clothing is to consist of:
 One self-contained air breathing apparatus not using stored oxygen having a capacity
of at least 1200L of free air.
 Protective clothing, boots, gloves and tight fitting goggles.
 Steel-covered rescue line with belt.
 Explosion proof lamp.
 At least 5 suits of protective clothing, are supplied to LPG ships and these should be
stowed: Emergency Headquarters 3 nos & Cargo Control Room 2 nos
When wearing protective clothing it is important to ensure that neither the sleeves are tucked
into the gloves, not the trousers into the boots. This is to avoid low temperature cargo falling
into the gloves and boots of personnel working in areas where splashing of cargo of spillage is
possible. Sleeves are to pass over gloves and trousers over the boots of all protective
clothing.
Suitably marked decontamination showers and eyewash should be available on deck in

convenient locations. The showers and eyewash should be operable in all ambient conditions.
9.3 Resuscitator:
A resuscitator is a device using positive pressure to inflate the lungs of an unconscious person
who is not breathing, in order to keep them oxygenated and alive.
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There are three basic types: a manual version (also known as a bag valve mask) consisting of
a mask and a large hand-squeezed plastic bulb using ambient air, or with supplemental
oxygen from a high-pressure tank. The second type is the Expired Air or breath powered
resuscitator. The first appearance of the second type was the Brooke Airway introduced in
1957. The third type is an oxygen powered resuscitator. These are driven by pressurized gas
delivered by a regulator, and can either be automatic or manually controlled. The most
popular type of gas powered resuscitator are Time Cycled, Volume Constant Ventilators. In
the early days of pre-hospital emergency services, pressure cycled devices like the Pulmotor
were popular but yielded less than satisfactory results. One of the first modern resuscitation
ventilators was the HARV, later called the Pneu Pac 2R or Yellow Box. Most modern
resuscitators are designed to allow the patient to breathe on his own should he recover the
ability to do so. All resuscitation devices should be able to deliver >85% oxygen when a gas
source is available.
9.4 Rescue and escape equipment
Consider - existing conditions that can make the rescue operation hazardous. It could be wise
to wait until weather has improved or until daylight, for instance
Investigate whether suitable rescue craft are available
If possible, establish communication with the survivors to obtain information about their
condition and the circumstances
During all rescue operations the rescuers must wear life-vests for obvious reasons
Refer also to the IMO publication Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual (MERSAR)
regarding search patterns and alerting authorities and radio stations Note the dangers of
using oils like fuel oil in oil bags to calm the seas as these oils produce toxic hazards to
survivors and rescuers, especially if the oil enters the lungs. The use of lubrication oils or spill
oils will reduce the danger of poisoning, however, vegetable oils or fish oils are not poisonous.
Report all occurrences to Owners
Rescue from Wreck
If conditions allow, try direct transfer of survivors from the wreck by means of your vessel’s
rescue boat or lifeboat
Check the surroundings for drifting wreckage that may endanger the operation
Consider - use of oil to calm the seas either to windward of the wreck or to leeward so that
the wreck can drift into the oil slick
Consider - position your own ship to give the rescue boat some shelter
Launching a lifeboat in high seas requires a high degree of seamanship and only the most
experienced personnel should try to perform that exercise.
Launching is most favourable when the vessel has wind and sea a few degrees on the bow.
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If conditions are too difficult, consider using a line-thrower to have a good rope or a hawser
pulled over to the wreck. Bring over a second line that can be used to haul a life-raft back
and forth between the vessel and the wreck
If it is not possible to shoot a line over the wreck, consider towing a raft from your vessel and
let the raft drift down to the wreck by manoeuvring your vessel into a suitable position. The
towing line must be made fast around the raft as a normal painter would not withstand the
strains
Rescue from Survival Craft
Prepare taking the survivors onboard from the rescue boat. Do not expect any assistance
from the survivors, as they are probably exhausted and seasick
Stretch a boat line from forward to aft to keep the craft in position. Nets should be hung over
the side. A raft may be used as a platform. Crewmembers with life buoys and lines should be
posted to help survivors who might fall into the sea during the transfer
Some of your crewmembers should be prepared to board the survival craft in order to assist
the survivors
Rescue of Survivors from the Sea
Survivors in the sea must be regarded as being in imminent danger. The quickest possible
rescue is required.
All survivors must be hauled out of the sea in a horizontal position in order to avoid the fatal
shock effects of the loss of water pressure against the body when it is taken out of the sea in
a vertical position. If possible, spread out a net under the survivor and roll him horizontally
out of the sea and over the railing of the rescue boat
Rescuers, who jump into the sea to assist, must be secured by a line and use immersion suits
Survivors must be given the appropriate treatment for the circumstances. Be aware of the
dangers of hypothermia.
End of Rescue Action
If a survival craft or other boats have to be left adrift after rescue operations, the nearest
rescue centre must be notified. Information about the position, description of the boat,
weather conditions, possible drift etc., must be given together with information about
possible radio-transmitters that are automatically sending out distress signals in the area.
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10. Basic knowledge of safe working practices and procedures in accordance

with legislation and industry guidelines and personal shipboard safety
relevant to liquefied gas tankers
10.1 Precautions to be taken when entering enclosed space:
On 30 November 2011 the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) adopted Resolution

A.1050(27) “Revised Recommendations for Entering Enclosed Spaces Aboard Ships”. The
revised recommendations replace Resolution A.864(20) published in 1997.
Changes in the Revised Recommendations for Entering Enclosed Spaces aboard Ships
The revised recommendations update and expand the previous guidance and include a
number of changes as follows:
Section 2 - Definitions
Two new definitions have been included in the guidelines for an “adjacent connected space”
and an “Attendant”. An “adjacent connected space” is defined as “a normally unventilated
space which is not used for cargo but which may share the same atmospheric characteristics
with the enclosed space such as, but not limited to, a cargo space access way”. An
“Attendant” is defined as “a person who is suitably trained within the safety management
system, maintains a watch over those entering the enclosed space, maintains
communications with those inside the space and initiates the emergency procedures in the
event of an incident occurring”.
Section 3 – Safety Management for Entry into Enclosed Spaces This section is new and reads
as follows:
1. “The safety strategy to be adopted in order to prevent accidents on entry to enclosed

spaces should be approached in a comprehensive manner by the company.
2. The company should ensure that the procedures for entering enclosed spaces are included
among the key shipboard operations concerning the safety of the personnel and the ship, in
accordance with paragraph 7 of the International Safety Management (ISM) Code.
3. The company should elaborate a procedural implementation scheme which provides for
training in the use of atmospheric testing equipment in such spaces and a schedule of regular
onboard drills for crews.
4. Competent and responsible persons should be trained in enclosed space hazard

recognition, evaluation, measurement control and elimination, using standards acceptable to
the Administration.
5. Crew members should be trained, as appropriate, on enclosed space safety, including

familiarisation with onboard procedures for recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards
associated with entry into enclosed spaces.
6. Internal audits by the company and external audits by the Administration of the ship’s
safety management system should verify that the established procedures are complied with
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in practice and are consistent with the safety strategy referred to in paragraph 3.1” (point 1
above.)
Section 4 – Assessment of Risk
This section states that the company should carry out a risk assessment to identify all
enclosed spaces on board the ship. This risk assessment should be repeated periodically to
ensure it remains valid. The competent person is also reminded that the ventilation
procedures for an adjacent connected space may be different from those of the enclosed
space itself.
Section 6 – General Precautions
Under “General Precautions” two new points have been added to the previous guidance. The
first states that entrances to enclosed spaces should be secured at all times when entry is not
required. The second point is intended to minimise the risk of someone mistakenly thinking
that a hatch or door that has been opened in order to ventilate an enclosed space means that
the atmosphere inside is safe. An attendant should therefore be posted at the entrance, or a
suitable mechanical barrier should be placed across the opening together with a warning sign
to prevent accidental entry.
The original recommendations advised that “Ships’ crew should be drilled periodically in
rescue and first aid”. This sentence has been replaced with “Ships’ crews with rescue and first
aid duties should be drilled periodically in rescue and first aid procedures. Training should
include as a minimum:
1. Identification of the hazards likely to be faced during entry into enclosed spaces;
2. Recognition of the signs of adverse health effects caused by exposure to hazards during
entry; and
3. Knowledge of personal protective equipment required for entry.”
Section 7 – Testing the Atmosphere
Additional guidance in this section states that: “In some cases it may be difficult to test the
atmosphere throughout the enclosed space without entering the space (e.g., the bottom
landing of a stairway) and this should be taken into account when assessing the risk to
personnel entering the space. The use of flexible hoses or fixed sampling lines which reach
remote areas within the enclosed space, may allow for safe testing without having to enter
the space”.
Although the previous recommendations contained advice on safe limits for oxygen and
flammable and toxic gases, the revised text notes that “National requirements may determine
the safe atmosphere range” with regard to oxygen content. A further point has been added
advising that steady readings of “not more than 50% of the Occupational Exposure Limit
(OEL) of any toxic vapours and gases” should be obtained prior to entry along with a remark
that “It should be noted that the term Occupation Exposure Limit (OEL) includes the
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL). Maximum Admissible Concentration (MAC) and Threshold
Limit Value (TLV) or any other internationally recognised terms.”
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Whereas the earlier version advised that “It should be emphasized that pockets of gas or
oxygen-deficient areas can exist, and should always be suspected, even when an enclosed
space has been satisfactorily tested as being suitable for entry”, the revised text states that
“It should be emphasized that the internal structure of the space, cargo, cargo residues and
tank coatings may also present situations where oxygen-deficient areas may exist, and
should always be suspected, even when an enclosed space has been satisfactorily tested as
being suitable for entry, this is particularly the case for spaces where the path of the supply
and outlet ventilation is obstructed by structural members or cargo.”
Section 8 – Precautions During Entry
The information in this section has been broadened with the addition of the following;
“Particular care should be exhibited when working on pipelines and valves within the space. If
conditions change during the work, increased frequency of testing of the atmosphere should
be performed. Changing conditions that may occur include increasing ambient temperatures,
the use of oxygen-fuel torches, mobile plant, work activities in the enclosed space that could
evolve vapours, work breaks, or if the ship is ballasted or trimmed during the work”, and that
“In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances should the attending crew member
enter the space before help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to ensure the
safety of those entering the space to undertake rescue operations. Only properly trained and
equipped personnel should perform rescue operations in enclosed spaces.”
Section 9 – Additional Precautions for Entry into a Space Where the Atmosphere is Known or
Suspected to be Unsafe
Two new sentences have been included in this section advising that “Spaces that have not
been tested should be considered unsafe for persons to enter”, and that “Persons entering
enclosed spaces should be provided with calibrated and tested multi-gas detectors that
monitor the levels of oxygen, carbon monoxide and other gases as appropriate”.
Section 10 – Hazards Related to Specific Types of Ships or Cargo
This section now contains a sub-section on the “Use of Nitrogen as an inert gas” which states
that “Nitrogen is a colourless and odourless gas that, when used as an inert gas, causes
oxygen deficiency in enclosed spaces and at exhaust openings on deck during purging of
tanks and void spaces and use in cargo holds. It should be noted that one deep breath of
100% nitrogen gas will be fatal.” Additional information can be found in MSC.1/Circ.1401
“Guidelines on Tank Entry for Tankers using Nitrogen as an Inerting Medium”. Any vessel
using nitrogen including gas tankers and bulk carriers should also heed this advice.
The sub-section on “Oxygen-depleting cargoes and materials” has been amended slightly to
emphasise that the list of products referred to is not exhaustive.
Appendix – Example of an Enclosed Space Entry Permit
The example of an enclosed space entry permit in the Appendix has undergone a number of
minor changes:
1. The question: “Has the space been thoroughly ventilated?” has been expanded with the
addition of the words “by mechanical means?”
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2. The requirement for an oxygen content of at least 21% by volume is now accompanied
by a note stating that “National requirements may determine the safe atmosphere
range.”
3. The “Pre-Entry Checks” in Section 2 were previously required to be carried out either
by the person entering the space or by the authorised team leader. This requirement
has been modified and the items listed are “to be checked by each person entering the
space”.
4. Sections 1, 2 and 3 of the permit were previously signed by the “Responsible
person supervising entry”. These sections are now to be signed by the “Attendant”, along
with the Master or nominated person.
Members are advised to take account of IMO’s revised guidelines and ensure, so far as is
practicable, that their Safety Management System (SMS) procedures and checklists for
entering enclosed spaces are amended to reflect the new recommendations. Members should
also consider the following advice when carrying out such a review:
Additional Enclosed Space Guidance
Often a question on board will be what constitutes an enclosed space? IMO defines an
enclosed space as being one which has any of the following characteristics:
 Limited openings for entry and exit;

 Inadequate ventilation; and
 Is not designed for continuous worker occupancy
The definition includes, but is not limited to, the following compartments:
 Cargo spaces
 Double bottoms
 Fuel tanks
 Ballast tanks
 Cargo pump-rooms
 Cargo compressor rooms
 Cofferdams
 Chain lockers
 Void spaces
 Duct keels
 Inter-barrier spaces
 Boilers
 Engine crankcases
 Engine scavenge air receivers
 Sewage tanks
If it is unclear whether or not a particular compartment is an enclosed space, a risk

assessment should be carried out in accordance with IMO recommendations to overcome any
doubts. The process of carrying out a risk assessment to identify enclosed spaces should be
repeated at regular intervals as circumstances may change.
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IMO’s recommendations now make reference to adjacent connected spaces. For example, a
forecastle store or deck house fitted with a booby hatch leading to a cargo space may be
considered to be such a space. An adjacent connected space may be deficient in oxygen, or
flammable or toxic gas may be present, particularly if the seal on the booby hatch or access
door to the cargo space is not gas tight. It should also be borne in mind that less obvious
areas of a vessel may also exhibit the characteristics of an enclosed space. For example, a
recent MAIB Safety Flyer describes a situation where heavy framing on the weather deck
surrounding the entrance to a cargo tank impeded the dissipation of cargo vapours.
Another MAIB Safety Flyer draws attention to the fitness of shore contractors engaged to
work inside an enclosed space. If concerns arise, they should be refused entry.
Additional permits, as detailed in the vessel’s SMS, may also be required when working in
enclosed spaces, such as for hot work or working from a height. The need for other permits
such as these should always be considered before work inside an enclosed space is
undertaken.
Potential hazards such as unguarded openings, wet or muddy surfaces and lightening holes in
intermediate decks within ballast tanks should not be overlooked, nor the need for personnel
to be properly equipped to minimise the risk of slips and falls. An MAIB Investigation Report
highlights an accident of this type which took place during a routine inspection of a ballast
tank. Particular care must be taken by personnel in such circumstances, and sufficient
lighting should be provided to enable safe movement through the space.
Personnel should never enter an enclosed space unless an enclosed space entry permit has
been issued beforehand in accordance with the procedures set out in the SMS. During the
pre-entry checks it should always be assumed that the space is not safe for entry until proved
otherwise. Anyone who remains uneasy about whether or not an enclosed space is safe to
enter after the necessary precautions have been taken should be encouraged to voice their
concerns in case further action is warranted.
The IMO recommendation that “In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances
should the attending crew member enter the space before help has arrived and the situation
has been evaluated to ensure the safety of those entering the space to undertake rescue
operations. Only properly trained and equipped personnel should perform rescue operations
in enclosed spaces” is of particular importance. It is a natural human reaction to help others
in difficulty, but the urge to do so must be resisted. Instances of someone losing their life
after rushing to help a colleague in trouble inside an enclosed space where neither of them
followed the correct entry procedures are all too common.
Enclosed Space Entry and Rescue Drills
Enclosed space entry and rescue drills are, at present, not required by many flag states.
However, IMO is in the process of drafting amendments to SOLAS that will make enclosed
space entry and rescue drills mandatory. It is anticipated that vessels will need to carry out
such drills at least once every two months to ensure that crewmembers are familiar with the
actions to be taken if it becomes necessary to rescue someone from inside an enclosed space.
In the meantime such drills may be incorporated into the SMS and conducted regularly as a
prudent precaution.
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10.2 Precautions to be taken before and during the repair and maintenance work:
During cargo operation, a continuous watch shall be maintained on the cargo deck and at the
manifold. The watchmen attending such duties shall look for and report hydraulic oil or
control air leaks within the cargo pipes/system and advise the OOW of any abnormalities
concerning the cargo transfer system. In addition, the deck watchmen shall continuously
check water surface around the vessel for signs of oil that may originate from own ship, other
ships, or the terminal. All such abnormalities shall, without delay, be reported to the Cargo
Control Room.
The duty officers and deck watchmen shall be equipped with a radio and regular radio checks
shall be performed. The watchmen involved in cargo operation shall know about the location
and operation procedures of pollution prevention, fire-fighting, and safety equipment
available, including the location of thermal suites and other safety equipment.
The deck watchmen shall wear safety helmets, safety shoes, boiler suits, gloves and goggles
as per Company’s standard. Additionally arm bands shall be worn if required by the port.
The duty officers and watchmen assigned the mooring watch shall be aware of the mooring
arrangements, either as agreed with the terminal or as outlined in any “Terminal Rules and
Standing Instructions” and fully understand the consequences should the vessel move. The
duty officer shall frequently monitor the moorings during the cargo operation, while the
watchman shall continuously check all moorings and report any abnormalities to the Cargo
Control Room.
The duty officer shall be aware of the tide changes during the period of cargo operation and
observe the weather forecast.
The duty officer shall assist the Chief Officer in ballast operations, keep all relevant records
throughout the cargo operation and assist as required.
The duty officer and Cargo Engineer shall call the Chief Officer in case of any abnormalities
regarding cargo operation, ballasting / deballasting, weather/sea conditions, moorings or any
other relevant operation errors that might interfere with the safe operation of the vessel.
The Chief Officer shall call the Master, Charterer’s representative when one or more of the
conditions mentioned in the above paragraph do occur. If the Master is in any doubt, or
considers that the safety of the vessel, crew, cargo or environment is at risk, then he must
call the vessel DPA.
Any kind of maintenance/repair work to be done onboard during port stay shall be discussed
with the vessel superintendent, and agreed with the terminal before arrival. To do
maintenance work outside this agreement is strictly prohibited.
The content of the “Terminal’s Cargo Handling Regulations” shall be familiar to the officers,
Cargo Engineer, and crew. Operators of mooring winches, anchor windlass, cranes and
portable lifting gear shall be qualified in the use of such equipment.
Paint thinner, detergents, chemicals and other products that might be harmful to the health
and inflammable shall be treated with care. The bosun shall ensure he and the crew using
such products are familiar with the hazards involved.
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The bosun and the crew involved in work aloft shall observe the procedures outlined for such
work and be fully aware of the dangers involved. (see Work Permit Procedures & Risk
Assessment). All crew shall be aware of the dangers involved with the:
 Handling/operation of power tools, portable and fixed

 Handling of wires and rope
 Portable ladders
 Staging and bosun’s chair
The required protective equipment shall be used and relevant safety measures taken.
At beginning of Loading and Discharge operations, the officers involved in cargo operations
should be positioned on Manifold, on cargo deck and in CCR. They will remain in these
stations until full loading/discharge rate and steady flow conditions have been reached.
If any cargo monitoring instruments or control safety devices are overridden, due to
operational circumstances, it must be verified by both the Chief Officer and the Cargo
Engineer and it must be recorded, the Master and management office are to be informed. The
instrument or device must be returned to its normal operational state as soon as it is no
longer necessary to override the function. The return to normal function must also be
recorded.
If there is a necessity to override such devices on a regular or frequent basis then the
Company office must be notified of the circumstances.
Preparation for dry-docking must follow the instruction and sequence set up in the
vessel’s Cargo Handling Manual. This is especially important with warming up, gas freeing,
inerting, aerating, hold space drying, gassing up and initial cool down after dry-docking. Prior
to each of the above operations, the line up must be checked by Cargo Engineer and
verified by Chief Officer, and logged down.
All cargo operations related checklists must be initialled by both Chief Officer and Cargo
Engineer. The verification needs to be done by both senior officers participating in the cargo
operations, to ensure that all systems have been cross-checked.
Prior to taking over watch during cargo operations, all Deck Officers and ratings must read
and be familiar with any additional standing orders that the Chief Officer has issued.
10.3 Safety measures for hot and cold work Hot Work Procedures
The recommendations of ISGOTT with respect to hot work should be followed. Hot work
should only be considered if there is no practical alternative means of repair, and
consideration should be given to removing the work to a safe area such as the engine room
workshop. Whenever hot work is to take place outside the engine room workshop the
decision to carry out the hot work should involve the company.
10.4 electrical safety
Carrying and handling liquefied gas cargo onboard poses significant potential hazards
including risk of injury or death, threats to environment and each person working on a gas
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carrier and terminal ashore needs to understand the risks involved, obtain the necessary
training and take all the needed precautions.
Electrical Equipment and Regulations
i) The electrical installations on gas carriers are subject to the requirements of the flag
administration, classification societies, IMO and the International Electro-technical
Commission (IEC). Part of the purpose of these requirements is to minimize the risk of
explosion and fire.
ii) Areas and spaces are classified as “gas safe” or “gas dangerous”, depending on the risk
of cargo vapor being present.
iii) Electrical equipment in a place regarded as dangerous has to be of special
construction, and certified safe. Portable equipment taken into the area should also be
certified safe.
10.4 Certified Safe Electrical Equipment
The types of equipment recognized as safe for dangerous areas fall into the categories
described below :
(1) Intrinsically Safe Equipment:
Intrinsically safe equipment relies on low power circuits to limit the maximum energy
available to less than that necessary to ignite a flammable mixture under normal and certain
fault conditions.
To use of intrinsically safe systems is limited to instrumentation, control and alarm systems
because of the very low energy levels to which they are restricted.
(2) Explosion Proof / Flame Proof Equipment:
The equipment is designed with air gaps (‘flamepaths’), between covers or removable parts
and the enclosure, closely controlled and so narrow that, if ignition occurred in the
equipment, the resulting hot gases or flame would emerge at such velocities that surrounding
flammable gas would not be ignited by the explosion. The concept is applicable to motors,
junction boxes, circuit breakers and a wide range of other equipment. A certificate for the
integrity of the equipment is issued after laboratory testing.
Care is essential in the maintenance and re-assembly of this type of equipment to ensure that
the design features are not destroyed. In particular, the flame path should be kept dry and
should never be filled with jointing compound.
General Precautions
Alarm or shutdown circuits which are working correctly should never be bypassed, overridden
or isolated; such action could endanger the safety of the ship.
Defective circuits may be bypassed temporarily in case of an emergency but this action
should only be taken with the full agreement of the responsible officer, and the decision
should be recorded. The defect should be rectified and the circuit repaired as soon as
possible, and the bypass removed.
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Certified safe equipment should be carefully maintained, preferably by qualified personnel;

advise from the manufacturer should be sought in case of doubt
10.5 Ship/Shore safety check list
When common pipeline systems are provided for various cargo-related operations,
contamination will occur when different grades of cargo are carried simultaneously. If
segregation is needed to avoid cargo contamination, shippers’ instructions and regulatory
requirements must be observed. If a common piping system has to be used for different
cargoes, great care should be taken to ensure complete drainage and drying of the piping
system before purging with new cargo.
Wherever possible, separate reliquefaction systems should be used for each cargo. However,
if there is a danger of chemical reaction, it is necessary to use completely segregated
systems, known as positive segregation, at all times, utilizing removable spool pieces or pipe
sections. This restriction should apply equally to liquid, vapour and vent lines as appropriate.
Whilst positive segregation may be acceptable for most cargoes, some substances may
require totally independent piping systems. Special treatment of certain cargoes is specified
in the relevant IMO Gas Carrier Code.
If there is any doubt about the reactivity or compatibility of two cargoes, the data sheets for
each cargo and a cargo compatibility chart should be checked and advice sought from
shippers or other authority. If this advice seems inconclusive, the cargoes should be treated
as incompatible and positive segregation provided.
(1) Where codes and regulations call for segregation, the position of the valves, blanks,
portable bends and spool pieces associated with such segregation should be carefully
arranged and clearly identified. These arrangements for segregation must be followed
as part of the approved system.
(2) If the cargoes to be carried are not compatible, the responsible officer should ensure
that the pipeline systems for each cargo are completely isolated from each other. This
entails checking that all necessary blanks are fitted or that pipe spool pieces have
been removed. A cargo log book entry should be made of the action taken.
(3) In case where two cargoes are compatible and an apparent negligible mix is
permitted, the adjacent systems carrying the different cargoes should be isolated by al
least two valves at each connection, or by one positive visible blank.
(4) Common pipelines and associated equipment should be drained, dried, ventilated and
monitored before being used for another cargo.
(5) All temporary pipe-work should be gas-freed, monitored, disconnected and properly
stored when not in use.
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11. Basic knowledge of first aid with reference to a Material Safety Data
Sheet (MSDS)
The First Aid Measures section describes actions to be taken immediately in case you are
exposed to the material. The purpose of first aid is to minimize injury and future disability. In
serious cases, first aid may be necessary to keep the victim alive.
You need to know first aid information before you start working with the material. There is no
time to find and read the MSDS during an emergency. First aid procedures should be
periodically reviewed by everyone working in areas where the material is handled. Everyone
should know the location of the facilities and equipment for providing first aid; for example,
the eyewash fountains, safety showers and first aid kits.
Knowing the first aid procedures for materials used in a work area is also necessary so that
people will have the appropriate first aid skills. In most cases, only basic first aid training is
needed. Sometimes, you may need advanced training; for example, for the administration of
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) or oxygen.
Sometimes, the first aid procedures on a MSDS are given for a "worst case" exposure. The
first-aider should evaluate how severe the exposure is before using the full first aid
procedure. Formal first aid training will help you make this decision. If you are not sure,
follow the instructions given on the MSDS.
When medical treatment is necessary, send the MSDS, if it is readily available, to the
emergency facility with the victim. If the MSDS is not available, you should send the
material's label or a labelled container of the material, if it is small enough. The medical
personnel need to know what the material is and what first aid measures have been
recommended and used. Occasionally, the MSDS has additional instructions (or a NOTE TO
PHYSICIANS) which may be useful to the emergency doctor; for example, it may say,
"Monitor kidney function for 24 hours."
The Safety Data Sheet writer can assume that the person who provides first-aid to the victim
has basic first-aid training. Therefore, Safety Data Sheets do not need to recommend or
explain how to execute procedures to be followed in every emergency. For example, trained
first-aid providers will know how to assess the initial status of a victim.
Generally, the Safety Data Sheet writer can assume that medical assistance can be obtained
within a reasonably short period of time (60 minutes or less).If medical assistance is not
readily available, a doctor familiar with the product or specializing in occupational health and
safety and familiar with the facilities available at the location should review the first-aid
recommendations, and make changes appropriate to the circumstances, as required.
The Safety Data Sheet should provide instructions that direct the first-aid provider to respond
to the specific health effects of the product. Any procedures recommended in the First-Aid
Measures section must correspond to specific health effects and routes of exposure identified
in the Hazard(s) Identification or Toxicological Information sections of the Safety Data Sheet.
The Safety Data Sheet should not introduce any new health effects in the First-Aid Measures
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section. The Safety Data Sheet should not include first-aid procedures that are not applicable
to the product.
The Safety Data Sheet should not exclusively describe first-aid recommendations written for
the "worst case" exposure imaginable. Usually, first-aid is given for mild to moderate
exposures. If the Safety Data Sheet places too much emphasis on extreme exposures, which
rarely occur, the first-aid procedures will be overstated. Inappropriate first-aid could further
harm the victim. The best approach is to write first-aid procedures for situations most likely
to occur based upon knowledge of the product's use and properties and/or on actual case
reports.
In general, the Safety Data Sheet should keep recommendations simple and advise the use of
materials that are readily available in most workplaces. For example, first-aid providers will
usually use potable water to remove a chemical from the eye as it is generally readily
available.
The Safety Data Sheet should not recommend procedures that could cause additional harm or
may complicate subsequent medical care. For example, the use of special creams or
ointments must be carefully considered. The cream or ointment may have to be removed
before a medical professional can assess the injury and begin treatment, and its removal
could worsen the injury. Nevertheless, in some cases the benefits do outweigh any risks. For
example, there is evidence that certain topical preparations are beneficial in the first-aid
treatment of hydrofluoric acid burns.
The First-Aid Measures section of a Safety Data Sheet should not include procedures that fall
outside the definition of first-aid. Typically, first-aid does not include procedures like the
administration of oral medications. However, under certain circumstances, it may be
appropriate to recommend more advanced procedures (e.g., the administration of an antidote
for cyanide toxicity). Protocols for undertaking advanced procedures must be developed in
consultation with a doctor and must be regularly reviewed. In these situations, advanced,
specialized training is required for first-aid providers.
There are two criteria for including these procedures:
 The benefits of the procedure must outweigh any risks associated with it, i.e. the
intervention must be essential to sustain life or prevent other serious consequences
and must not introduce significant new risks.
 It must be legally acceptable for the first-aid provider to perform the intervention. This
legality can be determined by contacting local first-aid training organizations (e.g., the
Red Cross) or your governing medical authority (e.g., the College of Physicians and
Surgeons, the State Board of Medical Examiners or the State Health Division).
The first-aid measures sub-headings of the Safety Data Sheet (i.e. Inhalation, Skin Contact,
Eye Contact, Ingestion) should not contain information directed toward medical professionals.
Inclusion of this information could be confusing to the first-aid provider.
The Safety Data Sheet should direct comments to medical professionals under the Safety
Data Sheet Section 4 sub-heading Note to Physicians (American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) Material Safety Data Sheet) or Special Instructions (Globally Harmonized System of
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Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) Safety Data Sheet). For a brief discussion
regarding Note to Physicians/Special Instructions, refer to Appendix 4.
Writers and reviewers of first-aid recommendations may find the following basic outline
useful. A Safety Data Sheet should:
 Provide recommendations for each potential route of occupational exposure.

 Present recommendations in the order in which the first-aid measures are to be carried
out, taking care of urgent priorities first, as follows:
o Protect the first-aid provider. Specify any special protective equipment and
clothing or procedures necessary to protect the first-aid provider, if necessary.
For example, if the product is flammable, all sources of ignition should be
eliminated if safe to do so. If a toxicity hazard exists, first-aid providers must
NOT enter the hazardous area or attempt rescue without putting on appropriate
personal protective equipment.
o Reduce or eliminate the source of exposure, either by removing the source of
exposure from the person or the person from the source if it is safe to do so.
o Recommend evidence-based, consensus-based, or well-established first-aid
procedures.
o Advise obtaining medical advice/attention or calling a Poison Center or doctor, as
appropriate.
o Indicate if contaminated clothing, shoes or leather goods can be decontaminated
by washing or if they should be discarded. Indicate safe storage procedures for
contaminated clothing, when necessary.
o If applicable, provide information on safe disposal of contaminated items in the
Disposal Considerations section of the Safety Data Sheet.
Competency 4: Carry out fire fighting operations:
12. Knowledge and understanding of tanker safety culture and safety

management
Climatic Conditions:
Terminal Advice of Adverse Weather Conditions The terminal should establish limiting
parameters for controlling or stopping cargo operations based on the design criteria for the
berth and its equipment. The parameters may be determined by environmental conditions,
such as wind speed, ice conditions, tidal current and swell, or by the physical limitations of
the berth, such as fender loads or mooring point strength. Any limitations should be
discussed with the tanker before operations commence and recorded in the Safety Check-
Lists.
The Terminal Representative should alert the tanker to any forecast of adverse weather
conditions which may require operations to be stopped, or loading or discharge rates to be
reduced. In some instances, necessary inform ation may be provided by third parties in the
immediate vicinity or by the tanker.
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Where environmental conditions are critical to the operation of the berth, the terminal should
consider providing appropriate measuring instrumentation to provide information that will
assist in managing the risk.
Wind Conditions
If there is little air movement, product gas may persist on deck in heavy concentrations. If
there is a wind, eddies can be created on the lee side of a tanker’s accommodation or deck
structure which can carry vented gas towards the structure. Either of these effects may result
in local heavy product gas concentrations and it may be necessary to extend the precautions
set out in Section 24.1 or to stop loading, ballasting of non-gas free tanks, purging, tank
cleaning or gas freeing while these conditions persist. All operations should also be stopped if
wind conditions cause funnel sparks to fall on deck.
Electrical Storms (Lightning)
When an electrical storm is anticipated in the vicinity of the tanker or terminal, the following
operations must be stopped, whether or not the tanker’s cargo tanks are inerted:
1.2 Handling of volatile products.
1.3 Handling of non-volatile products in tanks not free of flammable vapour.
1.4 Ballasting of tanks not free of flammable vapour.
1.5 Purging, tank cleaning or gas freeing after the discharge of volatile products.
All tank openings and vent valves must be closed, including any bypass valves fitted on the
tank venting system.
Personnel Safety:
Protective clothing and equipment should be worn by all personnel engaged in operations on
board and ashore. It is recommended that this should comprise a boiler suit (or similar
clothing providing full cover, anti-static and flame retardant), safety shoes, safety glasses
and a safety helmet as appropriate. All personnel should also wear life vests or other similar
buoyancy devices where there is a risk of falling into the water.
Storage places for PPE, including breathing apparatus, should be protected from the weather
and should be clearly marked. Personnel should utilise the equipment and clothing whenever
the situation requires. Personnel who are likely to be required to use breathing apparatus
should be trained in its safe use.
Tankers should establish the PPE requirements for visitors and these should include
appropriate clothing, safe footwear, eye protection, life vest and a safety helmet. Likewise,
terminals should establish requirements for all persons passing through the terminal. A
clearly marked safe route and/or safe transport through the terminal should be provided.
Slip and Fall Hazards
Due to the high incidence of slips and falls on tankers, owners, operators and crew should
pay particular attention to on board arrangements and the changing conditions that may
contribute to these accidents.
International Safety Guide Chapter 26 for Inland Navigation Tank-barges and Particular
attention should be given to providing non-skid coatings or gratings on the deck in working
areas and walkways. It is suggested that these areas are clearly marked so that personnel
are aware of their existence and extent. Areas for consideration include:
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 Mooring areas.
 Manifold areas.
 Dipping and sampling locations.
 Access walkways.
 Pipeline step-overs.
Irrespective of the arrangements provided to prevent slips and falls, it is essential that
personnel use the prescribed walkways and keep them clear and free of spillages. Shore
personnel and visitors should also use the prescribed areas.
The risk of trips and slips is significantly higher when using access ladders, ladders on bunker
booms and companionways. Good design and construction will help to prevent accidents of
this nature. Trip hazards, such as high plate edges at the top of ladders and unevenly spaced
steps, should be avoided. Where the design cannot be modified, trip hazards should be
clearly marked or highlighted with contrasting paint.
Personal Hygiene
In view of the danger to health that may arise from prolonged contact with products,
personal hygiene is most important. Wherever possible, direct skin contact with product or
with contaminated clothing should be avoided.
Clothing Made of Synthetic Materials The tendency for synthetic material to melt and fuse
together when exposed to high temperatures leads to a concentrated heat so urce which
causes severe damage to body tissue. Clothing made of such material is therefore not
considered suitable for persons who may be exposed to flame or hot surfaces in the course of
their duties.
The Safety Check-List:
The responsibility and accountability for the safe conduct of operations while a tanker is at a
terminal are shared jointly between the tanker’s Master (by ship/ship operations by both
Masters) and the Terminal Representative. Be fore cargo or ballast operations commence, the
Master(s), or his representative, and/or the Terminal Representative should:
 Agree in writing on the transfer procedures, including the maximum loading or
unloading rates.
 Agree in writing on the action to be taken in the event of an emergency during cargo or
ballast handling operations.
 Complete and sign the appropriate Safety Check-List(s).
Terminals may wish to issue an explanatory letter to the Masters of visiting tankers advising
them of the terminal’s expectations regarding the joint responsibility for the safe conduct of
operations, and inviting the co-operation and understanding of the tanker’s personnel. While
the Safety Check-List is based upon cargo handling operations, it is recommended that the
same practice is adopted when a tanker presents itself at a berth for tank cleaning.
Overview of Appended Check-Lists
The following provides a summary of the Check-Lists that are included in the Appendices:
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Guidelines for Use
Guidelines for completing the Check-Lists and to assist in responding to each individual
statement are included in Appendices. They have been produced to assist berth operators and
tanker Masters in their joint use of the Safety Check-Lists.
Masters and all under their command should adhere strictly to these requirements throughout
the tanker’s stay alongside. The Terminal Representative and all shore personnel should do
likewise. Each party will be committed to co-operate fully in the mutual interest of achieving
safe and efficient operations.
Responsibility and accountability for the statements within the Safety Check-Lists are
assigned within the documents. The acceptance of responsibility is confirmed by ticking or
initialing the appropriate box and finally signing the declaration at the end of the Check-Lists.
Once signed, the Check-Lists detail the minimum basis for safe operations as agreed through
the mutual exchange of critical information.
Some of the Check-List statements are directed to considerations for which the tanker has
sole responsibility and accountability, some to considerations for which the terminal has sole
responsibility and accountability, and there are others which assign joint responsibility and
accountability. Shaded boxes are used to identify statements that generally would be
applicable to only one party, although the tanker or terminal may tick or initial such sections
if they so wish. Responsible Persons representing both parties have to tick or fill in the empty
boxes alongside the relevant provisions in the proper column.
The assignment of responsibility and accountability does not mean that the other party is
excluded from carrying out checks in order to confirm compliance. It is intended to ensure
clear identification of the part y responsible for initial and continued compliance throughout
the tanker’s stay at the terminal or alongside the other vessel.
The Responsible Person/Crew Member should personally check all considerations lying within
the responsibility of the tanker. Similarly, the Terminal Representative should personally
check all considerations that are the terminal’s responsibility. In fulfilling these
responsibilities, representatives should assure themselves that the standards of safety on

both sides of the operation are fully acceptable. This can be achieved by means such as:
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 Confirming that a competent person has satisfactorily completed the Check-Lists.

 Sighting appropriate records.
 Joint inspection, where deemed appropriate.
For mutual safety, before the start of operations, and from time to time thereafter, a
Terminal Representative and, where appropriate, a Responsible Person/Crew Member, should
conduct an inspection of the tanker to ensure that the tanker is effectively managing its
obligations, as accepted in the Safety Check-Lists. Similar checks should be conducted ashore
where basic safety requirements are found to be insufficient, either party may require that
cargo and ballast operations are stopped until corrective action is implemented satisfactorily.
For mutual safety, before the start of operations, and from time to time thereafter, a
Terminal Representative and, where appropriate, a Responsible Person/Crew Member, should
conduct an inspection of the tanker to ensure that the tanker is effectively managing its
obligations, as accepted in the Safety Check-Lists. Similar checks should be conducted ashore
where basic safety requirements are found to be insufficient, either party may require that
cargo and ballast operations are stopped until corrective action is implemented satisfactorily.
Composition of the Check-Lists
The Safety Check-Lists contained in Appendices 1 and 2 comprise four parts, the first two of
which (Parts ‘A’ and ‘B’) address the transfer of Bulk Liquids. These are applicable to all
operations. Part ‘A’ identifies the required physic al checks and Part ‘B’ identifies elements
that are verified verbally.
Part ‘C’ contains additional considerations relating to the transfer of Bulk Liquid Chemicals
and Part ‘D’ contains those for Bulk Liquefied Gases. The safety of operations requires that all
relevant statements are considered and the associated responsibility and accountability for
compliance are accepted, either jointly or singly. Where either party is not prepared to accept
an assigned accountability, a comment must be made in the ‘Remarks’ column and due
consideration should be given to assessing whether operations can proceed.
Where a particular item is considered not to be applicable to the tanker, the terminal or to
the planned operation, a note to this effect should be entered in the ‘Remarks’ column.
Coding of Items
The presence of the letters ‘A’, ‘P’ or ‘R’ in the column entitled ‘Code’ indicates the following:
A (‘Agreement’). This indicates an agreement or procedure that should be identified in the

‘Remarks’ column of the Check-List or communicated in some other mutually acceptable
form.
P (‘Permission’). In the case of a negative answer to the statements coded ‘P’, operations
should not be conducted without the written permission from the appropriate authority.
B Number: This “B” number indicates that the provision in question is based on those in the
ADN (agreement concerning carriage of dangerous goods by barge) relating to the transfer of
cargo from ship to shore. The “B” number corresponds with the relevant item in the ADN
checklist.
R (‘Re-check’). This indicates items to be re-checked at

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appropriate intervals, as agreed between both parties,
at periods stated in the declaration.
The joint declaration should not be signed unt il both
parties have checked and accepted their assigned
responsibilities and accountabilities.
L (“legislation”): This indicates that the provisions in question are related to regional
legislation and/or requirements.
Emergency Actions
The actions to be taken in the event of an emergency at a terminal should be contained in the
terminal’s Emergency Plan (see Chapter 20). Particular attention should be given to factors to
be taken into consideration when deciding whether or not to remove a tanker from the berth
in the event of an emergency.
13. Basic knowledge of emergency procedures including emergency

shutdown:
Emergency response and contingency plans for Liquefied Gas carriers
An emergency can occur at any time and in any situation. Effective action is only possible if
pre-planned and practical procedures have been developed and are frequently exercised. The
Contingency Plan provides guidelines and instructions that assist in making an efficient
response to emergency situations onboard ships.
If the vessel encounters a dangerous situation that may develop into an emergency, it is
extremely important that the whole crew know exactly what they should do to save their lives
and minimize damage.
It is worth stating that an abnormal condition need not necessarily be cargo related, it might
be in the engine room, or involve deck machinery such as a mooring winch failure for
instance. Any condition that could compromise the vessel’s ability to carry out a smooth,
incident free operation may be considered abnormal.
The crew must be drilled to take certain actions more or less automatically. However, nobody
must act without considering the superfluous consequences.
These plans should be used actively during emergency drills. The objective of an emergency
plan is to make the best use of the resources available. This will be the shipboard personnel
whilst the ship is at sea but may include resources from shore when the ship is in harbour or
passing through coastal waters.
The plans should be directed at achieving the following aims:
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 rescue and treatment of casualties

 safeguarding others
 minimising damage to property and the environment
 bringing the incident under control.
1. Fire
2. Collision
3. Grounding
4. cargo spillage/leak
5. personnel casualty
Most of these plans will be practised during emergency drills and exercises. Make sure you
know what to do and how to use the safety equipment if in doubt ask an officer.
In any emergency situation, you MUST CONTINUE using the DPA or alternate contact number
you have already used when advising of the emergency.
YOUR SHIP HAS CONTINGENCY PLANS YOU MUST BE FAMILIAR WITH THEM AND THE
EQUIPMENT YOU MAY HAVE TO USE
During a serious incident many telephone calls may be made to the ship. The Master must
clearly identify the caller before passing any information. Unauthorised callers must be
referred to the Company for information.
The media in particular will persist in trying to obtain as much information as possible. Only
the Master must speak to them. Information passed to the media must only be the minimum
necessary and is to be factual. Information, which is found to be misleading, can be very
damaging to the management of the incident. Whenever possible the Master must refer any
caller to the Company for information and official media release.
In the event of a serious incident many different parties will require statements from the
Master and Crew. It is important that statements are not given until the Company arranges
for a lawyer representing the Owners/Company to be present.
Following a marine incident or accident involving collision, spill of oil, fire, injury to personnel
or worse, the Master, the bridge team and all the crew are in a very stressful and time
sensitive environment. Today’s contingency plans require a huge volume of reporting and
regulatory response. As most incidents occur close to the shore, where all vessels are at their
most vulnerable, within minutes of an accident a variety of interested parties will be requiring
your time and that of your senior officers.
Emergency shutdown (ESD) system for Liquefied Gas carriers
The Emergency Shut Down (ESD) system is a requirement of the IMO Code for the carriage
of liquefied gases in bulk and is a recommendation of SIGTTO. All members of the ship’s
company must be aware of locations and the methods of activating and testing the
Emergency Shut Down System specific to their vessel. The Emergency Shut Down System is
a quick closing system, which may be activated automatically or manually. It will close all
deck valves and shut down all cargo machinery.
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ESD will be initiated by one of the following:
 Manual activation by personnel using the ESD pushbuttons

 Blackout of the ship
 Shore activation of their ESD system
 Fusible links around each tank domes, manifold and compressor house in case of fire
 Cargo tank Very High level alarm
 Low tank pressure
 Hold/cargo tank differential pressure
 Low cargo valves hydraulic pressure
 Low control air pressure
 Fire extinguisher system released
The initiation of ESD will lead to the following:
 All ESD manifold loading valves will close

 The gas compressors will trip
 The main discharge and spray pumps will trip
 All shore pumps will trip
 Master gas valve to engine room will close
 Inert gas generator will trip
The requirement of the cargo Emergency Shutdown (ESD) system are to stop cargo liquid
and vapour flow in the event of an emergency and to bring the cargo handling system to a
safe, static condition. The earlier method of cargo shut down comprise of manual trip points
and automatic fire sensors that can initiate remote closure of emergency shutdown valves
"for shutting down liquid and vapour cargo transfer between ship and shore"
This emergency trip, when activated, must also stop cargo pumps and compressors.
However, these provisions do not necessarily provide adequate protection, particularly
against overflow, during other operations involving the transfer of liquid and vapour on board.
It must be recognised that operations such as reliquefaction or cargo tank spraying may be
routine operations at sea. These deficiencies eliminated by intruducing cargo emergency
shutdown (ESD).
The ESD system minimises potential risks during the transfer of liquefied gases between ship
and shore loading and unloading installations. It provides a quick and safe means of stopping
the transfer of cargo and isolating ship and shore cargo systems in a controlled manner,
either manually or automatically, in the event of fault conditions that affect the ability of the
operator to control safely the transfer of cargo. Most export terminals, and an increasing
number of import terminals, now have a second level of protection providing for the rapid
disconnection of the loading arms from the ship. These two levels of cover are known as
ÈSD-1' and ÈSD-2'.
The emergency shutdown (ESD) system is a requirement of the IMO code for the carriage of
liquefied gases in bulk and is a recommendation of SIGTTO. It is fitted to protect both the
ship and terminal in the event of power loss, cryogenic or fire risks, on either the ship or in
the terminal.
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The system will stop the flow of LNG liquid and vapour by shutting down the pumps and gas
compressors as well as manifold and shipside valves, by the activation of a single control.
Shut down of the cargo system can be initiated either manually or automatically if certain off-
limit conditions occur.
The ship's ESD system is active at all times, whether at sea or in port. When at sea all
manifold and tank filling valves are held in the shut position and the cargo and spray pumps
are held in the off position. The cargo compressors may be operated as normal, but will stop
if an ESD is initiated. The shore ESD input is blocked in the At Sea DCS condition
Manual emergency shut down push buttons are situated strategically around the ship, at
locations that include the wheelhouse, cargo control room, fire control station, manifold
platforms and tank liquid domes. In addition, manual activation of the shore ESD system will,
through the ship/ shore link, set off the ship’s ESD.
Automatic shut down for fire is initiated by fusible plugs which are generally located at each
tank dome, manifold platform, and in the cargo compressor and electric motor rooms. ESD1
may also be initiated automatically under conditions such as the following:
1. Blackout of the ship.

2. Vapour header pressure falls below pre-set limit.
3. Individual tank pressure falls below pre-set limit.
4. Extreme liquid level in any cargo tank.
5. Low cargo valve hydraulic pressure.
ESD2 is normally initiated by the terminal and will result in all the actions as for ESD1, plus
the initiation of a dry break of the shore arm from the ship. ESD2 may be initiated manually,
for example, in the event of a terminal emergency, or automatically, for example, if the ship
moves outside the movement envelope of the chicksans.
The automatic disconnection of shore arms can be a violent and potentially dangerous
operation and it is important that personnel at the manifold are warned to leave the area
before ESD2 activation.
Each ship must have procedures for testing the function of ESD systems which must be
tested prior to arrival in port and also immediately before commencing cargo operations.
Emergency shutdown (ESD) blocking and override
The ESD system will have a facility to activate a “block” or “override”. Under normal vessel
operating procedures the ESD system will be fully active, There may be occasions when it will
be necessary to inhibit part or all of the system.
The “At Sea” condition” will be selected prior to the shore connection being disconnected after
the cargo operations have been completed. The “At Sea” condition has the following effect:;
 Isolates the shore connection from the ESD logic

 Locks the cargo pumps in the OFF condition
 Positions the manifold valves in the CLOSED position
 Positions the cargo tank filling valves in the CLOSED position
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 Allows the low duty compressors to run if the ESD or low duty system trips are not
activated
 Allows the high duty compressors to run if the ESD or high duty system trips are not
activated
Prior to any cargo operations in port, the “At Sea” condition must be switched to the “In Port”
position to allow the ESD system to be fully active.
After any emergency shutdown of the cargo system, it may be necessary to “Override” the
system. Before the system is switched to “Override” the cause of the shutdown must be
determined. The “override” facility should only be used when absolutely necessary to allow
recovery from an emergency condition. As soon as the emergency condition is corrected, the
ESD should be returned to the normal condition and the “override” facility switched off.
Before the ESD is overridden, the Master must be fully appraised of the situation, and must
give his approval for the “Override” to be switched on.
It must be noted that on any occasion that the ESD is not in its normal operational condition,
any cargo related emergency situation on board the ship and or terminal, will not result in
activation of the ESD, and full shut down of the cargo system will not take place.
ESD Testing
LNG vessels must always conduct pre-arrival ESD system tests 48 hours before arrival at any
load or discharge port. Additionally in the event of an extended voyage, the ESD system
should again be tested at intervals of not more than 30 days from the previous test.
These tests must include, but not be limited to:
 Cargo Emergency Shutdown system test, including all push buttons and trips (These
may be tested in rotation).
 All Cargo and Ballast valves operated.
 Manifold valve timings checked.
 Check the operating parameters of nitrogen generators and barrier space pressures
(where applicable).
 Barrier space water detection (where applicable).
 Mast riser nitrogen snuffers.
 Ship-Shore interface connection operations.
Successful completion of these tests must be logged on form LNG02 and recorded in the deck
log book.
Prior to loading / discharge operations in port, additional ESD testing in both the warm and
cold conditions will be carried out as part of the pre-transfer ship-shore checklist.
Competency 6: Take precautions to prevent pollution of the environment from the release of
liquefied gases
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14. Basic knowledge of the effects of pollution on human and marine life
The environmental impact of shipping includes green house gas emissions, acoustic, and oil
pollution. The International Maritime Organization(IMO) estimates that Carbon dioxide
emissions from shipping were equal to 2.7% of the global human-made emissions in 2007
and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken.
The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions
from Ships took place inOslo, Norway on 23–27 June 2008. It was tasked with developing the
technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to
control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping, and a draft of the actual
reduction mechanisms themselves, for further consideration by IMO’s Marine Environment
Protection Committee (MEPC)
Ballast water:
Ballast water discharges by ships can have a negative impact on the marine environment.
Cruise ships, large tankers, and bulk cargo carriers use a huge amount of ballast water, which
is often taken on in the coastal waters in one region after ships discharge wastewater or
unload cargo, and discharged at the next port of call, wherever more cargo is loaded. Ballast
water discharge typically contains a variety of biological materials, including plants, animals,
viruses, and bacteria. These materials often include non-native, nuisance, invasive, exotic
species that can cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic ecosystems
along with serious human health problems.
Sound pollution
Noise pollution caused by shipping and other human enterprises has increased in recent
history. The noise produced by ships can travel long distances, and marine species who may
rely on sound for their orientation, communication, and feeding, can be harmed by this sound
pollution
The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Specieshas identified ocean noise as a

potential threat to marine life.
Wildlife collisions
Marine mammals, such a whales and manatees, risk being struck by ships, causing injury and
death. For example, if a ship is traveling at a speed of only 15 knots, there is a 79 percent
chance of a collision being lethal to a whale.
One notable example of the impact of ship collisions is the endangered North Atlantic right
whale, of which 400 or less remain. The greatest danger to the North Atlantic right whale is
injury sustained from ship strikes.
Between 1970 and 1999, 35.5 percent of recorded deaths were attributed to collisions.
During 1999 to 2003, incidents of mortality and serious injury attributed to ship strikes
averaged one per year. In 2004 to 2006, that number increased to 2.6. Deaths from collisions
has become an extinction threat.
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Atmospheric pollution
Exhaust gases from ships are considered to be a significant source of air pollution, both for
conventional pollutants and greenhouse gases.
There is a perception that cargo transport by ship is low in air pollutants, because for equal
weight and distance it is the most efficient transport method, according to shipping
researcher Amy Bows-Larkin. This is particularly true in comparison to air freight;
however, because sea shipment accounts for far more annual tonnage and the distances are
often large, shipping's emissions are globally substantial
A difficulty is that the year-on-year increasing amount shipping overwhelms gains in

efficiency, such as from slow-steaming or the use of kites. The growth in tonne-kilometers of
sea shipment has averaged 4 percent yearly since the 1990s. and it has grown by a factor of
5 since the 1970s. There are now over 100,000 transport ships at sea, of which about 6,000
are large container ships.
Conventional pollutants
Of total global air emissions, shipping accounts for 18 to 30 percent of the nitrogen oxide and
9 percent of the sulphur oxides. Sulfur in the air creates acid rain which damages crops and
buildings. When inhaled the sulfur is known to cause respiratory problems and even increases
the risk of a heart attack. According to Irene Blooming, a spokeswoman for the European
environmental coalition Seas at Risk, the fuel used in oil tankers and container ships is high
in sulfur and cheaper to buy compared to the fuel used for domestic land use. "A ship lets out
around 50 times more sulfur than a lorry per metric tonne of cargo carried."
Cities in the U.S. like Long Beach, Los Angeles, Houston, Galveston, and Pittsburgh see some
of the heaviest shipping traffic in the nation and have left local officials desperately trying to
clean up the air. Increasing trade between the U.S. and China is helping to increase the
number of vessels navigating the Pacific and exacerbating many of the environmental
problems. To maintain the level of growth China is experiencing, large amounts of grain are
being shipped to China by the boat load. The number of voyages are expected to continue
increasing.
Greenhouse gas pollutants
3.5 to 4 percent of all climate change emissions are caused by shipping.

Air pollution from cruise ships is generated by diesel engines that burn
high sulfur content fuel oil, also known as bunker oil, producing sulfur dioxide, nitrogen
oxide and particulate, in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrocarbons.
Diesel exhaust has been classified by EPA as a likely human carcinogen. EPA recognizes that
these emissions from marine diesel engines contribute to ozone and carbon monoxide non-
attainment (i.e., failure to meet air quality standards), as well as adverse health effects
associated with ambient concentrations of particulate matter and visibility, haze, acid
deposition, and eutrophication and nitrification of water.
EPA estimates that large marine diesel engines accounted for about 1.6 percent of mobile
source nitrogen oxide emissions and 2.8 percent of mobile source particulate emissions in the
United States in 2000. Contributions of marine diesel engines can be higher on a port-specific
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basis. Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) is a standard for defining diesel fuel with substantially
lowered sulfurcontents. As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuel available in
Europe and North America is of a ULSD type.
As one way to reduce the impact of greenhouse gasemissions from shipping, vetting agency
RightShip developed an online "Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Rating" as a systematic
way for the industry to compare a ship’s CO2 emissions with peer vessels of a similar size
and type. Based on the International Maritime Organisation's (IMO) Energy
Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) that applies to ships built from 2013, Right Ship's GHG Rating
can also be applied to vessels built prior to 2013, allowing for effective vessel comparison
across the world's fleet. The GHG Rating utilises an A to G scale, where A represents the most
efficient ships. It measures the theoretical amount of carbon dioxide emitted per tonne
nautical mile travelled, based on the design characteristics of the ship at time of build such as
cargo carrying capacity, engine power and fuel consumption. Higher rated ships can deliver
significantly lower CO2 emissions across the voyage length, which means they also use less
fuel and are cheaper to run.
Stress for improvement
One source of environmental stresses on maritime vessels recently has come from states and
localities, as they assess the contribution of commercial marine vessels to regional air quality
problems when ships are docked at port. For instance, large marine diesel engines are
believed to contribute 7 percent of mobile source nitrogen oxide emissions in Baton
Rouge/New Orleans. Ships can also have a significant impact in areas without large
commercial ports: they contribute about 37 percent of total area nitrogen oxide emissions in
the Santa Barbara area, and that percentage is expected to increase to 61 percent by 2015.
Again, there is little cruise-industry specific data on this issue. They comprise only a small
fraction of the world shipping fleet, but cruise ship emissions may exert significant impacts on
a local scale in specific coastal areas that are visited repeatedly. Shipboard incinerators also
burn large volumes of garbage, plastics, and other waste, producing ash that must be
disposed of. Incinerators may release toxic emissions as well.
In 2005, MARPOL Annex VI came into force to combat this problem. As such cruise ships now
employ CCTVmonitoring on the smokestacks as well as recorded measuring via opacity meter
while some are also using clean burning gas turbines for electrical loads and propulsion in
sensitive areas.
Oil spills
Most commonly associated with ship pollution are oil spills. While less frequent than the
pollution that occurs from daily operations, oil spills have devastating effects. While being
toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs), the components in crude oil, are
very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.
Marine species constantly exposed to PAHs can exhibit developmental problems, susceptibility
to disease, and abnormal reproductive cycles. One of the more widely known spills was the
Exxon Valdez incident in Alaska. The ship ran aground and dumped a massive amount of oil
into the ocean in March 1989. Despite efforts of scientists, managers and volunteers, over
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400,000seabirds, about 1,000 sea otters, and immense numbers of fish were killed.
International regulation
Some of the major international efforts in the form of treaties are the Marine Pollution Treaty,
Honolulu, which deals with regulating marine pollution from ships, and the UN Convention on
Law of the Sea, which deals with marine species and pollution. While plenty of local and
international regulations have been introduced throughout maritime history, much of the
current regulations are considered inadequate. "In general, the treaties tend to emphasize
the technical features of safety and pollution control measures without going to the root
causes of sub-standard shipping, the absence of incentives for compliance and the lack of
enforceability of measures." Cruise ships, for example, are exempt from regulation under the
US discharge permit system (NPDES, under the Clean Water Act) that requires compliance
with technology-based standards. In the Caribbean n, many ports lack proper waste disposal
facilities, and many ships dump their waste at sea.
Sewage
The cruise line industry dumps 255,000 US gallons (970 m3) of greywater and 30,000 US
gallons (110 m3) of blackwater into the sea every day. Blackwater is
sewage, wastewater from toilets and medical facilities, which can contain harmful bacteria,
pathogens, viruses, intestinal parasites, and harmful nutrients. Discharges of untreated or
inadequately treated sewage can cause bacterial and viral contamination of fisheries and
shellfish beds, producing risks to public health.
Nutrients in sewage, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, promote excessive algal blooms,
which consumes oxygen in the water and can lead to fish kills and destruction of other
aquatic life. A large cruise ship (3,000 passengers and crew) generates an estimated 55,000
to 110,000 liters per day of blackwater waste.
Due to the environmental impact of shipping, and sewage in particular marpol annex IV was
brought into force September 2003 strictly limiting untreated waste discharge. Modern cruise
ships are most commonly installed with a membrane bioreactor type treatment plant for all
blackwater and greywater, such as (http://www.gertsen-
olufsen.com/Ship-Offshore/Products/G-O_Brands/G-O_Bioreactor.aspx) , Zenon or Rochem

which produce near drinkable quality effluent to be re-used in the machinery spaces as
technical water.
Cleaning
Grey water is wastewater from the sinks, showers, galleys, laundry, and cleaning activities
aboard a ship. It can contain a variety of pollutant substances, including fecal coli forms,
detergents, oil and grease, metals, organic compounds, petroleum hydrocarbons, nutrients,
food waste, medical and dental waste. Sampling done by the EPA and the state of Alaska
found that untreated grey water from cruise ships can contain pollutants at variable strengths
and that it can contain levels of fecal coli form bacteria several times greater than is typically
found in untreated domestic wastewater.
Greywater has potential to cause adverse environmental effects because of concentrations of

nutrients and other oxygen-demanding materials, in particular. Greywater is typically the
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largest source of liquid waste generated by cruise ships (90 to 95 percent of the total).
Estimates of greywater range from 110 to 320 liters per day per person, or 330,000 to
960,000 liters per day for a 3,000-person cruise ship.
Solid waste
Solid waste generated on a ship includes glass, paper, cardboard, aluminium and steel cans,
and plastics. It can be either non-hazardous or hazardous in nature. Solid waste that enters
the ocean may become marine debris, and can then pose a threat to marine organisms,
humans, coastal communities, and industries that utilize marine waters. Cruise ships typically
manage solid waste by a combination of source reduction, waste minimization, andrecycling.
However, as much as 75 percent of solid waste isincinerated on board, and the ash typically
is discharged at sea, although some is landed ashore forsal or
recycling. Marine mammals, fish, sea turtles, and birds can be injured or killed from
entanglement with plastics and other solid waste that may be released or disposed off of
cruise ships. On average, each cruise ship passenger generates at least two pounds of non-
hazardous solid waste per day.
With large cruise ships carrying several thousand passengers, the amount of waste generated
in a day can be massive. For a large cruise ship, about 8 tons of solid waste are generated
during a one-week cruise. It has been estimated that 24 percent of the solid waste generated
by vessels worldwide (by weight) comes from cruise ships. Most cruise ship garbage is
treated on board (incinerated, pulped, or ground up) for discharge overboard. When garbage
must be off-loaded (for example, because glass and aluminium cannot be incinerated), cruise
ships can put a strain on port reception facilities, which are rarely adequate to the task of
serving a large passenger vessel.
Bilge water
On a ship, oil rarely leaks from engine and machineryspaces or from engine maintenance
activities and mixes with water in the bilge, the lowest part of the hull of the ship, but there is
a filter to clean bilge water before being discharged.. Oil, gasoline, and by-products from the
biological breakdown of petroleum products can harm fish and wildlife and pose threats to
human health if ingested.
Oil in even minute concentrations can kill fish or have various sub-lethal chronic effects. Bilge
water also may contain solid wastes and pollutants containing high levels ofoxygen-
demanding material, oil and other chemicals. A typically large cruise ship will generate an
average of 8 metric tons of oily bilge water for each 24 hours of operation.
To maintain ship stability and eliminate potentially hazardous conditions from oil vapors in
these areas, the bilge spaces need to be flushed and periodically pumped dry. However,
before a bilge can be cleared out and the water discharged, the oil that has been accumulated
needs to be extracted from the bilge water, after which the extracted oil can be reused,
incinerated, and/or offloaded in port.
If a separator, which is normally used to extract the oil, is faulty or is deliberately bypassed,
untreated oily bilge water could be discharged directly into the ocean, where it can damage
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marine life. A number of cruise lines have been charged with environmental violations related
to this issue in recent years.
15. Basic knowledge of shipboard procedures to prevent pollution
Regulation 37 of MARPOL Annex I requires that oil tankers of 150 gross tonnage and above
and all ships of 400 gross tonnage and above carry an approved Shipboard Oil Pollution
Emergency Plan (SOPEP). Article 3 of the International Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Co-operation, 1990, also requires such a plan for certain ships.
Regulation 17 of MARPOL Annex II makes similar stipulations that all ships of 150 gross
tonnage and above carrying noxious liquid substances in bulk carry an approved shipboard
marine pollution emergency plan for noxious liquid substances.
The latter may be combined with a SOPEP, since most of their contents are the same and one
combined plan on board is more practical than two separate ones in case of an emergency.
To make it clear that the plan is a combined one, it should be referred to as a Shipboard
Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP).
To help Administrations and shipowners meet these requirements, IMO has produced the
Guidelines for the Development of Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plans, 2010 Edition
which includes Guidelines for the development of Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plans
(SOPEP) (resolution MEPC.54(32), as amended by resolutionMEPC.86(44) and Guidelines for
the development of Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plans of Oil and/or Noxious Liquid
Substances (Resolution MEPC.85(44), as amended by resolution MEPC.137(53)).
The two sets of guidelines provide that the shipboard emergency plans should include, as an
appendix, the list of agencies or officials of administrations responsible for receiving and
processing reports on incidents involving oil and/or harmful substances
(MARPOL)
Adoption: 1973 (Convention), 1978 (1978 Protocol), 1997 (Protocol - Annex
VI); Entry into force: 2 October 1983 (Annexes I and II).
The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the main
international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships
from operational or accidental causes.
The MARPOL Convention was adopted on 2 November 1973 at IMO. The Protocol of 1978 was
adopted in response to a spate of tanker accidents in 1976-1977. As the 1973 MARPOL
Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol absorbed the parent
Convention. The combined instrument entered into force on 2 October 1983. In 1997, a
Protocol was adopted to amend the Convention and a new Annex VI was added which entered
into force on 19 May 2005. MARPOL has been updated by amendments through the years.
The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ships
- both accidental pollution and that from routine operations - and currently includes six
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technical Annexes. Special Areas with strict controls on operational discharges are included in
most Annexes.
Annex I Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil (entered into force 2 October 1983)
Covers prevention of pollution by oil from operational measures as well as from accidental
discharges; the 1992 amendments to Annex I made it mandatory for new oil tankers to have
double hulls and brought in a phase-in schedule for existing
tankers to fit double hulls, which was subsequently revised in 2001 and 2003.
Annex II Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk
(entered into force 2 October 1983)
Details the discharge criteria and measures for the control of pollution by noxious liquid
substances carried in bulk; some 250 substances were evaluated and included in the list
appended to the Convention; the discharge of their residues is allowed only to reception
facilities until certain concentrations and conditions (which vary with the category of
substances) are complied with.
In any case, no discharge of residues containing noxious substances is permitted within 12

miles of the nearest land.
Annex III Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form
(entered into force 1 July 1992)
Contains general requirements for the issuing of detailed standards on packing, marking,
labelling, documentation, stowage, quantity limitations, exceptions and notifications.
For the purpose of this Annex, “harmful substances” are those substances which are identified
as marine pollutants in the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code) or
which meet the criteria in the Appendix of Annex III.
Annex IV Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships (entered into force 27 September
2003)
Contains requirements to control pollution of the sea by sewage; the discharge of sewage into
the sea is prohibited, except when the ship has in operation an approved sewage treatment
plant or when the ship is discharging comminuted and disinfected sewage using an approved
system at a distance of more than three nautical miles from the nearest land; sewage which
is not comminuted or disinfected has to be discharged at a distance of more than 12 nautical
miles from the nearest land.
Annex V Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships (entered into force 31 December
1988)
Deals with different types of garbage and specifies the distances from land and the manner in
which they may be disposed of; the most important feature of the Annex is the complete ban
imposed on the disposal into the sea of all forms of plastics.
Annex VI Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships (entered into force 19 May 2005)
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Sets limits on sulphur oxide and nitrogen oxide emissions from ship exhausts and prohibits
deliberate emissions of ozone depleting substances; designated emission control areas set
more stringent standards for SOx, NOx and particulate matter. A chapter adopted in 2011
covers mandatory technical and operational energy
efficiency measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships.
16.Basic knowledge of measures to be taken in the event of spillage:

Potential hazards of a large liquefied natural gas spill during marine
transportation
16.1 Report relevant information to the responsible persons
16.2 Assist in implementing shipboard spill- containment procedures
The potential hazards of a large LNG spill over water includes asphyxiation, cryogenic burns,
and cryogenic damage to the ship from the very cold LNG, dispersion, fires, and explosions.
Based on expert review, the most likely hazards to people and property would be thermal
hazards from an LNG fire. Cryogenic and fire damage to an LNG ship were also identified as
concerns that could cause additional damage to LNG cargo tanks following an initial cargo
tank breach, though the additional impact on public safety would be limited. Risks and
hazards from a potential marine LNG spill can be reduced through a combination of
approaches, including reducing the potential for a spill, reducing the consequences of a spill,
or improving LNG transportation safety equipment, security, or operations to prevent or
mitigate a spill.
Explosions in confined spaces, either combustion events or events of rapid phase transition,
may have the potential for causing secondary damage that could lead to further spillage of
LNG.
Other proactive risk management approaches can help reduce both the potential for and
hazards of such events. These include:
i) improvements in ship and terminal safety/security systems including improved

surveillance, tank and insulation upgrades, tanker standoff protection systems;
ii) modifications and improvements in LNG tanker escorts, extension of vessel movement
control zones, and safety operations near ports and terminals;
iii) improved surveillance and searches of tugs, ship crews, and vessels;
iv) redundant or offshore mooring and offloading systems; and
v) improved emergency response systems to reduce fire and dispersion hazards and
improved emergency response coordination and communication.
Risk prevention and mitigation techniques are especially useful in zones where the potential
impact on public safety and property can be high. The hazards of brittle fracture, rapid phase
transitions, and explosions in confined ship spaces, as well as cascading events that may
result
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from the extreme fire exposure a ship would experience if a nominal 12,500 m3 spill on water
around the ship was ignited, will require careful consideration.
The majority of liquefied gases are clean, non-polluting, products and create no danger to the
marine environment. If however certain liquefied gases spill on to the sea you should be
aware that they may:
The Data Sheets will give information on pollution, if any Pollution is most likely to occur
during cargo or bunkering operations:
 if the operation is not correctly monitored

 if the cargo hose or loading arm connections are not properly made when
disconnecting cargo lines that have not been drained.
 if moorings are not checked and excessive strain is placed on the cargo connections or
the ship "breaks out" of the berth.
 if cargo equipment is not properly maintained
Any spillage of LNG on any steelwork, unless stainless steel or wood-sheathed, will cause
stresses and it is most likely serious brittle fractures will occur.
As soon as any leak or spill of LNG is exposed to ambient temperatures, the liquid will
vaporise or ‘boil-off’. This vaporisation will occur in two phases. Initially, for a period of from
20-30 seconds, there will normally be a high rate of boiling as the heat for vaporisation is
taken from the liquid spill itself and the immediate surrounding areas. Secondly, the cold
vaporised gas begins to insulate the liquid surface and the evaporation rate will level off at a
lower steady rate depending on how quickly heat can be transferred to the LNG from the
surrounding area. This vaporisation rate may be increased by:
 Continuing leakage, i.e. greater volume exposed to atmosphere.

 Wind.
 Application of water.
 Ignition, i.e. greater heat flow to the liquid.
 Agitation of the surface.
Thus, spraying an un-ignited spillage of LNG with water will speed up the vaporisation and
reduce the hazards of cold fractures, fire or ignition. Alternatively, spraying with water on to
LNG which has been ignited will increase the vaporisation rate and hence the burning rate.
The use of solid water jets on LNG spills may cause splashing, leading to cold fractures or
frost burns or, if ignited, may seriously aggravate the fire.
Immediately after vaporisation, natural gas is 1·4 times heavier than air. As the gas warms,
its density will decrease, becoming the same as air at approximately –120°C and reaching the
value of 0·55 at 15oC. There may, therefore, be a tendency for cold vapours to form a layer
around the spill in a similar manner to other hydrocarbon gases. Fortunately, this layering will
normally be visible due to the condensation of atmospheric moisture.
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However, unlike other hydrocarbon gases, natural gas quickly becomes buoyant and, except
in enclosed spaces, will rise and disperse rapidly as it warms. This dispersion is further aided
by the very rapid diffusion properties of methane in air. Where spills may have entered
enclosed spaces, it is important to recognise that gas pockets may become trapped near
deckhead structures, etc.
In the case of a leakage or spillage of LNG, the following general procedure should be
followed:
 Isolate source of LNG. If loading/discharging, the ESD system should be activated.

 Summon assistance.
 Protect the hull from risk of cold fracture.
 Speed vaporisation to minimise ignition risk.
The exact procedure will depend upon the nature of the incident, inclusive of size of spill,
location, ambient conditions and ignition risks.
Where LNG spills onto water, Rapid Phase Transition may occur causing loud bangs similar to
ones that may be heard during an explosion. However, there are no flames or explosion when
this occurs.
Preventive measures against spillage of low temperature cargo in gas carrier
Liquid spills have the potential to cause damage to the ship's structure and frostbite or
chemical burns to any person contacting the liquid or cold vapour. The liquid will evaporate to
form a flammable or toxic cloud.
The rate at which spilled liquid vapourises and forms a gas cloud depends mainly on the
properties of the liquid spilled, the air temperature, the nature of the surface it is spilled on
and the area that it spreads over. Initially the cloud will be cold and low lying and drift down
wind. It may be visible as a white cloud, which is condensed water vapour.
Care should be taken to prevent spillage of low temperature cargo because of the hazard to
personnel and the danger of brittle fracture. Remember that a flammable or toxic cloud may
not be visible. If spillage does occur, the source should first be isolated and the spilt liquid
then dispersed. If these is a danger of brittle fracture, a water hose may be used both to
vaporize the liquid and to keep the steel warm.
If the spillage is contained in a drip tray the contents should be covered or protected to
prevent accidental contact and allowed to evaporate. Liquefied gases quickly reach
equilibrium and visible boiling ceases; this quiescent liquid could be mistaken for water and
carelessness could be dangerous.
Suitable drip trays are arranged beneath manifold connections to control any spillage when
transferring cargo or draining lines and connections. Care should be taken to ensure that
unused manifold connections are isolated and that if blanks are to be fitted the flange surface
is clean and free from frost. Accidents have occurred because cargo escaped past incorrectly
fitted blanks.
Suitable drip trays are arranged beneath manifold connections to control any spillage when
transferring cargo or draining lines and connections. Care should be taken to ensure that
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unused manifold connections are isolated and that if blanks are to be fitted the flange surface
is clean and free from frost. Accidents have occurred because cargo escaped past incorrectly
fitted blanks.
Liquefied gas spilt onto the sea will generate large quantities of vapour by the heating effect
of the water. This vapour may create a fire or health hazard, or both. Great care should be
taken to avoid such spillage, especially when disconnecting cargo hoses.
16.3 Prevent brittle fractures
Most metals and alloys become stronger but less ductile at low temperatures (i.e. the tensile
and yield strengths increase but the material becomes brittle and the impact resistance
decreases) because the reduction in temperature changes the material’s crystal structure.
Normal shipbuilding steels rapidly lose their ductility and impact-strength below 0 degree. For
this reason, care should be taken to prevent cold cargo from coming into contact with such
steels, as the resultant rapid cooling would make the metal brittle and would cause stress due
to contraction. In this condition the metal would be liable to crack. The phenomenon occurs
suddenly and is called “brittle fracture”.
However, the ductility and impact resistance of materials such as aluminum, austenitic and
special alloy steels and nickel improve at low temperatures and these metals are used where
direct contact with cargoes at temperatures below -55 degree is involved.
Contact with LNG chilled to its temperatures of about –160 degree C will damage living
tissue. Most metals lose their ductility at these temperatures; LNG may cause the brittle
fracture of many materials. In case of LNG spillage on the ship’s deck, the high thermal
stresses generated can result in the fracture of the steel.
Avoidance of cold shock to metal
Structural steels can suffer brittle fracture at low temperatures. Such failures can be
catastrophic because, once the steel has become brittle, little energy is required to propagate
a fracture once it has been initiated.
Plain carbon structural steels have a ductile to brittle behaviour transition which occurs
generally in the range +30 degree C to –50 degree C. This precludes their uses as LNG
material (carriage temperature – 162 degree C).
The ductile to brittle transition is usually monitored by measuring the energy absorbed in
breaking a notched bar and the transition curve, as shown in illustration “Structural Steel
Ductile to Brittle Transition Curve”, is typical for plain carbon steels.
For this reason, materials which do not show such sharp transition from ductile to brittle
fractures as the temperature is lowered, have found obvious application for use in cryogenic
situations such as liquid Methane carriers. Examples are Invar (36% nickel-iron alloy),
austenitic stainless steel, 9% nickel steel and some aluminium alloys such as 5083 alloy.
All of these materials behave in a ductile manner at –162 degree C, so that the chance of an
unstable brittle fracture propagating, even if the materials were overloaded, is negligible.
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In order to avoid brittle fracture occurring, measures must be taken to ensure that LNG and
liquid Nitrogen do not come into contact with the steel structure of the vessel. In addition,
specialist equipment is provided to deal with any leakages, which may occur.
The manifold areas are equipped with a stainless steel drip tray, which collects any spillages
and drains it overboard. The ship, in way of the manifolds, is provided with a water curtain,
which is supplied by the deck fire main. The fire main must always be pressurized and the
manifold water curtain in operation when undertaking any cargo operations. Additionally, fire
hoses must be laid out to each liquid dome to deal with any small leakages, which may
develop, at valves and flanges. Permanent drip trays are fitted underneath the items most
likely to cause problems and portable drip trays are provided for any other needs.
During any type of cargo transfer, and particularly whilst loading and discharging, a constant
patrol must be conducted on deck to ensure that no leakages have developed. In the event of
a spillage or leakage, water spray should be directed at the spillage to disperse and
evaporate the liquid and to protect the steelwork. The leak must be stopped, suspending
cargo operations if necessary.
In the event of a major leak or spill, the cargo operations must be stopped immediately, the
general alarm sounded and the emergency deck water spray system put into operation.
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“Learning Together, Leading Together”

Institute is managed by Victory Charitable & Educational Trust

2. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF CARGO OPERATIONS……………………………………..13

3. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LIQUEFIED GASES

4. KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF TANKER SAFETY CULTURE AND

5. FIRE OR EXPLOSION ON A BERTH……………………………………………………..62

6. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF HAZARD CONTROL...............................................81

7. UNDERSTANDING OF INFORMATION ON A SAFETY DATA SHEET (SDS)

8. FUNCTION AND PROPER USE OF GAS-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND

SIMILAR EQUIPMENT ………………............................................................94

9. PROPER USE OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES

10. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES

IN ACCORDANCE WITH LEGISLATION AND INDUSTRY GUIDELINES AND

PERSONAL SHIPBOARD SAFETY RELEVANT TO LIQUEFIED GAS TANKERS

11. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF FIRST AID WITH REFERENCE TO A MATERIAL

SAFETY DATA SHEET (MSDS)………………................................................109

12. FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE FIGHTING OPERATIONS…………………………..112

13. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF EMERGENCY PROCEDURES INCLUDING

14. . BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF THE EFFECTS OF POLLUTION ON HUMAN AND

15. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF SHIPBOARD PROCEDURES TO PREVENT

16. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF MEASURES TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF

SPILLAGE: POTENTIAL HAZARDS OF A LARGE LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS

SPILL DURING MARINE TRANSPORTATION ……………………………………..132

1. BASIC KNOWLEDGE OF LIQUEFIED GAS TANKERS

1.1 Types of liquefied gas tankers

Fully pressurised tankers

Fully refrigerated tankers

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers

1.2 General arrangement and Construction:

 A primary barrier (the cargo tank);

 lndependent Type 'A' (fully ref.)

Individual legislations may use differing definitions for tank types

Type 'A' tanks

Type ' B ' tanks

Type 'C' tanks (fully pressurised)

Membrane Tanks (Membrane - 0.7 to 1.5 mm thick)

GTT 96 Membrane system

Materials of Construction and Insulation Construction Materials

Treatment of structural carbon steels can be used to achieve low-temperature characteristics

 To minimise heat flow into cargo tanks, thus reducing boil-off.

 Low thermal conductivity.

2. Basic knowledge of cargo operations

2.1 Piping systems and valves

LNG vessel cargo piping systems comprise of the following:

 Sent ashore during cargo loading by means of the HD compressors in order to

Fuel gas line

Inerting / Aeration line

Emergency Shut-down (ESD) Systems

A vital consideration, particularly during loading, is the possibility of surge pressure

Relief Valves for Cargo Tanks and Pipelines

Running pumps in parallel and in series

Submerged motor pumps

Ice prevention at cargo pumps

2.2 Cargo handling equipment:

1. Inert Gas and Dry Air Generator

Inert gas, dry air & Nitrogen generator

Inert gas generator:

The following precautions should be observed:-

 The pressurisation of the barrier insulation spaces.

The following precautions should be observed:-

1. The whole system should be visually checked before starting up.

Nitrogen from shore

Inert Gas Systems