‘Rdustion and Ctr in the Poca Though of Arsoue {hom a forward reference in Chapter 3. Arto had there prom- ined (1338850-37) to return Inter on to the question ofthe ‘number and nature of the "liberal ats” which should form part ofthe edeation ofthe bet regime; this promise is un Filled in the Pie a4 we have i. The context ofthat earlier dlicussion had appeared to suggest that Arise might ave been thinking of "iberal arts" other than mune, and a par ala of scientific or philosophical cole. [thats indeed the cae, iis a pausblehypotheis that the argument ofthe maiar- {ng chapters of Bock VII developed along the lines suggested Dy Aritole’s preliminary dacusion af edsation ia Book VI. 1 the estan portion of Book VIIT teats primarily of music in the narrow sense and of education to wit, the mstng por: ion may have contained an account bod of te education in practical reagon"” by way of poetry (or music in the wider ene) and ofthe education in theoretical reason” by way of selene or pilosopy, ‘More portant than the question of where Aristote discussed cathamia, of coure, i the question of whetber be indeed ‘iscused i, could have dicussed i inthe terme Thave ug ged. What role can Arnotle have expected tag catharsis, ‘or poetry generally, 0 playin civic or politcal education? 4 Poetry and Education A. Paty and Easton “The muggaton tha tragedy and comedy were intended to pro- vide a moral or plital cation tthe ctsenr ofthe best {rgime i exposed tothe objetion that Aristle cansot have ‘een wo authoritarian or Platonisng a o believe that mature ‘en are seiouly in eed ofan eduction ofthis Kind, nor 20 liane a to require dhe highest formas of lasical ato serve any purpoe other than dat of aesthetic or cultured” enjoy- tment, This ebjection or rather these clos elated objection, Seema more accurtereflction of the preoctupations of Aritt. Jo's modern interpreters than of anything Avistole himself ‘says ori likly to have tai, Tt hasbeen the fashion fr some time to nile atthe Backwardness of an age which saw in twagody asi in interpreted by Aristo what Jacob Bernays fone called a "'oral eformatory.”" But not cven the age of bistoreal scholarship can boar «freedom from typical pre) tadces, and there in reaon to wonder whether the view of Lesing ie not afterall truer than the view of Beeays. In Book VII ofthe Poli, Aristotle explcy denies that the end of ddd te ear itn ne rh kinda merry, now wines he ‘le fe ule” (ps 3) Ck Alin Ley, Gree Trey New Vek, seesuation and Coren the Pliie Though of Arise music or poet is enjoyment, whether the simple enjoyment ftsodaed with “relation” orth cultured enjoyment auncted ‘wih “play.” In Book VI, be indetes srmistalably tha ‘scan’ in the bet rie wl not be Tinted ote educa ‘ion ofthe young, and Book VII contains what Ihave ied o show are allusion tothe "mote education’ of mature cidzes. ‘Bat even granting that traces ofa doctrine af ths sort may be igcovered in Books VIL and VII, init not alo tr that Books ‘VIL and VIII of the Pttceare’demonstrably “easly?” Do Pais VU and VIL not ix fact present the specacie of = Platoniing dectrne in vats ena? Tit not hazardous to vse Flies VIT and VII asa guide tthe thought of tse mature ‘Avni? In i ne particulary hazardous to use the informa: tion provided by the Poli ata guide tothe interpretation of ‘wage catharsis Inthe Pets? “Although the quetions treated inthe lat two books ofthe ‘elie are not explicy discussed by Aristotle i thor works ‘which are generally agreed tobe "Int (or indeed in any oer ‘Work now extant) the evidence of those writings would see Confirm rather than to contradict the argument of the Pls Te an earlier chapter, rome attempt was made to indicate the ‘compatibility of the teachings of the Pali and the Patera Tega the question of the nature or purpowe of “mute.” ‘While Aristotle doesnot pronounce expel on this question {nthe Pr a we have thee ean be ile doubt that sor ing tothe teaching ofthe Paster the mennare of excllence in poetry, o at any rte in tage (a wel sep) poey, is neiher is beauty nor the pleasure provides but rather its eapsity (0 ‘move th pansion ort affect "the character and the sou" "As regards the question of education, there is @ certain laity toda view that Arie secoghized toa greter ex feat thaa Plato what one may call the moral autonomy of the ‘mature indvidval, and that he would have regarded any at et Al Spm oy oa ie of ar act tempt to legilate or inculcate moralty—ecepting, pre sumably, she necessary edveation of the young--atdetructive of moray ielE* Atte same tine, however, there is a pa ‘age in Book X of the Nicmachon ib which suggests what ‘would seem to be quite a diferent view 2. Eaton oud Law inthe Nicomachean Ethics Inthe ial chapter of Book X ofthe Fis, Avstoe concludes Is aecount ofthe goad Me by asking the quextion “how men Desome good." As appears from Book VII of the Pale (1382488°D11, the question “how men become good" it very ‘early synonymous with the question of “education.” Arsole fnswers that queition as he answers it in the Politi men ‘become good by nature, by habit, and by “eaching” (dace) ‘or “reasoned speech” (bg). He then proceeds argue that eayoued speech i not suliient for converting men 0a life of “nobility and goodaese” or “genemanship” (Llalapti); that itis necessary to acquire in youth an education in “habie™ ‘hat will apa te oa to enjoy or delight ar well at hae ia noble manner and thus render the character 'sorachow akin ‘virese" (olin ae); and that the traning and practices ‘of the young mast be supported by watable Ia. "Buti it perhaps noc enough,” he continues ‘hat hy receive core training and supervision when they ae Youngs bat an they smut pacts sod'te abated fee ‘hing wns they te mare, we would mend aw for ht o, “pet pte tanto gurearaeis "tant Ae pets uae cr otras ma or ey SSLec he eens ary bs een ated by Sk Arietta, gp. 1647; uc RA. sha yah Cas aa ae oy cee aaa 39‘education and Calture i he Pata Thought of Aol reagan mehr tess eerie minha meme nacma Sineacoe mercoee Sic aoe Shas Societe ee coat Se Set eoee Soimeoae cena Siete vtyinsaraaite {eed an tablamtdy nd the ive ede ee ee Spacey erates eee fice eee nas Soe eres Sh hecmes suesecetie Eon nmi roo rt cena cee aero Seo ng a oe oad Sat shee Shoot ee ieee (iin eager Sie oan eens eeenines eee errenireancd costae ma in br wey Noah rtanetn ce deuce Rs gla naw eh soleil tht iets enh nh pero ‘atten ht Poetry and Eduction treme statements regarding the proper treatment of non ‘enemen, bis own view" “Aristo had indeated when speaking in hin own name that the early education in abit san elucation not x0 much “in ‘istue a4 “witht viw fo” vie, An early education inhabit terves to render the character “somehow akin to vrei ix ‘ot a complete or inal edueaton in virtue, ‘The complete tcdueation in virtue fs at eduction in “reason” as wel a “habit” Education ara whole requires the cooperation, not © say the mort perfect agreement or the most perfect harmony, ‘between an early education in habit anda later education in reaton.? Ora Aristotle alo psi, vrtuein the fl sense ea ot be attained without right reason,” "prudence," oF prac: "eal windor (pon) Th the paomge we have been considering, Atitote le con ‘corned to eatablsh the necensity ofl rater than the necessity ‘of education Sil iis any to ce that law by il cannot pro ‘ide the education in vet tat Arno appear to require ‘The law of the legislator can exhort” to vite; how per: sunsve will sich an exhortation be? To what eaten i the "speech" represented by lav indeed “remsaned speech,” anc to what extent merely peremptory command?" (iis eve that san ilar lit het Ae Sin tote renee eo ‘repr, tom te tioning Puts Pee) at shoe ELF tad harmed 3, Wet ait Serene aha tt mati ae Stet ag a alten pier ‘Serdar and fly ao cement whe ‘at ain 7-0 ated oe Alas pap) ee ‘rc hey aon (28 ste oe cred eee ng nar 6S nt 3 Game Rist wih Pao Laws 6 and 8ation and Caltre n the Flic Thought of Arde is necesary bared on “a certain prudence and in- felgence,” iit not leo trae that the pradence ov nteligence ‘bodied inlaw is necesarly parca and Hite? There ii ‘led s sents in which meralcycanaoe be legiated: whereas ‘moral scion, and ia pardeular pradent acon, is concerned ‘vith particulary, Iw i neceeaily general. In fc what it ‘mon characteristic af the "decent man" (hospi) sprecisely is ablityto core the law, or jase as defined by In, ia he Tight of parciclar ireamecances which the law i unable © foresee, “Desoney” propery speaking tha is a4y, “equi 19 pi) ia higher tha Tw 3. Moral Weskast 1k would be wrong to dtnguish in 10 abwolute a fashion be> ‘ween an early edaton by way of “habit” anda ter edues- tion by way of restos,” between an early education to virtue anda later education to practical reason o pradenc. Is clear hom the nceount ofthe Fis that there aa sense in which the later education in "renton’” ino lene an education by way of habitation” than ithe education ofthe young. And itis lio lear that there i continuity between the aims or objects of the easier and thve ofthe later education, The trining ofthe young has asi object the ncaleation of moral virtwe; but "mature men mux ano be trained and habituated” tothe practice of moral vite." The aim ofboth edvetions the aim tesucation asa whole, is moral viet, Prudence or practical ‘wisdom ie far from being independent of moral vite that it iin the service of moral virtue. An education In prudence ‘would necessarily involve a continuous suengthening of moral habits az well a4 the development or deepening of moral svarence: itis the aa of the early education to render the ‘Gharacer “somehow akin to wirtey” tithe ark ofthe dcx tion in prudence to translate a sete drporiin to virwe ito Principled and ineligent moral action. Poctry and Baveton Sl, there would seem © be important difernces be twee i ction dnc oe ration ofthe bie virtue in the young and am education designed to preserve nd suongthen moral character and to chore oral be favor in mature men The eet of ieteigence, de paca! Inowlege nesesay to trans moral dispositions into moral ston, is warely peal to theater edenton, since toa teat extent dependent on expaiece, Balch of knowledge or Tee ofexperienc sot the only aba in he vay cf been ing tly virtuous oan As nly eeation in vrou abs canbe expected to calminate the frmation of what Arne eal “orl cheiee” (raat), a acted pon to coe fro prefer vete andthe ction that accord wit ue, Bat theft of pouessng a correct moral hoe dacs ot naily fuerte that a man's atone wil alvaya be guided by ‘There ae men who are In certain cace and even hebitally prevented from acing in accordance wih their moral cee by {he force oftheir pain, ‘Tit the phenomenon, whieh ‘isto eal “incontinent "moral weaken ares) ‘Acording tothe teaching ofthe Bis, « morally wenk man cannot be filly prudent or moraly “serious!” (pads), though he may wel poen hight developed practi teigenc inthe form of “levers, quay wc aly mistaken for pence “That Arisodedintingushes plc between “characte andthe “charter fhe sol”—betwec ra charater pop fly speaking andthe complex of virus tnd pasion which Constues charscer in a general ynee—was sued ata ‘lier point. Ta what may be rection of Perpectc de lene, Aristide Quintlianse sprays eplcily = pl "therapy" or “care” by way ofa fr eineas aid by an exces of "fanlon," ad coniers musical therapy of his ‘os form of "charac education” (hi pada). Aes i ions ES 6 60.,9 (0.2829 Wing‘uducation and oltre the Poi Though of Arete ing to Arnot, the suceptilty o excesive passion which tmanifenteiaelf i “moral weakness" i indeed curable,” at Teast where ithe result of baie rather than of narre.* Iie twill be granted dant not even the sctest of easly educations ‘an be expected f0 eradicate all exeptility fo excessive puttion te surely plane to anime that te higher educa fon of Ariatoe's best epime i Intended in the fist place 10 unter orto foretal the development ofthe “habit” of moral weakness by providing a kindof therapy forthe passions and fence forthe character ofthe soul" To the extent o which a toceptblty to excessive pasion in incompatible with pro- ‘dence stricly speaking, there temo differ in understanding» therapy ofthis wort eth necessary accompaniment ofan edu ‘ation in “practical reason. "A musical therapy ofthe passions appear to have been pra tied bythe Fythagoreans ava preparation for or accompa tment toanedation in plosophy, The Pydhagorean term for this kindof therapy was lath, Im pie of he differences be- ‘een catharis nr ndernlood by che Pythagorean and eat teas understood by Aritode, the precedent i an important fone. If Artes notion of eathari derives from scenic Inedicine or fom religious ital fa certain Kind, the fact that ‘Asintole can extend the application of exthare therapy i the ‘ray he doe, fom the diene orth abnormal the health Thom pathological conditions tothe passions of erdinary human ‘beings, would seem to argue the infivence of Pythagorean ‘And the Pythagoreans cetsnly supply the only precedent fora catharsis effected by povry zather than by music alone, if feliance can be placed on the repore that they employed felected poasages frm Homer and Hesiod with a view tthe Comection ofthe soul Aries notin of tage catharsis ‘would rem to owe more than alittle tothe Pythagorean notion 19 tl ag Deso Ba wecs eares sen (gan) ol eel ean 6 Compe Are Co ‘iat Gre, TH Go. 1029 Waning ape Poetry and Bdoetion ‘of a musial-poetic education ofthe passions, While Arsole ‘Surely goes beyond the Pythagoreant-—in the frst instance, by ‘placing what wat esentialy a private and philosophic educa tion with ove that i pubic end praccal—be shares with the Dythagorenns the nodon of catharsis which univer ints pplication or which provider corecton,”” moral improve ment or education rather than a eure or therapy propesy ‘peaking. 4 Cathars and Spirits ‘The preie manner in which teagic catharsis mast be ‘undertood to operat ie abject for speculations that would fake us to far afield. [have attempted t show that tragic ‘catharsis a Aristotle understand it most probably involves ‘aril rater than a total pargation ofthe passione of pty and fear. Aritote did not ego the pasons ae smple “eases” ‘oras evi in every respect. He contdered them w natural and ‘ecemary element in the human soul and potential support for virtue; and there is reason to belive that he rege pity and fear ae parulary salutary in thi respect. Equally impor- fant, however, and forthe mow pat neglected by recent inte peters, i the question whether the eflect of tag eatharsis fs Timited to the passions of pty aad fear, Arstode defines tragedy in the Pics at “electing through pity and fear the ‘athasis of passions ofthis or [tn ira tinal kth Sin] Tn Book VII of the Pali, he speaks of a catharsis which afects not only “the ptyng and the fearful” ut he generally pasionate [our Alls thant, 8 well others in Solar as cach shares in things of «hit aor [ln fue) (1382a12-14). Despite mach orang ofthe phrase Ge lot ‘pethoati,® these panage taken together scongly suggest thet 20, ternay ba ape at we eg Zn ang, 263) hat Eloy aneber of cans de coucey ew ranted, ie ‘ech by ft eae, “Amopri ea Ae Homann Gately’ Lice, aod Les Mae Poel eT elung Home G85), 225 159‘deaton and Culture in he Pie Though of Arista hile tragic catharsis indeed operates chrough pty and fea, ts ‘ect extends to oter passions a well That i extds all {he passions appear tobe role out by the neces of assign Ing some meaning tothe qualifying onan onthe ther band, the fact that Arsotle spel inthe Poller of “he generally ‘passionate makes i ulikely that he as in sind only thse pastons immediately connected with pity or fesr—forexat ple, the “pilanthopie™” pasion allied to i dhe Pot “There, perhaps, another alternative, By “pasion of his sort" Arivtle could uean that clase of pamions which is Serocited with the experience of “pain” rather than of pleasure of desire, pasons which have dele lcus in what lato had Sdentied a the “pirited” (pail) poet of the soul In Plato's Republi, “wpirtedness" (ima!) appears 21. That arenas all hpi wa te vio Cael oe onanrel p35, 67-0 tne poionch ep wlan sitar whe tly Bees at SES acs by Soc sean © eco ee A ncn among “pin "phe : pans sen Upsala frat 0 i Ta: Akay webride tg comet i Pinceic dctioe of the sul by Arwen sini, TLS (8,0-21) ‘antago lpn (6 Sony. 1-19) An prin bar eee er cman Steen clan dn re- te ees eh ‘tet Cee Bde Tips fede Ba Born, 1861, Ser ch kp. 7. OF pees ner oe he net oe oF ato eager, ie anny "(oe SORE toon mete nk 160 Posey and Bocton together with deste and reson as one ofthe part ofthe x, fd as the principle of sol ofthe wari lst of Pts best tegime. Though tpmeslequenty carries the simple meaning ‘of ange,” i encomparer 4 range of passions beating on ‘men's social and potea relaionshipe--moral indignation, {endahip, the desire for honor and superiority nthe Platonic presentation, spstednest appears to play & generally salutary vole in plies! Me. In war, the soles? ‘pirted pursuit of victory makes them good Hgters, while ix peteetime the rewards of honor make them inventive to the plesurer which dominate the lives of most men. At ll ines, ‘ppears, the solders wil be dapesed to alow the counsele of prudent of rearonable rulers, just as spirtednese in the soul cu at a powerful ally of ruling reson in controling the Gesres. At the same tine, however, Plato also indicates that ‘pirteness i ot init reasonable, or that poses definite dangers for politics when emancipated from the gukance of eon or the rule of laa of philosophic guardians. In the ‘Laws, he speaks with some ‘emphasis of the dangers of spirtednens. Ax the Athenian Stranger thee aay! "Therein the soul either a certain pasion ora certain pet, pitednce, ‘an innate possesion that is hard w contend with and hard f0 igh, andi overtorns many thing with unseasoning fore.” Spiriedness, be coninses, one. form of “ignorance” (cenit, indeed, a particulaty dangerous form, for ignorance combined with rength and might” isthe cause of "reat Sd wamucical wrongs” (meal at amouss hamertnte)* ‘Avisotle's most extended statement on the subject of spiritedness occur in his dacution ofthe natural endowanent required of the citizens ofthe best regime in Book VIC of the Pals. Ta the Repu, Pato bad indiated thatthe sited warriors would have to be at once barsh toward the ciy’s {nemies and gentle toward their ends or fellow ctzes. [nan ‘obvious allusion to this Platone disutson, Aro remarla: 2. Gomis ey Re ad S-, 161‘veaton and Catt nthe Poi Thought f Arse or wat ome sy ought be present in the guaran isto be ‘icy to thone Eno othe tnd erage toward hse who te not Lnown, ait spteden at produce ends [pat fori ete powe of the sal by which we ae dy Ag of ti mtn wp ep ae {Sllnown wen theless has best Terfre A ‘Sulochus wpe fing to is sped aco at ‘Bendre you were wounded by face” And what Flog an re preset in ll rom this ume power, Sor ‘pits is dep atv [ore] end unitate Bat ove ‘hye aor fo mala that Shey sou be brah toward ose ‘tho are unknown, fr ope opt nat to be thi way toward ‘Suirnine,unee ovard tne wie ct saad {hi hey wl eel el toward hei falar, a wea bee, hey Dee they have been done a njustie”And it ‘Srennuble hat hs should bape for mong une they sup pone to be in the debe for some bene dln othe I $y they bl hey have ben Spee of het ho tad "an are te ate rte,” and who lover inten wil teat much.” 132769286) 2y apes deny ta ist nen nae sith endship or what one ny cal group soldi, Arad teem go even rhe than Paton rephcing pda a2 2 plicly salutary quay of oan the lot aay, Towers, Aind’s trace appa witedoee are tot ftndamcntaly deren fom toes of Pato. Te eee of {piedoem reacted nie vry characters asc pation, tha wot even “magnamecs mea" accordng to Art's cthcal teaching, thon wh mom pore eaedy the morality ‘t genlemanehp-re exempt fo tem. In pte of th ack that the eagatsiocs tte in preted by Ana tomewbot conempocs ef at nar which acts at the ‘Primary spor of gealemany via, he i a cma, Sever body fee ofan inner dopendence vate honor oF ostry aed Edseton deference of fiends and fellow czens, Indeed, precely Tene of De centrality of Bonor in hia way of He, the feman would srm fo be pray nace tothe ex rts of spirtedacan, Tis trv hat apiednes in ome of ts Itanfegatons for example, hes indigason=ia 4 no ‘ie panion anda mark of godnes of character Ate sume the tower eect feat in An, rand ted in domes ie can end cic se 0 ‘Remus ac and te geteman's dere for honor and Sinincion is ealy a sep removed fom the dese (0 dmonsrace one’s sopesonty by aa of gation arrogance or hybridize ich I ranaormed in mat exteme ‘ema alonging for tyrenieal power. Tels not hear whether ‘Nios fly shares t's view that sven the bet bred encrca mureure in thle woul eet dese 1 betome {Seana But he does ia thaeapirtednes in genera eof Sicha charcer att sperert fle and he best mee" More gency, scoring to Arse: Spstednes ia par Sion Ut Beda a ponon, unelenting i bl, fam end islet in is power, a cane of murders, aly of tnisbram, companion of injury, iwighor of diakonor nd sree of ebwancey ne aly of detson "Because mo Thera ication of oitedner har survived among Arto Ie wntings, and beense Arie appear to duced the Cipeite rycology of at's Repu ise tenon hes teen ven fo the ponnbity tat the phenomenon of ‘pirtednss figures portandy in his poll hough, and ates eet SS romance teks sae ee rane epee ae Pei i eatin aed Cure oth Plea Thought of Arxcoe stein elections on poetry >For Ait for Pat, cvs te phesomenen oda apper tbe af fa ‘ent aforance fr underdog of ature of harman ‘SESiy and hereby heii teste of pica im farclr and hte poesomenon of ited it ny piemate Spinednce inoperable for he best eta tisan incapable plea ie such; bt ‘Shona the tame tie 4 grave danger, it comeny TES uke predominance in gic of pradece ar eson "faa" Atwote's deci of role caterer soul be verona the ight othe problem of pirtedoes sory wiSthietuggeatons ‘The passont spied with rtednew™ ar, pis indignation ngs, esa, love of ‘Ete cnon heat eg ey id Sete age ould scm nintely conned with he a Shear sure of these punon. Ii i qramtedtht [CSkotctan cathans in moe pony dented spain ‘ant as pugaion or evocatn, mas excellent ene {Seon xr wi eg fain which ner ‘Sopp slr nr spl hl or men ad eke, On {hiv ungrtandng ctr would sere puri the ced sence dngerenn cnn Car rope wld iabsore then pr enacted penemen in patel wee pene" TORE tnd om be ny tthe ethan of etn) np ‘Sma wt i te {Cleland Yrwgecencane eprdoey opt ‘Rata repre ng ago bye ey of Se ee spas cet ed ‘tae (rts dan ses at aac i ni bin) ii.SSiotma ie tinsel oye ton eo ening Te ree Rs ancy, Torsete ot Cer 164 5. Tragic Bor ‘Tew e asked whether the imerpretation of exharss outlined Ire finds any sport in the account of tragedy in Avstol's Pie. Ax a ponte Out ever, ii not dear wheter the ‘Poaiz in ia. orginal form contained an elaboration of ‘Adinode's understanding of catharsis; asthe text currently itande, the only explit reference to catharris cary in the ‘lebrated sentence of Chapter 6. This state of aller has led some scholars to the view thatthe single reference to catharsis Ina Inorganic addition tothe tat ofthe Pir ae orginally conceived by Arte On the other hand, Aristotle does ‘speak repeatedly of pity and fea, and his prescriptions for the onatruction of tragle plots depend directly on hia view ofthe {importance of tone passions for realizing geauine way o feat Accordingly, It ems legate to asoune tht Aistoe's ee eee poe “Atlin Sete reste eae anes sober Se midge eines olor d Ragrepin netted Feces Sonik agege ctor ece TeSanced sacs ween eps mann eePa Peeerrare te ae ae cree SEU Sree prio werte ables Ow pire hice Gee reer cee ree ee eae us cae Gnesi my analyte ib corte, the “Sune” snode' af Olympiodorue cant Syecoeeaste tamale acieaae Sabet Shree DELETES Sa Stalls rec Pheceatneneas aie aie pice appeared mrt ieaGeaneueamn a Leeaiele be a * " RT hp 6 168‘Education and Culture i he Pola Thoogt of Ai technical prescriptions for composing tragedies cflct it lunderwanding of cathards, At the very least, it sem legitimate to work on the assumption dat thee it Hak be ‘een etharnis and the fendamenaldscusion in Chapter 19 ofthe requirements ofthe tragic hero, and in particular ofthe ‘notion of tragic extor or the tragic fw (meri). “According to the arment of Put 13, the best or net form of wagedy is one showing the fll of man who enter ‘imply good in moral sete nor sznply ev, but vornehow be tween thee tw This fn man, Aral eye, “ofthe sort ho does nt excl i vet and juice and yet who ser ian. tone ‘ot through vice alis] and wickedness but rather {rough some eror [amare tna] one of hote who en (reat repute and good fortune, ich at Oedipur or Thyeter {and noteworthy men from fale of tian.” The best tragic pl, then, will exhibit a change “not fom misfortune to good Fortine but the opposite, fom good fortune ro misfortune, not through wickedness but through grest error [d" hamari ‘gels, cher such a man as was mentioned or one rather be ter than worse.” What Kind of character isthe tragic hero ruppowed to have, and what isthe nature ofthe “croc” to ‘which he appear prone? These quewtions have bee much A cna aegis cet 5 ee Soe ert Wea comererr ed aa mr eatin cian ete areas Breach sca ac‘deation and Culture in the Police Though of Azisoe tary which Aristotle i concerned above all to correct. Hence his restriction of the term Aamerfna 0 acs of culpable feqligenc alone, and hs extension ofthe term adios ats commited thoogh pasion. If Arne does not exphasire the fact thatthe performance of wxjust ects through pation rather thar from moral choice involves a mitigation af culpability, be des so primarily for practical or ehotorieal reasons “S pesege in Book VI confirms and extends this interpreta- tion the coure ofthe dieuasion thereof “moral weaknes”” (ele), Acad coat that moral weakness ix blamed not (aly a ever [femoris] but leo as 2 Kind of vie [alist ‘ther simply o in part” Ve be makes clear at the sume time tue only of moral weakness with respect to certain pestons, For while "deuige” resembles "mora choice” to a anger” (ym) seems east of alin accor- hoje" Or as Ariat argues he com> text jum considered: “what comes about fom anger is finely juiged no abe fom forethought, ria not the one acing tanger wh inintes the action but the one who angers” accor ‘dingy, moral weakness with expect to honor, "ange," or the ‘sted passions generally ir not regarded as vicious oF blameworty simply. Arstode's defense ofthe nobility of anger fr aprtednes(dbma) in Book VII i indeed striking to hen aad thn lito ere [loro ‘as or imagination cats te outrage or igh were ‘lglg tat ough (fig gun och mun I age agen. Bo dene, reno operon oly 5) it Scat as attatched Se SELES easter se Sct nears ile eer es Bee sip esc n ecient Poxry and Bdueaton plas suger toward esloyment so that apictedness Src follow renton sod dere doer tot Tt thre Ibs for the’ ope who i morally weak with respect {pitcdnes fe puto weeded by ramon, Dat fhe oer By ‘Eicand not by room, Aga, forgiveness flows rather te Sure impale, but siete sod rage are more stra than Be dees or extn and for enesary Bags ‘An interpretation of wagieAamart inthe ight of Aritode's notion of moral weakness with rexpet to anger and the spirited passions generally makes exelent sense a3 an explanation of the appacent diaproportion benween the moral imperfection of the rai hero ad the terioumes of tragic errr. ‘The excesses ‘of the aptted pains are granted forgiveness by most men both brnute they celle natal op neceeary burn implies, tnd also because those impuluer are in ery lage measure tseful and admirable from 4 socal or pola! point of view. ‘Yer the errors caused by he spsted pasion are, as Plato bad ptt, igeat and uowical.” Tet necearary thik only of the hero who served az the model of Greek aristocratic ‘bchavior. The same qualita which made Achilles an excellent ‘warrorconeited this defiance of duly conatted ator 1, with all devastating consequences for dhe Greek hast before Troy" fall of Aratol'stragle hero would be ore loved, then, by a "great eror” which in at once wholly ‘Eaproportionste to the bere's moral imperfection and. eceaary expression of: tragic err isnot slmply a mistake bffact or a mitchance, but «moral fre which ues nel: tably from the characer ofthe hero, ‘Whether or to what etext soch an understanding of agi er rr acords with Grek tragic practice is nota question dhs can “Timp 7 Wnmerin anette dre. eC "iC in ncn 8 eh SA ae mdean and Caltare in the Paltz Thought of Arise bbe purmed here, Buti ie necessary st last to conser the ostblty that Aristo’ theory is conscioualy intended 1 com [ect what Aristotle regarded wr fundamental deficiency fm the moral lok characteristic of Greck tragedy altogether. If ‘ontersporary legal thought had filed #0 assign & proper ‘gree of culpability to crimes of passion, the ste may also be ‘ail of the thought of the tragic pots. For che ragedians (end ‘ukimately for Homer, whom the ragedians flow in hi as ‘other respects), rexponsbility for crimes of pasion tends to be ‘hited wholly or impart to the gode, or 0-4 mental Bindoess (a) traceable tothe intervention ofthe gods Te at leas pluie hypothesis that Arno objected to the intervention i the gods in tragedy to the same extent and for the same eavons that Plato ad objected ot in bis ertque a tragedy in the Republi, Indeed, it could be aryued that what separates Soplorles’ Oui ftm Aristo’ version of the best tragedy is preci the element of divin intervention: the downfall of Cdipus occur wo trough moral eor as much ae through divinely manipulated chance. Arstode's own theory, by eon true, would appear to require tht the ero's downfall follow ‘unambiguously fom hie moral eror or tat che hero be held Tunambiguously responsible for yielding tothe parion mick ‘ccasons the tragic dood. ‘Thiet by no meats to say that ‘Asso holds any simple theny of pote justice. The sufer- preteen eit ae lease tran eae Tete pa reer ce ah ents eens aa Bm eormcncsomt t SP Ee emer tencie cot eer ieee core emmy bch igee eehrant cane Becontree ‘Eotiernnive om ely pete ales auatie="i ought be ou Sieersee dees rete ceteran ea ei ana ei ante uc warm mm Posty and Education {ng ofthe hero may be deerved ithe sense that ts propos tionate to the sertuanens of the exime ielf, it will not be ‘Sacrved in the sense thei ie proportionate to hia moral ‘ulpailiy, Indeed, t would seem tobe this disparity between Dumiahment and deere which mot early defines tragedy for ‘Risto as fr the tragic poet themselves. Tn tempting to underuand the mechanlam of eatharss o¢ the reanner in which it is elected by dhe age plot, one would Ineve to begin, Think, wih the question of the relation of ‘punishment to desert in he tage hero and inthe expectations ‘tthe audience. If my argument x correct, catharsis wl be in timately rented to the audience's reaction to hero whose fucepthiliy to sprted passion leads him into error and Pmishment, and it ultimate effect will be to fortify the au Sience against x similar sucepeilty. Tis probably eae to ‘sume that not ll ofthe citens of Arntotle's best regime or trem of ordinary societies will be morally weak inthe echnical ‘cote: taoral weaknes ar such ser tobe the exception rather {han ehe rule” But all can be expected to share a certain acepity to pasion, and in paricular to the pasions tocited with spitednei, Particularly for gentlemen who te dispored ko be siecle to the spirited passions and to Condoms and oven to adie auch woceptbiliy in others, tragedy provides, sit acem, a autary demonstration oftheir ‘dangerous excess Its thia demonstration o its peyhological Tefletion which constitutes the central lason of tragedy at ‘Arnie appears to understand i "The foregoing remarks ae intended to be suggestive rather than definitive, nod to mark outa fne of ature investigation. Bat T hope they aufice wo show tht dhe Poe eannet simply be aswel to contradict the interpretation of Aristo’ view of. {he poicalsigaicance of ragedy presented here. Its hardy ‘pocemary to point out thatthe Pater Ive is @ notorcusly ‘hive work. I proges ito be made in interpreting the arg Sent ofthe Pt, the ration between Avista’ ery and 13Ce in the Poa! Thought of Arnote politcal theory will ave t be given greater attention, I think, than as bees customary fa the recent pst. 6 Comedy {ein uualy assumed without argument that Aristo regarded tragedy aa the highet form of poetry. One is compelled 10 tronder whether this asomption is really sound, If indeed True that tragedy ab tragedy ix inereapabiy Ged to the ex perience of pusihment or rlfering,© and ifthe punishment or Taffering vised on the beroce of tragedy is necessarily di proportionate to thei offen, would seam thatthe morality GF tragedy altogether mort remain fundamentally imper fect, Moreover, if iis rue that in raged altogether “Tarn Te Moree hearing," there would appear t Be & tension or contradiction betwen the tragic view ofthe elation ‘Bemeen knowledge or windom and happiness and what one may cal the phleophic view. tragedy, even at its best there is fatal dijunetion between learning, knowledge, oF ‘ninom on the one hand and happinesr on te othe: the hap: ‘ine of the noble heroes of tragedy depends on a fundamental ‘ctusion which f exposed only at the price of nary, Te son the basis of mich a view of human ie, would seem, that “the [poets argue tha the divine i envious of or nical to bursa eppinene* Arstole docs not take eriousy this argument. or Arist afr Plato, the very possibilty ofthe philosophic fie—of a life combining learning or knowledge with bap ‘plneae—showe that the tag ew f the hurnan station iin [sdequate The obvious candidate ax an alternative co tragedy in com ce. Arntole mys lite about comedy ether in the Pic sce ewan huge of Par and ht fh ‘ey long, wre Ao cena te bat a oe Goa Set ie “glee agi Bron” 04 (199). 49-9; Sonia Posy and Education the Poti, But there is at last one ruggetive link between Avstole's doctrines concerning tragedy and his statements on Comedy: comedy too imitative of human “error” ax ditnet {fom hutian vit. 2* What are the errors” represented incom dy? Te is tempting to ruppore that Hf tragedy fr Aviat is oncemed with the sisted pusions and thelr excesses, com> ‘ey for hi i concerned with the erotic passions and their ex- enter, To dos, however, woul bet daregard the fact that, ‘ecording to Arstoe himself comedy originated inthe lame ont (page!—iteraly, "blame" of fambic posts, and that uch of Greck comedy prior to Aritode had concerned iu with polite! rather than erotic subject. Tt seems ely that [Asuoule considered comedy at least ax much a poetry af ‘irtednese ae tragedy. ‘When Plato reproacies comedy for retaining toomuch ofthe clement of accusation or blame, he probably means the reader {o think above all of the attack om Socrater in Ariatophanes' ‘Const the same ne, however, he suggest the possiblity ffs kind of comedy which imitates aman eror in» spirit af “teaching” rather han blaming, and indicates chat such a form of comedy could educate more ellectively chan law ite preisely because law fi necessarily accusatory.” One may Iwonder whether comady might not be potentially superior this respect to tragedy aa well. Peshape the right kind of Comedy could satisfy Arsol’s requirement for a porty of predness which can educate men ia the dangers of ‘pirtedness, but which is more nearly harmony with prop. tly pileephie view of moraliy, knowledge ad happines. “To what extent wch a view of comedy my have beet efleced in the promised dcunion of comedy in the second book ofthe Pt not ponble to say. That Aristo held loctine of comie catharsis bas rometimes been argued. T Bn, Ret Mbit ta, Me Ha, 1-16 CF Lad, “Ai ompare 3351 with 2). Ch aeurge Age Lanes m8dean and alate nthe Patz Though of Arista elce this to be highly alike. Vet thi is by no means to fy that, Afaole regarded comedy aaa form of poctTy ‘carly lacking in moral setioursess. In any care, there is Tibraal body of indirect evidence which cout be dhought © Sipport the ind of hypochess hee suggested. This i he ‘ffince of lnkage beoween Aristotelian poet theory and dh thenter of Menander, the founder ofthe so~alled New Com- ay. Menander, whol nit have been «pupil of Aristotle's Witieuor Theophrassus and a fend ofthe Peripatetic pli ‘Gas Demetris of Phalron, purified comedy of i acusntory ‘tienen, while at the same time giving particular and The ie wr which msi ed (ee arey Roa 1 ie te ens tsa die of 2 nei con. Tn say tue Se rt codon komen Tn Cin SS eer ama gents, 91300 Lan Cones, a Tyo Ge Yom) wn eral st site Sette eke Me tens pan ye Noss obi, "SEAT pp yond san (men la Rep Gea comets dt Pn che Nt ‘PEE SES Tomer none he word ats (aly he vr apatere aoa ng nome bongs wd oan he one SE yon ae Ca orci Orth om pate hepa nner ee, kn at cel eA Pe tt REA LE pal omy be pons in re mae pekemeoriier inert ein) A iano im prearby e noin A ee ety tos reine) en Posey and Bdueaton snatcstentio to the probe of prtedness "Ii tve, fs is ometimes sai" that Menandvian comedy i the tue nceemor to Attic tragedy, it could be that Aristotle dd noe look “Together unfavorably on tir development. 2, Py and Prdene ‘We have seen that Aisle appear to enviage a kind of Iigher education entering om the calivation not of moral Character properly speaking but rather of practical reason oF “iprudence” (pen. To the exten tha ragedy and comedy ferve to tderate the pasons which eonstanty threaten to fbtuct prodent action, it makes sense to consider them at ‘ontributry to such an education. Yet dere would alo seem (o be a more diect sense in which dramatic poetry oF poetry (Geveralycontestes an education in prudence. lx Chapter 9 of the Pos, Aral tls ur chat “peetry is more philosophic land more serious than history, for poetry narrate rather the ‘universal, while history narrates the particulars. Poetry (doe noe narate the universe simply: Se presents the univer~ In by way ofthe patculre ora they maifestchemseives in ‘articular, Te ifr rom iary by the fact that iti able to ‘mpi mis ey ok ee a es Atos prey ho, hate nd Men TARE (SS, See cee U, von Wlamovi Mound, ig it vile Gn 8, 36‘eatin and Clare in he Palit Thought of Aristo present the universls shor of the unique and contingent par tulars which make any historical event inimitable. The Tuniverals presented im poetry are the universal of action” (Gro, of human moral and pola action in the brondest fence, Poctc imitation" snot imitation of ection nthe sense ‘Dac merely reflects events of actual if or of history Rather, itimitates action in a manner designed to bring out the niver- tals of action Ingo doin, i senders ation mia by i av- Gene. It provides, in other words, models of moral and pola beiavior that can stimulate and guide ting men. “There ina sling congrennce between what poetry provides and what prance requires. Pradence is an intellectual habit ‘ra bind of kaowing which encompases both particulars and Chivers, It requires both an experience ofthe world and a ‘correct understanding ofthat experince. I requires an ability to ndapt the univerals of moral and poieal action to par tials tothe contingent crcumatances of moral and politcal fest Precucy because of the contingent characte ofthese ci amstancea, ere can be no rience or art of ation properly ‘peaking: “philosophy” by lel eannot serve at an adequate {uid to moral atd pola behavior. On the other hand, mere Experience or familiarity with the unique evens of his" ‘italy inwafcen, though iis useful and even in some degre {nclapeneale for pain men,» Only poetry, at oes, pro- ‘et the proper combination of generality and specificity that Tsnecenary for the development af prudence in te fll ens of the term. Tn what way precisely Arste may have conceived of pocty as te central instrument ofan education in pradence ust plainly remain a mater fr apecalaon. 1s Smportant ‘ot to overstate the extent to which Aritlecan be spposed 0 have defended the wady of poetry inthe name of prudence SABA Me ut fora er umd ery let ‘Rn Kenya Try Wi eee, 3979 p17. 3 Caner son8 9 (a A003. 178 “That he thought poety a sch could educate to prudence, oF ven tragedy or comedy aa each x by no means evident, and T Inve tried to argue that Aviat avery Ike t have shared the reservation of Plato regarding the moral deficiencies sharacertic of contemporary tragedy and comedy. Tn a ‘numberof respect, but partcularly ini view ofthe ole of the Aivne in human if, contemporary tragedy would appear tobe Incompatible with prudence inthe Aratotelin see; and this would most key be tue of any pocty in which the univers (tacton are pretented under the agpet of reiiour aw At the ‘ame the, Aristotle clearly believed—contrary to the view af arly modern thinkers such as Hobbes or Descartes, for ex ‘tiple—that the modes of aman bebavior held wp by poetry fre not necemarly incompatible with prudence, oF that there ‘hind of poetry which ean provide models of imitation that are ‘rth the grasp of ordinary men, medes that can beneBt pra ‘one atin instead of threatening iby imposing universal ta dards which ae too exalted tobe applicable the ordinary c- ‘umatance of rman life, Arte’ inal view ofthis question twill have depended crucially on his fini view of prudence Ttelf, © queton of notorious complexity which cannot be casted here. Suffice it to say that Arinode spears (0 presuppose what would be denied by he thinkers of early ‘modersity—that pradeat action involves and indeed i iar separable fram moral virtue.