Mettu DEP’T OF CEng Water Treatment

CHAPTER ONE

WATER QUALITY
1.1.Water Chemistry

An atom is the smallest unit of each of the elements. Atoms are building blocks from which molecules of
elements and compounds are constructed. For instance, two hydrogen atoms combine to form a molecule
of hydrogen gas:
H+H H2
Adding one atom of oxygen to the hydrogen molecule results in one molecule of the compound water:
H2 + O H2O
A relative mass has been assigned to a single atom of each element based on a mass of 12 for carbon. The
sum of the atomic mass of all the atoms in a molecule is the molecular mass of that molecule. The atomic
mass of hydrogen is 1 and the atomic mass of oxygen is 16. Thus the molecular mass of the hydrogen
molecule is to and the molecular mass of water is 18. A mole of an element of compound is its molecular
mass expressed in common mass units, usually grams.
A mole of hydrogen is 2 g, while a mole of water is 18 g. one mole of a substance dissolved in sufficient
water to make one liter of solution is called a one molar solution.

Bonding of elements into compounds is sometimes accomplished by electrical forces resulting from
transferred electrons. When these compounds dissociate in water, they produce species with opposite
charges. An example is sodium chloride:

NaCl Na+ + Cl –
The charged species are called ions. Positively charged ions are called cations, and negatively charged
ions are called anions. The number of positive charges must equal the number of negative charges to
preserve electrical neutrality in a chemical compound. The number of charges on an ion is referred to as
the valence of that ion. Thus, the valence of sodium (Na+) is 1, while the valence of calcium (Ca2+) is 2.
Some compounds, called radicals, also possess charges.
An example of cationic radical is ammonium (NH4+), while carbonate (CO32-) is an anionic radical.
When ions or radicals react with each other to form new compounds, the reactions may not always
proceed on a one-to-one basis as was the case for sodium chloride. They do, however, proceed on an
equivalence basis that can be related to electroneutrality. The equivalence of an element or radical is
defined as the number of hydrogen atoms that element or radical can hold in combination or can replace
in a reaction. In most cases, the equivalence of an ion is the same as the absolute value of its valence. An
equivalent of an element or radical is its gram molecular mass divided by its equivalence. A
milliequivalent is the molecular mass expressed in milligrams divided by the equivalence and is often
more useful in water chemistry because concentrations of dissolved substances are more often in the
milligrams per liter range. Compounds are formed by the combination of elements or radicals on a one-to-
one equivalent basis.
1.2. Physical water quality parameters
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the senses of sight, touch, taste or
smell. Suspended solids, turbidity, color, taste and odor and temperature fall into this category.

Suspended Solids
Solids suspended in water may consist of inorganic or organic particles or of immiscible liquids.
Inorganic solids such as clay, silt, and other soil constituents are common in surface water.

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Organic material such as plant fibers and biological solids (agal cells, bacteria, etc) are also common
constituents of surface water. These materials are often natural contaminants resulting from the erosive
action of water flowing over surfaces.
Suspended material may be objectionable in water for several reasons. It is aesthetically displeasing and
provides adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents. Biologically active suspended solids may
include disease-causing organisms as well as organisms such as toxinproducing strains of algae.
There are several tests available for measuring solids. Most are gravimetric tests involving the mass of
residues. The total solids test quantifies all the solids in the water, suspended and dissolved, organic and
inorganic. This parameter is measured by evaporating a sample to dryness and weighing the residue. The
total quantity of residue is expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) on a dry-mass-of-solids basis. Most
suspended solids can be removed from water by filtration. Thus, the suspended fraction of the solids in a
water sample can be approximated by filtering the water, drying the residue and filter to a constant weight
at 104oC (± 1o), and determining the mass of the residue retained on the filter. The result of this suspended
solids test are also expressed as dry mass per volume (milligrams per liter). The amount of dissolved
solids passing through the filters, also expressed as milligrams per liter, is the difference between the
total-solids and suspended-solids content of a water sample.
Once samples have been dried and measured, the organic content of both total and suspended solids can
be determined by firing the residues at 600oC for 1 h. the organic fraction of the residues will be
converted to carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases and will escape. The remaining will represent
the inorganic, or fixed, residue.

Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the extent of which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in
water. Because absorption and scattering are influenced by both size and surface characteristics of the
suspended material, turbidity is not a direct quantitative measurement of suspended solids.
Most turbidity is surface waters result from the erosion of colloidal material such as clay, silt, rock
fragments, and metal oxides from the soil. Vegetable fibers and microorganisms may also contribute to
turbidity.
Turbid water is aesthetically displeasing due to opaqueness or milky coloration appearance. The colloidal
material associated with turbidity provides adsorption sites for chemicals that may be harmful or cause
undesirable tastes and odors and for biological organisms that may be harmful.
In natural water bodies, turbidity may impart a brown or other color to water, depending on the light-
absorbing properties of the solids, and may interfere with light penetration and photosynthetic reactions in
streams and lakes. Accumulation of turbidity-causing particles in porous streambeds results in sediment
deposits that can adversely affect the flora and fauna of the stream.
Turbidity is measured photometrically by determining the percentage of light of a given intensity that is
either absorbed or scattered. The original measuring apparatus, called a Jackson
turbidimeter, was based on light absorption and employed a long tube and standardized candle.
The glass tube was calibrated with readings for turbidity produced by suspensions of silica dioxide (SiO2),
with one Jackson turbidity unit (JTU) being equal to the turbidity produced by 1mg SiO2 in 1 L of
distilled water.
In recent years this apparatus has been replaced by a turbidity meter in which a standardized electric bulb
produces a light that is then directed through a small sample vial. In the absorption mode, a photometer
measures the light intensity on the side of the vial opposite from the light source, while in the scattering
mode, a photometer measures the light intensity at a 90o angle from the light source. Formazin, a
chemical compound, provides more producible standards than
SiO2 and has replaced it as reference. Turbidity meter readings are now expressed as formazin turbidity
units, or FTUs. The term nephelometry turbidity unit (NTU) is often used to indicate that the test was run
according to the scattering principle.

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Natural waters may have turbidities ranging from a few FTUs to several hundred. EPA drinking water
standards specify a maximum of 1 FTU.

Color
Pure water is colorless, but water in nature is often colored by foreign substances. Water whose color is
partly due to suspended matter is said to have apparent color. Color contributed by dissolved solids that
remains after removal of suspended matter is known as true color.
After contact with organic debris such as debris leaves, conifer needles, weeds, or wood, water picks up
tannins, humic acid, and humates and takes on yellowish-brown hues. Iron oxides cause reddish water,
and manganese oxides cause brown or blackish water. Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing
operations, pulp and paper production, food processing, chemical production and mining, refining, and
slaughterhouse operations may add substantial coloration to water in receiving streams.
Colored water is not aesthetically acceptable to the general public. Highly colored water is unsuitable for
laundering, dyeing, papermaking, beverage manufacturing, diary production and other food processing,
and textile and plastic production. The organic compounds causing true color may exert a chlorine
demand and thereby seriously reduce the effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant. Phenolic compounds,
common constituents of vegetative decay products, produce very objectionable taste and odor compounds
with chlorine. Additionally, some compounds of naturally occurring organic acids and chlorine are either
known to be, or are suspected of being, carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).
Color is usually measured by comparison with standardized colored material. The results are expressed in
true color units (TCUs) where one unit is equivalent to the color produced by 1 mg/l of platinum in the
form of chlorplatinate ions. For colors other than yellowish-brown hues, especially for colored water
originated from industrial waste effluents, special spectrophotometric techniques are usually employed.
In potable water analysis, the common practice is to measure only the true color produced by organic acid
resulting from decaying vegetation in the water. The resulting value can be taken as an indirect
measurement of humic substances in the water.

Taste and Odor

The terms taste and odor are themselves definitive of this parameter, and are closely related.
Substances that produce an odor in water will almost invariably impact a taste as well. The converse is
not true, as there are many mineral substances that produce taste but no odor.
Substances that impart perceptible taste and odor include minerals, metals, and salts from the soil, end
products from biological reactions, and constituents of wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely
to produce tastes unaccompanied by odor. Alkaline material imparts a bitter taste to water, while metallic
salts may give a salty or bitter taste. Organic material, on the other hand, is likely to produce both taste
and odor.
Consumers find taste and odor aesthetically displeasing for obvious reasons. Odors produced by organic
substances may pose more than a problem of simple aesthetics, since some of those substances may be
carcinogenic.
Direct measurement of materials that produce tastes and odors can be made if the causative agents are
known. Several types of analysis are available for measuring taste-producing inorganics. Measurement of
taste- and odor-causing organics can be made using gas or liquid chromatography.
Threshold odor number (TON) is a quantitative test that employs the human senses of taste and smell can
be used as a measurement. Varying amounts of odorous water are poured into containers and diluted
with enough odor-free distilled water to make a 200 ml mixture. An assembled panel of five to ten
“noses” is used to determine the mixture in which the odor is just barely detectable to the sense of smell.
The TON of that sample is then calculated, using the formula.
𝐴+𝐵
TON = 𝐴
------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.1

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Where A is the volume of odorous water (mL) and B is the volume of odor-free water required to produce
a 200 mL mixture.
Although odors can be a problem with wastewater, the taste and odor parameter is only associated with
potable water. EPA does not have a maximum standard for TON. A maximum
TON of 3 have been recommended by the Public Health Service and services as a guideline rather than a
legal standard.

Temperature
Temperature is not used to evaluate directly either potable water or wastewater. It is however, one of the
most important parameters in natural surface-water systems. The temperature of surface waters governs to
a large extent the biological species present and their rates of activity.
Temperature has an effect on most chemical reactions that occur in natural water systems.
Temperature also has a pronounced effect on the solubility of gases in water.
The major factors that detect the temperature of natural water systems include the ambient temperature
(temperature of the surrounding atmosphere), discharge of heated water from industries that is used as a
coolant, and removal of forest canopies and irrigation return flows.
Cooler waters usually have a wider diversity of biological species. At lower temperatures, the rate of
biological activity is lower. If the temperature is increased, biological activity increases.
An increase of 10oC is usually sufficient to double the biological activity. At elevated temperatures and
increased metabolic rates, organisms that are more efficient at food utilization and reproduction flourish,
while other species decline and are perhaps eliminated altogether.
Accelerated growth of algae often occurs in warm water and can become a problem when cells cluster
into algae mats. Higher-order species, such as fish, are affected dramatically by temperature and by
dissolved oxygen levels, which are a function of temperature.
Temperature also affects other physical properties of water. The viscosity of water increases with
decreasing temperature. The maximum density of water occurs at 4oC, and density decreases on either
side of that temperature.

1.3. Chemical water quality parameters

Water has been called the universal solvent, and chemical parameters are related to the solvent
capabilities of water. Total dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness, fluorides, metals, organics, and
nutrients are chemical parameters of concern in water-quality management.

Total Dissolved Solids

The material remaining in the water after filtration for the suspended-solids analysis is considered to be
dissolved. Dissolved material results from the solvent action of water on solids, liquids, and gases.
Dissolved substances may be organic or inorganic in nature. Dissolved minerals, gases, and organic
constituents may produce aesthetically displeasing color, taste, and odors. Some chemicals may toxic or
carcinogenic. Quite often, two or more dissolved substances – especially organic substances and members
of the halogen group- will combine to form a compound whose characteristics are more objectionable
than those of either of the original materials.
Not all dissolved substances are undesirable in water. For example, essentially pure, distilled water has a
flat taste. Additionally, water has an equilibrium state with respect to dissolved constituents. Under
saturated water will be “aggressive” and will more readily dissolve materials with which it comes in
contact. Readily dissolvable material is sometimes added to a relatively pure water to reduce its tendency
to dissolve pipes and plumbing.
A direct measurement of total dissolved solids can be made by evaporating to dryness a sample of water
which has been filtered to remove the suspended solids. The remaining residue is weighed and represents
the total dissolved solids (TDS) in the water. The TDS is expressed as milligrams per liter on a dry-mass
basis.
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An approximate analysis for TDS is often made by determining the electrical conductivity of the water.
The ability of water to conduct electricity, known as the specific conductance, is a function of its ionic
strength.

Alkalinity
Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions.
Alkalinity is thus a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids. Constituents of alkalinity in natural
water systems include CO32-, HCO3 -, OH-, HSiO3-, H2BO3-, HPO42-, H2PO4-, HS-, and NH30. These
compounds result from the dissolution of mineral substances in the soil and atmosphere.
In large quantities alkalinity imparts a bitter taste to water. The main problem with alkaline water is its
reaction with certain cations present in water which may result a precipitate that can foul pipes and other
water-systems appurtenances.
Alkalinity measurements are made by titrating the water with an acid and determining the hydrogen
equivalent. Alkalinity is then expressed as milligrams per liter of CaCO3. If 0.02 N
H2SO4 is used in the titration, and then 1mL of the acid will neutralize 1 mg of alkalinity as CaCO3.
Hydrogen ions from the acid react with the alkalinity according to the following equations:
H+ + OH- H2O
2- +
CO3 + H HCO3-
- +
HCO3 + H H2CO3

Hardness
Hardness is defined as the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution. At supersaturated
conditions, the hardness cations will react with anions in the water to form a solid precipitate.
Two types of hardness can be identified- carbonate and non-carbonate hardness.

Table 1-1. Carbonate and non-carbonate hardness

Carbonate hardness is sometimes called temporary hardness because it can be removed by

boiling water. Non-carbonate hardness cannot be broken down by boiling the water, so it is also
known as permanent hardness. In general, it is important to distinguish between the two types of
hardness because the removal method differs for the two.

Total Hardness (TH) = Sum of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions measured as mg/L of CaCO3
Total Hardness (as CaCO3) = (eq/L of cation charge) x (50g CaCO3/Charge eq) x 1000mg/g
Hardness is a problem because it interferes with soaps and detergents and leaves a white crusty scale
around faucets.
Ca2+ + (soap)- Ca(soap)2

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Hardness can be measured by using spectrophotometric techniques or chemical titration to

determine the quantity of calcium and magnesium ions in a given sample.
Hardness in water generally can be classified as follows:

Table 1.2 Degree of hardness

The public Health Service standards recommend a maximum of 500 mg/L of hardness in
drinking water.

Fluoride
Fluoride is associated in nature with a few types of sedimentary or igneous rocks. It is toxic to humans
and other animals in large quantities, while small concentrations can be beneficial.
Concentrations of approximately 1.0 mg/L in drinking water help to prevent dental cavities in children. If
the fluoride concentrations in water exceed 2.0 mg/L, it can result in discoloration of teeth, called
mottling. Concentrations which exceed 5 mg/L can also result in bone fluorosis and other skeletal
abnormalities.

Metals
All metals are soluble to some extent in water. While excessive amounts of any metal may present health
hazards, only those metals that are harmful in relatively small amount are commonly labeled toxic; other
metals fall into the nontoxic group. Sources of metals in natural waters include dissolution from natural
deposits and discharges of domestic, industrial, or agricultural wastewaters. Measurement of metals in
water is usually made by atomic absorption spectrophotometery.

Nontoxic Metals: commonly found in water include sodium, iron, magnesium, aluminum, copper and
zinc. Excessive concentration of sodium can cause a bitter taste in water and are health hazard to cardiac
and kidney patients. Sodium is also corrosive to metal surfaces and, in large concentrations, it toxic to
plants. Iron and manganese in very small quantities 0.3 mg/L and 0.05 mg/L, respectively, may cause
color problems.

Toxic Metals: These include arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury, and silver. These metalsare
concentrated by food chain, thereby posing the greatest danger to organisms near the top of the chain.

Organics
Many organic materials are soluble in water. Organic in natural water systems may come from natural
sources or may result from human activities. Dissolved organics in water are usually divided into two
broad categories: Biodegradable and nonbiodegradable (refractory).

Biodegradable Organics
Biodegradable material consists of organics that can be utilized for food by naturally occurring
microorganisms within a reasonable length of time. In dissolved form, these materials usually consist of
starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and esters.
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Microbial utilization of dissolved organics can be accompanied by oxidation or by reduction.

When oxygen is available oxidation process becomes more efficient and predominant than reduction. In
aerobic (oxygen-present) environment, the organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as
CO2 and H2O, and the microns use the energy released for growth and reproduction. The amount of
oxygen consumed during microbial utilization of organics is called the biological oxygen demand (BOD).
BOD is the most commonly used parameter for determining the oxygen demand on the receiving water of
a municipal or industrial discharge.
BOD can also be used to evaluate the efficiency of treatment processes, and is an indirect measure of
biodegradable organic compounds in water.
The BOD is measured by determining the oxygen consumed from a sample placed in an air-tight
container and kept in a controlled environment for a preselected period of time. In the standard test, a 300
mL BOD bottle is used and the sample is incubated at 20oC for 5 days. Light must be excluded from the
incubator to prevent algal growth that may produce oxygen in the bottle.
Because the saturation concentration for oxygen in water at 20oC is approximately 9 mg/L, dilution of the
sample with BOD-free, oxygen-saturated water is necessary to measure BOD values greater than just a
few milligrams per liter.

The BOD of a diluted sample is calculated by

Where DOI and DOF are the initial and final dissolved-oxygen concentrations (mg/L) and P is the decimal
fraction of the sample in the 300 mL bottle.
The BOD is a function of time. A graph of the BOD versus time has a characteristics shape illustrated in
Figure 1.1. This is called the BOD Curve.
The BOD curve can be expressed mathematically by the following equation:

Where, BODt = BOD at any time t, mg/L

BODL = Ultimate BOD, mg/L
k = a constant representing the rate of BOD reaction
t = time, d

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Nonbiodegradable Organics
Measurement of nonbiodegradable organics is usually by the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test.
Nonbiodegradable organics may also be estimated from a total organic carbon (TOC) analysis. Both COD
and TOC measure the biodegradable fraction of the organics, so the BODu must be subtracted from the
COD or TOC to quantify the nonbiodegradable organics. Specific organic compounds can be indentified
and quantified through analysis by gas chromatography.

Nutrients
Nutrients are elements essential to the growth and reproduction of plants and animals and aquatic species
on the surrounding water to provide their nutrients. Nutrients that are required in most abundance by
aquatic species are carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

Nitrogen
Nitrogen gas (N2) is the primary component of the earth’s atmosphere and is extremely stable.
Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins, chlorophyll, and many other biological compounds. Upon the death
of plants or animal, complex organic matter is broken down to simple forms by bacterial decomposition.
Other sources of nitrogen in aquatic systems include wastes, chemical (particularly chemical fertilizers),
and wastewater discharges.
Nitrate poisoning in infant animals, including humans, can cause serious problems and even death. Nitrate
poising gas been referred to as the “blue baby” syndrome, although the correct name is
methemoglobinemia.
Tests for nitrogen forms in water commonly include analysis for ammonia (including both ammonia and
ammonium), nitrate, and organic nitrogen.

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Phosphorus
Phosphorus appears exclusively as phosphate (PO43-) in aquatic environments. Phosphate is a constituent
of soils and is used extensively in fertilizer to replace and /or supplement natural quantities on agricultural
lands. Runoff from agricultural areas is a major contributor to phosphate in surface waters. Municipal
wastewater is another major source of phosphate in surface water. Condensed phosphates are used
extensively as builders in detergents, and organic phosphates are constituents of body waste and food
residue. Other sources include industrial waste in which phosphate compounds are used for such purposes
as boiler-water conditioning.
While phosphates are not toxic and do not represent a direct health treat, they do represent indirect treat to
water quality. If they are available in large quantity, they can be used as a nutrient and result rapid growth
of aquatic plants. Phosphate, concentration as low as 0.2 mg/L, can also interfere with the treatment
processes (chemical coagulation of turbidity.)
Phosphates are measured colorimetrically. Orthophosphates can be measured directly, while condensed
forms must be converted to orthophosphate by acid hydrolyzation and organic phosphates must be
converted to orthophosphates by acid digestion.

1.4 Biological Characteristics of Water

The presence of absence of living organisms in water can be one of the most useful indicators of its
quality. A wide variety of different species of organisms usually indicates that the stream of lake is
unpolluted. Microscopic plants and animals are also important in assessing the quality of water,
particularly drinking water and sewage.

Pathogens
Pathogens are organisms capable of infecting, or of transmitting diseases to, humans. These organisms are
not native to aquatic systems and usually require an animal host for growth and reproduction. These
waterborne pathogens include species of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminthes (parasitic worms).

Bacteria
Bacterial are single-cell microorganisms, usually colorless, and are the lowest forms of life capable of
synthesizing protoplasm from the surrounding environment. They occur in three basic cell shapes: rod
shape (bacillus), sphere shaped (coccus), and spiral shaped (spirellus).
Gastrointestinal disorders are common symptoms of most diseases transmitted by waterborne pathogenic
bacteria. Cholera and typhoid are the most violent of waterborne bacterial diseases.

Viruses
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all the genetic information necessary for
their own reproduction. Viruses are obligate parasites that require a host in which to live. Symptoms
associated with waterborne viral infections usually involve disorders of the nervous system rather than of
the gastrointestinal tract. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause poliomyelitis and infectious
hepatitis, and several other viruses are known to be, or suspected of being waterborne.

Protozoa
The lowest forms of animal life, protozoa are unicellular organisms more complex in their functional
activity than bacteria or viruses. They are complete, self-contained organisms that can be free-living or
parasitic, pathogenic or nonpathogenic, microscopic or macroscopic.
Protozoal infections are usually characterized by gastrointestinal disorders of a milder order than those
associated with the bacterial infections. Giardia lamblia and Entamoebae Histolica are the common
protozoa which cause infections.

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Pathogen Indicators
Testing water for the presence of know pathogens would be a very time-consuming and expensive
proposition. Tests for specific pathogens are usually made only when there is a reason to suspect that
those particular organisms are present. At other times, the purity of water is checked using indicator
organisms.
An indicator organism is one whose presence presumes (signals) that contamination has occurred and
suggests the nature and extent of the contaminant(s).

Coliforms
The most important biological indicator of water quality and pollution used in public health technology is
the group of bacteria called coliforms. This grouping includes two genera:
Eschericia Coli and Aerobacter aerogenes while E. Coli are nonpathogenic common inhabitants of the
intestinal tract, Aerobactor are common in the soil, on leaves, and on grain. The test for these
microorganisms, called Total Coliform Test, was selected for the following reasons:

1. They normally inhabit the intestinal tracts of humans and other mammals. Thus, thepresence of
coliforms is an indication of fecal contamination of the water.
2. Even in acutely ill individuals, the number of coliform organisms excreted in the feces outnumbers
the disease-producing organism by several orders of magnitude. The larger numbers of coliforms
make them easier to culture than disease-producing organisms.
3. The coliform group of organism survives in natural waters for relatively long periods of time, but
does not produce effectively in this environment. Thus the presence of coliforms in water implies
fecal contamination rather than growth of the organism because of favorable environmental
conditions. These organisms also survive better in water than most of the bacterial pathogens. This
means that the absence of coliforms is a reasonably safe indicator that pathogens are not present.
4. The coliform group of organisms is relatively east to culture. Thus, laboratory technicians can
perform the test without expensive equipment.

Table Standard for drinking water Quality

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