CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Crude oil (petroleum) hydrocarbons are one of the most common groups of persistent organic

pollutants (Abdollahzadeh etal 2016). Petroleum hydrocarbons are known to be toxic to many

living organisms due to their mutagenic and carcinogenic properties ( Ma 2018) The low rate of

decomposition of oil and oil products in the environment triggers their accumulation and a

gradual increase in their concentration in the environmental objects, including the soil. After

getting into the soil, crude oil products destroy its structure, upset the air–water balance

(Abdollahzadeh etal 2016) alter the soil physicochemical properties (Peretiemo-Clarke 2007) inhibit

the microbial proliferation (Abdollahzadeh etal 2016) disrupt the soil enzymatic activity (Otitoju

2017) and have a negative impact on terrestrial and soil mesofauna ( Peretiemo-Clarke etal 2007) as

well as on plant growth and development (Abdollahzadeh etal 2018).

The growth and development disorder of plants, growing on oil-contaminated soils, is caused by

several reasons. Firstly, the absorption of toxic petroleum molecules by plants can modify the

permeability and structure of the plasma membrane ( Peretiemo-Clarke 2007) alter the shape and

size of the parenchyma tissue, reduce the intercellular space in the cortex of the stem and roots,

and inhibit the mitotic activity of the root meristem ( Bellout 2016) Secondly, insufficient aeration

caused by air displacement from the pore spaces between the soil particles by crude oil leads to

root stress and low water availability to the plant (Athar 2016). Moreover, oil pollution minimizes

the percentage of organic matter available to plants and reduces the amount of mineral nutrients

such as sodium, phosphates, potassium, sulfates, and nitrates (Otitoju 2017).

The response of plants to oil pollution can manifest itself at various levels (physiological,

biochemical, and molecular). Detailed information about the effect of oil contamination on

1
photosynthetic activity is scarce. For example, it has recently been reported that crude oil

pollution reduces overall photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll contents in plants (Achuba 2018)

Notable symptoms observed in plants growing on oil-polluted soil also include a decrease in the

activity of starch metabolizing enzymes (Achuba 2019) and a decrease in content of total

carbohydrates, total proteins, and total amino acids (Al-Hawas 2012) The most dangerous

disorder, resulted from the effect of pollutants, including crude oil and petroleum hydrocarbons,

on plants, is oxidative stress, which leads to the formation of many reactive oxygen species

(ROSs) with high oxidizing capacity in cells (superoxide radical (O2•−), H2O2, hydroxyl radical

(•OH), etc.). In one respect, the ROSs destroy cell-membrane complexes, disrupt transport

processes and intracellular reactions, and thereby inhibit growth activity ( Poljšak 2014)

Contrastingly, plants use ROS as a second messenger in many signal transduction cascades, and

therefore ROS accumulation is essential to plant development and defense ( Kohli 2019). For these

reasons, the plant antioxidative defense network plays a crucial role in controlling the lifetime of

the ROS signals and preventing uncontrolled oxidation.

Despite the fact that the antioxidative system and its significance for the adaptation of plants to

pollution stresses has been reviewed frequently, little is known about the effects of crude oil

stress on the plant antioxidative system. Some studies have shown a change in the contents of

proline, non-protein thiols (Zaid 2019) ascorbic acid, riboflavin, anthocyanins (Chupakhina 2004),

phenolic compounds, and flavonoids (Noori 2012) in plants growing on oil contaminated soils. A

number of authors have investigated the effect of oil pollution on the activity of plant

antioxidative enzymes (Al-Hawas 2012). Taking into consideration the fact that the antioxidative

status of plants may directly affect their adaptation to environmental stress, it is necessary to

make a detailed study of crude oil’s effects on the plant antioxidative system.

2
2.1 Conceptual Frame Work

2.1.1 Concept of Motor Oil Contamination

Motor oils are blended Motor oil, engine oil, or engine lubricant is any one of various substances

used for the lubrication of internal combustion engines. They typically consist of base

oils enhanced with various additives, particularly antiwear additives, detergents, dispersants, and,

for multi-grade oils, viscosity index improvers. (Penchaliah etal 2011) The main function of

motor oil is to reduce friction and wear on moving parts and to clean the engine from sludge (one

of the functions of dispersants) and varnish (detergents). It also neutralizes acids that originate

from fuel and from oxidation of the lubricant (detergents), improves sealing of piston rings, and

cools the engine by carrying heat away from moving parts. (Klamman 1984)

In addition to the aforementioned basic constituents, almost all lubricating oils contain corrosion

and oxidation inhibitors. Motor oil may be composed of only a lubricant base stock in the case of

non-detergent oil, or a lubricant base stock plus additives to improve the oil's detergency,

extreme pressure performance, and ability using base oils composed of petroleum-

based hydrocarbons, polyalphaolefins (PAO), or their mixtures in various proportions,

sometimes with up to 20% by weight of esters for better dissolution of additives. (Pablo etal

2011)

Motor oil is a lubricant used in internal combustion engines, which power cars, motorcycles,

lawnmowers, engine-generators, and many other machines. In engines, there are parts which

move against each other, and the friction between the parts wastes otherwise useful power by

converting kinetic energy into heat. It also wears away those parts, which could lead to lower

efficiency and degradation of the engine. Proper lubrication decreases fuel consumption,

decreases wasted power, and increases engine longevity.

3
Lubricating oil creates a separating film between surfaces of adjacent moving parts to minimize

direct contact between them, decreasing frictional heat and reducing wear, thus protecting the

engine. In use, motor oil transfers heat through conduction as it flows through the engine. [3] In an

engine with a recirculating oil pump, this heat is transferred by means of airflow over the

exterior surface of the oil pan, airflow through an oil cooler, and through oil gases evacuated by

the positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) system. While modern recirculating pumps are typically

provided in passenger cars and other engines of similar or larger in size, total-loss oiling is a

design option that remains popular in small and miniature engines. (Penchaliah etal 2011)

In petrol (gasoline) engines, the top piston ring can expose the motor oil to temperatures of

160 °C (320 °F). In diesel engines, the top ring can expose the oil to temperatures over 315 °C

(600 °F). Motor oils with higher viscosity indices thin less at these higher temperatures.

Coating metal parts with oil also keeps them from being exposed to oxygen,

inhibiting oxidation at elevated operating temperatures preventing rust or corrosion. Corrosion

inhibitors may also be added to the motor oil. Many motor oils also

have detergents and dispersants added to help keep the engine clean and minimize oil

sludge build-up. The oil is able to trap soot from combustion in itself, rather than leaving it

deposited on the internal surfaces. It is a combination of this and some singeing that turns used

oil black after some running.

Rubbing of metal engine parts inevitably produces some microscopic metallic particles from

the wearing of the surfaces. Such particles could circulate in the oil and grind against moving

parts, causing wear. Because particles accumulate in the oil, it is typically circulated through

an oil filter to remove harmful particles. An oil pump, a vane or gear pump powered by the

4
engine, pumps the oil throughout the engine, including the oil filter. Oil filters can be a full

flow or bypass type.

In the crankcase of a vehicle engine, motor oil lubricates rotating or sliding surfaces between

the crankshaft journal bearings (main bearings and big-end bearings) and rods connecting

the pistons to the crankshaft. The oil collects in an oil pan, or sump, at the bottom of the

crankcase. In some small engines such as lawn mower engines, dippers on the bottoms of

connecting rods dip into the oil at the bottom and splash it around the crankcase as needed to

lubricate parts inside. In modern vehicle engines, the oil pump takes oil from the oil pan and

sends it through the oil filter into oil galleries, from which the oil lubricates the main bearings

holding the crankshaft up at the main journals and camshaft bearings operating the valves. In

typical modern vehicles, oil pressure-fed from the oil galleries to the main bearings enters holes

in the main journals of the crankshaft. (Pablo etal 2011)

From these holes in the main journals, the oil moves through passageways inside the crankshaft

to exit holes in the rod journals to lubricate the rod bearings and connecting rods. Some simpler

designs relied on these rapidly moving parts to splash and lubricate the contacting surfaces

between the piston rings and interior surfaces of the cylinders. However, in modern designs,

there are also passageways through the rods which carry oil from the rod bearings to the rod-

piston connections and lubricate the contacting surfaces between the piston rings and interior

surfaces of the cylinders. This oil film also serves as a seal between the piston rings and cylinder

walls to separate the combustion chamber in the cylinder head from the crankcase. The oil then

drips back down into the oil pan.

2.1.2 Composite of Motor Oil

5
Whether mineral, synthetic or semi-synthetic, motor oil consists of a base oil and additives. Let’s

take a closer look at what goes into this essential lubricant, and the role of the main additives

used.

There are three kinds of motor oils: mineral oil, synthetic oil, and semi-synthetic oil. Each of

these motor oils has a different composition: the base is either refined crude petroleum, or

polymers manufactured in the laboratory. (Semenido 1944)

 Mineral Oil

Mineral motor oil is made from crude petroleum. Once extracted and transported to a

refinery, the crude petroleum undergoes several refining processes to remove as many

impurities as possible. This oil mainly consists of hydrocarbons (oxygenated or non-

oxygenated), but it may also contain traces of compounds such as sulphur or nitrogen. After

processing, additives are added to the so-called mineral motor oil to improve its performance.

Mineral oil hydrocarbons (MOH) comprise a diverse group of mixtures of hydrocarbons

containing thousands of chemical compounds of different structures and size, derived mainly

from crude oil but also produced synthetically from coal, natural gas and biomass. The chemical

composition of most MOH mixtures is unknown and usually varies from batch to batch;

specifications are often expressed in terms of viscosity, or ‘thickness’, as related to the

applications of the products and not in terms of chemical composition. These highly complex

mixtures have a wide variety of industrial and domestic uses. There are several possible sources

of MOH in food: mainly food packaging materials, food additives, processing aids and

environmental contaminants such as lubricants. (Losikov 1959)

The potential human health impact of MOH varies widely; so-called ‘aromatic’ MOH may act as

genotoxic carcinogens (that is they may damage DNA, the genetic material of cells, as well as

6
cause cancer), while some ‘saturated’ MOH can accumulate in human tissue and may cause

adverse effects in the liver. In the European Union, some low- and medium-viscosity MOH are

authorised for use as food additives.

 Synthetic Oil

Synthetic oil can be created chemically in the laboratory, but it can also come from refined

petroleum. Refining synthetic oil is a more complex process than for mineral oil: it involves

modifying the structure of the hydrocarbon molecules. The processes for obtaining the oil ensure

that only the best molecules are retained. Many additives are also added. Given its composition,

so-called synthetic motor oil is considered a high-end oil that is purer and delivers a higher

performance than mineral oil.

Synthetic oil is a lubricant consisting of chemical compounds that are artificially made. Synthetic

lubricants can be manufactured using chemically modified petroleum components rather than

whole crude oil, but can also be synthesized from other raw materials. The base material,

however, is still overwhelmingly crude oil that is distilled and then modified physically and

chemically. The actual synthesis process and composition of additives is generally a commercial

trade secret and will vary among producers. (Collins 2007)

Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for petroleum-refined oils when operating in extreme

temperature. Aircraft jet engines, for example, require the use of synthetic oils, whereas aircraft

piston engines do not. Synthetic oils are also used in metal stamping to provide environmental

and other benefits when compared to conventional petroleum and animal-fat based products.

These products are also referred to as "non-oil" or "oil free"

 Semi-synthetic Oil

7
Semi-synthetic oil is a mixture of synthetic oils and mineral oils. The proportion of synthetic oils

from Group IV base oils and Group V base oils must be at least 10%.

Mineral oil is produced by refining crude oil. Distillation in the refineries removes foreign

substances and impurities from the crude oil, so that as pure a hydrocarbon compound as

possible remains, which guarantees good lubrication properties. However, at some point the

basic quality of mineral oils was no longer sufficient to ensure the proper operation of modern

engines. (Munoz etal 2006)

Fully synthetic oil is produced artificially by certain synthesis technologies. Short-chain

hydrocarbon compounds are combined to form longer chains until the desired lubrication

properties are achieved. The oil is very pure and more powerful than mineral oil. The mixture of

mineral oil and synthetic oil makes semi-synthetic oil suitable for complex applications such as

the lubrication of engines. (Tamrakar 2002)

2.1.3 What is the difference between semi-synthetic and fully synthetic oil?

Semi-synthetic oils are a mixture of mineral oil, synthetic oil (at least 10%) and additives. Fully

synthetic oils consist largely of synthetic oil and a smaller proportion of mineral oil to dissolve

the additives in the oil. Since synthetic oils consist of higher quality hydrocarbon compounds

than mineral oils, the fully synthetic oil is more powerful than semi-synthetic oil.

Fully synthetic oil has better properties in terms of:

 Cold resistance

 Heat resistance

 Ageing stability

 Wear protection

8
However, fully synthetic oil is not always better than semi-synthetic oil. Ultimately, it all

depends on the OEM approvals. Semi-synthetic oil can be used for many complex applications

without problems. It is not always necessary to resort to the more expensive fully synthetic oil.

Partially synthetic oils are just as effective and reliable as fully synthetic oils in some

applications. In addition, they save money. (Tamrakar 2002)

2.1.4 Cause of Development Disorder in plant

The growth and development disorder of plants, growing on oil-contaminated soils, is caused by

several reasons.

 Firstly, the absorption of toxic petroleum molecules by plants can modify the

permeability and structure of the plasma membrane, alter the shape and size of the

parenchyma tissue, reduce the intercellular space in the cortex of the stem and roots, and

inhibit the mitotic activity of the root meristem (Bellout, etal 2016).

 Secondly, insufficient aeration caused by air displacement from the pore spaces between

the soil particles by crude oil leads to root stress and low water availability to the plant

(Athar etal 2016). Moreover, oil pollution minimizes the percentage of organic matter

available to plants and reduces the amount of mineral nutrients such as sodium,

phosphates, potassium, sulfates, and nitrates (Achuba 2018).

The response of plants to oil pollution can manifest itself at various levels (physiological,

biochemical, and molecular). Detailed information about the effect of oil contamination on

photosynthetic activity is scarce. For example, it has recently been reported that crude oil

pollution reduces overall photosynthetic activity and chlorophyll contents in plants ( Achuba 2018).

Notable symptoms observed in plants growing on oil-polluted soil also include a decrease in the

9
activity of starch metabolizing enzymes (Achuba 2018) and a decrease in content of total

carbohydrates, total proteins, and total amino acids (Al-Hawas 2012). The most dangerous

disorder, resulted from the effect of pollutants, including crude oil and petroleum hydrocarbons,

on plants, is oxidative stress, which leads to the formation of many reactive oxygen species

(ROSs) with high oxidizing capacity in cells (superoxide radical (O 2•−), H2O2, hydroxyl radical

(•OH), etc.). In one respect, the ROSs destroy cell-membrane complexes, disrupt transport

processes and intracellular reactions, and thereby inhibit growth activity (Zaid 2019).

Contrastingly, plants use ROS as a second messenger in many signal transduction cascades, and

therefore ROS accumulation is essential to plant development and defense (Kohli 2019). For these

reasons, the plant antioxidative defense network plays a crucial role in controlling the lifetime of

the ROS signals and preventing uncontrolled oxidation.

2.1.5 Effect Of Crude Oil On Plant

Seed germinations seem to be affected by oil at least in two ways. At high level of crude oil

pollution, seed germination is prevented probably by oil soaking through the outer integument of

the seeds. At low level of crude oil pollution, seed germination is retarded by the presence of oil

(Udo, E.J. and CO. Oputa).

This seems to be varied between different plant species in their ability to germinate in the

presence of crude oil (stress). De Jong, E. stress that germinated seeds in repeatedly polluted soil

that were moist to field capacity. He found that the germination of sorghum was poor, whereas

that of rye grass was not affected when compared to that of the control. The effect of crude oil on

plant is one that is of great concern as it causes damage to different parts of the plant that are

vital for its well being and survival and hence obstructs development and growth.

From various experiments, it has been elucidated that crude oil spillage would affect plants in the

10
following ways:

 Inhibit the germination of plants.

 Delay germination by inducing stress, which prolongs lag phase.

 Inhibit the uptake of water and nutrients by the root of the plant, hence causing deficiency

to other parts as the leaves.

 Affects regeneration of stumps.

 Affects anatomical features of leaves.

 Causes cellular and stomatal abnormalities.

 Disruption of the plant water balance, which indirectly influences plant metabolism.

 Causes root stress, which reduces leaf growth via stomata conductance.

 Causes chlorosis‘ of leaves.

 Enlargement of cells in various‘ tissues due to oxygen starvation were cells coalesce

forming large cells in tissues.

2.2 Empirical Review

In the Niger Delta areas, various types of activities like agriculture, industrial production and

transportation produce large amount of wastes, which are classified as agricultural, industrial,

municipal or nuclear wastes (Onwuka et al., 2012). These wastes from various sources are

deposited on the soil surfaces either deliberately applied as fertilizer, sprays or pesticides

(Lauhanen et al., 2004) or inadvertently through small or large leaks (Adesodun, 2014) as

solids, plastics, crude oil or spent engine oil. Some of these wastes are recycled into some

11
important products that are used to meet the challenges of the increasing population of Nigeria.

Some of the wastes are recycled into manures and fertilizers for crop and animal production

(Onwuka et al., 2012).

The disposal of spent oil into open vacant plots and farms, gutters and water drains is an

environmental risk (Odjegba and Sadiq, 2002). Since it is liquid, it easily percolates into the soil

and leaches into the environment from where it eventually pollutes either water or soil (Olugboji

and Ogunwole, 2008). Pollution from waste engine oil has been reported to be more widespread

than that of crude oil (Odjegba and Sadiq, 2002).

This unregulated discharging of spent engine oil undesirably affects the flora, microbes and

aquatic organisms (Nwoko et al., 2007; Adenipekun et al., 2008) because of the large quantity of

hydrocarbons and highly lethal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons contained in the oil (Wang et

al., 2000; Vwioko and Fashemi, 2005).

The plant, commonly known as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart) Solms), is a

free-floating perennial herb of fresh water ecosystems. It is found on the surface of rivers, lakes,

canals and ponds and may root in the mud of shallow waters. It is generally 10-20 cm high but

can reach a height of 1m (Pieterse, 1997). It possesses a dense highly branched, fibrous root

system and it floats on water (Ukiwe and Ogukwe, 2007). The plant has considerable buoyancy

and the leaves act as sails in the wind (Hasan and Chakrabarti, 2009). Water hyacinth can be

useful for the remediation of water contaminated with heavy metals by having the roots trap and

remove large amounts of the oils, minerals, including heavy metals and radioactive elements

from the water (Hasan and Chakrabarti, 2009). It has been effective in removing cadmium and

zinc from moderately contaminated water (Lu et al., 2004). After studying the degradation of

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from soil leachates, Ukiwe et al. (2012) concluded that

E. crassipes is a good phytoremediator in the removal of PAHs from polluted water bodies.

12
Water hyacinth may be used in remediating soils contaminated with 3% and above crude oil but

will not be needed for soils where contamination is 1- 3%. Time is also an essential factor in the

remediation (Udeh et al., 2013). Investigations on the soil properties and growth of Zea mays

have shown that spent engine oil had no effect on both the texture and pH of the soil. However,

organic C, N and Mg as well as heavy metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn, Ni, Cr and Pb) increased

while P and yield of the plants grown on contaminated soil decreased. Also affected were the

plant height, root number and root length (Okonokhua et al., 2007). Uhegbu et al. (2012) also

reported a decrease in the moisture content of spent engine oil-polluted soil as well as delay in

seed germination, leaf spread and rate of growth of Zea mays (Nwite and Alu, 2015).

There was also a significant reduction in plant height, percentage germination, biomass, number

of leaves and leaf area thereby reducing yield of Arachis hypogaea, Telfairia occidentalis, Vigna

unguiculata and Jatropha curcas where it also increases trace elements.

Yellowish colouration was also observed in the leaves of Telfairia occidentalis (Kayode et al.,

2009; Ogbuehi et al., 2011; Agbogidi and Eruotor, 2012; Onwusiri et al., 2017). Results showed

that there were significant reductions in yield, plant height, velocity of germination and leaf

area index of Zea mays and Arachis hypogaea grown on spent engine oil-polluted soil.

However, the use of Bacillus cereus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and fertilizer significantly

improved the coefficient of variation of germination, leaf area and fresh weight of Zea mays

(Abdulhadi and Kawo, 2006) while Arachis hypogaea was shown to have the capacity to reduce

heavy metal concentration in soils polluted with spent engine oil (Ogbuehi et al., 2011). In

Abelmoschus esculentus (L.), spent engine oil was found to adversely decrease the plant

growth parameters, dry weight and number of fruits. There was also increase in the number of

stomata, K, Cd, Na, Cr and Fe.

13
However, the addition of organic nutrient supplements such as poultry waste was found to

remedy the adverse effects of the spent engine oil-polluted soil (Okon and Mbong, 2013;

Oluwanisola and Abdulrahaman, 2018). Further studies show that spent engine oil-pollution

could cause inhibitions in radicle, plumule and early seedling growth of Telfairia occidentalis,

Vigna unguiculata and poor performance in Zea mays (Kayode et al., 2009; Otunne and

Kinako, 2010; Njoku et al., 2012). Obazuaye et al. (2016, 2017) reported reductions in

germination rate, mean leaf area, root elongation and growth inhibition in Capsicum

chinesse, C. frutescens and C. annum grown on spent engine oil-polluted soil. Further studies

on effects of spent engine oil on soil and Zea mays showed an increase in nitrogen, bulk density

and organic carbon of the soil as well as reduced porosity, moisture content, hydraulic

conductivity, Na, P, Mg, Ca and K (Udonne and Onwuma, 2014; Nwite and Alu, 2015).

There are some wastes that cannot be converted into any beneficial secondary uses and,

therefore, pose a serious threat to the environment, one of such wastes being spent engine

oil (Onwuka et al., 2012). Spent engine oil refers to expended or used motor oils collected from

mechanical or automobile workshops, garages, and industrial sources like hydraulic oil,

turbine oils, engine oils, process oil and metal working fluids (Olugboji and Ogunwole,

2008). Spent engine oil is a mixture of several different chemicals including low and high

molecular weight (C15-C20) aliphatic hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons,

polychlorinated biphenyls, lubricant additives, chlorodibenzofurans, decomposition products,

heavy metal contaminants such as aluminum, chromium, tin, lead, manganese, nickel and silicon

that come from engine parts as they wear and tear down (Wang et al., 2000).

2.2.1 Rapid Increase Of Contamination

Contamination of soil by used engine oil is rapidly increasing due to global increase in the usage

of petroleum products (Mandri and Lin, 2007). Environmental pollution with petroleum and

14
petrochemical products has attracted much attention in recent decades. The presence of different

types of automobiles and machinery has resulted in an increase in the use of engine oil. Spillage

of used motor oils such as diesel or jet fuel contaminates our natural environment with

hydrocarbon (Husainiet al., 2008).

Hydrocarbon contamination of the air, soil, and freshwater especially by Polycyclic Aromatic

Hydrocarbons (PAHs) attracts public attention because many PAHs are toxic, mutagenic, and

carcinogenic (Cernigliaet al., 2001; Clementeet al., 2008).

Crude oil (petroleum) hydrocarbons are one of the most common groups of persistent organic

pollutants (Technol. 2019). Petroleum hydrocarbons are known to be toxic to many living

organisms due to their mutagenic and carcinogenic properties.

The low rate of decomposition of oil and oil products in the environment triggers their

accumulation and a gradual increase in their concentration in the environmental objects,

including the soil. After getting into the soil, crude oil products destroy its structure, upset the

air–water balance , alter the soil physicochemical properties, inhibit the microbial proliferation,

disrupt the soil enzymatic activity, and have a negative impact on terrestrial and soil mesofauna ,

as well as on plant growth and development.

Soil is the most valuable component of the farming ecosystem and environmental sustainability

largely depends on proper soil maintenance. Sustainable use of this natural resource on which

agriculture depends is absolutely necessary for agricultural productivity. Soil pollution by crude

oil and petroleum products such as spent engine oil, fuel oils, and diesel fuels are presently a

menace in Nigeria, particularly in big cities. Oil pollution in whatever form is toxic to plants and

soil micro-organisms (Adenipekun and Kassim, 2003; Adedokun and Ataga, 2007).

The presence of petroleum products in the environment poses danger to the growth of plants and

the wellbeing of animals resident or dependent on the environment.

15
Engine oil is one of the by-products from crude oil used for lubricating machines and

automobiles. After use by these machines, it is referred to as Spent Engine Oil (SEO). This oil,

also called spent lubricating oil, usually obtained from after service of automobile and generator

engines is subsequently drained (Anoliefo and Vwioko, 2001).

2.3 THEORETICAL REVIEW

In order to give credibility to this work, it is important to back up all relevant literature with an

appropriate theoretical framework in line with the fundamental principle upon which this study

is based. However, the following theories is found appropriate and will be adopted to further

the explanation of the phenomenon under study.

2.3.1 Environmental Externality Theory

Environmental Externality is one of the theoretical framework on which this work is based and

it is extremely fundamental in the analyses of environmental economics. This is because

pollution in any type is known to result in harm to both people and the environment.

Environmental Externalities are damages or benefits which are not paid for by the polluter or

beneficiary under normal market condition. Externalities are defined as the costs or benefits

which arise when the social economic activities or production system of one group of people

have a positive or negative impact on another and in which the first group may fail to fully

account for their impact . (Kolstad 2018)

Externalities are profit or costs generated as an involuntary effect of an economic activity that

do not accrue directly to the parties involved in the transaction and where no compensation

takes place. They manifest themselves all the way through changes in the physical biological

environment. Positive externality arises when actions of an individual or a group confers to

16
others positive effects or reward. A technological spill over is a positive externality which occurs

when a firm’ s invention not only benefits the firm but also enters into the society’ s pool of

technical knowledge and benefits the society as a whole. On the other hand, pollution is a

negative externality which occurs for example, when a factory discharges its untreated effluents

in a river, the river is polluted and consumers of the river bear costs in the form of health costs

or/and water purification. Alfred Marshall (1842 to 1924) noted to have introduced the

externality theory in economics, but his theorization was only concerned with positive

externalities accruing to the third parties outside of transactions (see Marshall, 2009). In the

2009’s, Pigou propounded the negative externalities theory having realized that externalities

contained not only profit but also costs.

Pigou (2009) externality theory deals with the problem of smoke emission by a factory

damaging nearby business or residents. His solution for correcting the negative externality is to

impose a per unit tax on output to the firm generating the negative externalities. The per unit

tax should be equivalent to the differences between the social marginal cost and the private

marginal cost corresponding to the social optimal output, the output satisfying the condition

the price equals the social marginal cost. Imposition of such a tax will raise the output price and

reduce the demand thereby helps in internalizing the environmental costs to some level in the

decisions of producers and consumers of the manufactured goods Pigou recognize that now

and again, government could find it essential to exercise some way of authoritative control.

Negative externality theory as has been described earlier, arises when the welfare of one party

is badly affected by the action of another party and the loss in welfare is uncompensated for

17
due to a be short of liability to third parties who suffered the damages. Others like (Baumol

etal 2009) also identified the conditions for terming an event an externality.

For example, a situation where actions have an effect on the production potential of the

economy and the welfare of people who are not fully consenting parties in reaching production

decisions, as they are in sales and purchases (Meade, 2012). No compensation is made for

welfare losses and gains. It is the negative externality theory as exposed by Pigou that is

extremely relevant to this paper. This paper argues that government should mandatorily

implement the legislation required for the oil industries to practice all necessary precautions

that will prevent or minimize environmental damages, while the ones already in existence

should be strengthened and upheld.

2.3.2 Relative Deprivation Theory

The major proponent of this theory is an American sociologist Robert K. Merton. Robert K.

Merton was among the first (if not the first) to use the idea of relative deprivation in order to

understand social deviance, using French sociologist Emile Durkheim's concept of anomie as a

starting point. Relative deprivation is the lack of resources to maintain the diet, lifestyle,

activities and amenities that an individual or group are accustomed to or that are widely

encouraged or approved in the society to which they belong. Measuring relative deprivation

allows an objective comparison between the circumstances of the individual or group

compared to the rest of society. Relative deprivation may also highlight the individual

experience of discontent when being deprived of something to which one believes oneself to

be entitled; however emphasizing the perspective of the individual makes objective

measurement problematic. It is a phrase used in social sciences to explain feelings or measures

18
of economic, political, or social deprivation that are relative rather than absolute. The term is

inextricably linked to the similar terms poverty and social exclusion. The idea of relative

deprivation has important consequences for both behaviour and attitudes, including feelings of

stress, political attitudes, and contribution in collective action. It is relevant to researchers

studying multiple fields in social sciences. (Ruciman 1966)

Social scientists, particularly political scientists and sociologists, have cited 'relative deprivation'

(especially temporal relative deprivation) as a potential cause of social movements and

deviance, leading in extreme situations to political violence such as rioting, terrorism, civil wars

and other instances of social deviance such as crime. For example, some scholars of social

movements explain their rise by citing grievances of people who feel deprived of what they

perceive as values to which they are entitled. Similarly, individuals engage in deviant behaviours

when their means do not match their goals. In one of the first formal definitions of the relative

deprivation, Walter Runciman highlighted that there are four preconditions of relative

deprivation (of object X by person A):

 Person A does not have X

 Person A knows of other persons that have X

 Person A wants to have X

 Person A believes obtaining X is realistic

Runciman distinguishes between egoistic and fraternalistic relative deprivation. The former is

caused by unfavorable social position when compared to other, better off members of a specific

group (of which A is the member) and the latter, by unfavorable comparison to other, better off

groups. Egoistic relative deprivation can be seen in the example of a worker who believes he

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should have been promoted sooner and may lead that person to take actions intended to

improve his position within the group; those actions are, however, unlikely to affect many

people. Fraternalistic can be seen in the example of racial discrimination, and are much more

likely to result in the creation and growth of large social movement, like the American Civil

Rights Movement in the 1960s. Another example of fraternalistic relative deprivation is the

envy teenagers feel towards the wealthy characters who are portrayed in movies and on

television as being "middle class" or "normal" despite wearing expensive clothes, driving

expensive cars, and living in mansions. (Duclos 2001)

Deprivation Theory means that people who are deprived of things deemed valuable in society

whether money, justice, status or privilege join social movements with the hope of redressing

their grievances. This is a beginning point for looking at why people join social movements;

however, it is even more important to look at relative deprivation theory, a belief that people

join social movement based on their evaluations of what they think they should have compared

with what others have. On the opposing, absolute deprivation is people's actual negative

condition; relative deprivation is what people believe they should have relative to what others

have, or even compared with their own past or perceived future. Improved conditions fuel

human desires for even better conditions, and thus can spark revolutions. (Ruciman 1966)

2.3.3 Kohlberg’s Theory

The conventional level of moral reasoning exceeds the edge of the ego and includes societal

consequences. In other to decide what kind of behavior is morally right, we need to measure up

to the social consequences of actions. Pareto optimality and Cost benefit analysis are example

of this. The natural to utilitarianism is “Bentham’s” – (the greatest happiness principles). Thus,

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to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number or to produce pleasure and avoid

pains. Becker points out that the philosophical tradition goes a step further and describes

human beings as ―not only self-related, but systematically related to the community (Becker,

2012) In order to identify the strongest differences, we selected those statements that received

rankings going in opposite directions (+, −) from both clusters, and of which at least one ranking

is equal to/ higher than + 1, or equal to/lower than − 1.

Furthermore, we set a minimum ranking distance between the clusters of 1.5 (e.g., + 1 for

cluster 1 and − 0.6 for cluster 2). Based on these definitions, strongly conflicting opinions

between the clusters appear to be those regarding intra-generational justice, which is very

powerfully rejected as being the precondition for intergenerational justice by the neoclassical

cluster, but is supported by the ecological economic cluster. A strong conceptual disagree also

exists regarding the utilitarian conception of human behaviour (homo economics), which is

rejected by the ecological economics cluster and supported by the neoclassical cluster. Finally,

clear differences in belief exist with respect to many aspects of sustainability policy. Here, the

neoclassical cluster sturdily denies that fundamental changes of our economic system and

material consumption restrictions are necessary for achieving sustainable development. On the

contrary, the ecological-economic cluster favours exactly these approaches. Furthermore, the

neoclassical cluster supports international specialization as a way towards more, sustainable

welfare worldwide an assumption deeply questioned by the ecological economic cluster. There

is also an obvious distinction between the clusters as regards their conception of science. While

the neoclassical cluster strongly demands an objective science, the position of the ecological-

economics cluster is disposed towards a subjectivist methodology of science. (Curran 2003).

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2.3.4 Stakeholder’s Theory

Firms are accountable not only on the interest of stakeholders, but also accountable for all their

actions related to people and nature. Good life, value of life and well being, (Herman .E. Daly,

2011), argues that possibly is more important to focus on well being than on growth of GDP,

(Herman .E. Daly and Joshua Farley, 2011).

2.3.5 Neoclassical Growth Theory

Neoclassical growth theory is commonly based on the assumption that economic growth

increases social welfare and, thus, treats growth as a desirable macroeconomic goal.

The underlying assumption is that if the whole economy is growing, in the end, the whole

society is better off, and distributive conflicts will emerge to a much lesser extent. (Abramovitz

1956). Thus, we could conclude that growth is a primary solution for reducing distributional

conflicts.

Yet, our neoclassical cluster does not share this view. Conceptions of justice and sustainability:

Sustainability cannot be defined as non-declining utility for a representative individual over

unlimited time. Intergenerational justice does not presuppose intra generational justice.

Sustainability policy: Sustainability does not require restrictions on material consumption.

Sustainability is achievable not only through fundamental changes of our economic system. The

utilization of the environment can be restricted to a level that is sustainable by setting the right

prices. International specialization leads to long-lasting growth of wealth worldwide. Neo-

classical economics view change is constant, it is a continue process. (Abramovitz 1962)

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There is need to change from neoclassical thinking (economic man) to an ecological economics

(ecological man) in other to achieved a sustainable economics. We need to change from linear

thinking to circulation thinking, we have to be conscious of what can be used and what cannot

be re-use, there are lots of consumption and use but it is necessary to re-use. (Atkinson 1962)

2.3.6 Resource Curse Theory

The resource curse theory, presuppose that nations with rich natural resources may fail to

increase in other sectors finally bringing about financial problems. The theory also assumes that

such a country will also not succeed to develop infrastructure and other industries; instead they

center on a handful of industries which cripples the economy by encouraging very isolated

investments and development; while ignoring the necessitate to develop a more diversified

economy. The outcome is that the country is also forced to a great extent to rely on other

nations for a broad variety of goods and services; and may in fact end up with a net loss at the

end of the year (Auty, 2011). The term resource curse was first used by Richard Auty (2008) to

illustrate how Countries rich in natural resources were unable to use that wealth to boost their

economies and how counter initiatively; these countries had lower economic growth than

countries without an abundance of natural resources. This was exemplified with the “Dutch

Disease” syndrome, a situation which makes it hard to diversify the economy, generally

undermining non-oil activities. Several studies including one by Sachs and Warner (2010), and

Billon (2010), have all shown a link between natural resource abundance and pitiable economic

growth. Hardin (2011) on his part opines that in the traditional Commons Problems, free access

to a finite resource ultimately dooms the resource through over exploitation. Natural resources

can and often do aggravate conflicts within the society as different groups and factions fight for

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their share as expressed by Collier and Hoeffler (2010). This tends to wear away government’s

abilities to function effectively.

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