Perform Computer Operations (PCO) Lesson 8

Perform Computer Operation

Trainer: Mr. Beeneil A. Quitola

Qualification Title: N/A NC Level: N/A Total Training Hours: 20

Name of TVI: Angelita V. Del Mundo Foundation (AVM Foundation) Inc.
Competency/ies to be Achieved LEARNING OUTCOMES:
and Learning Outcomes At the end of this module you MUST be able to:
1. Plan and prepare for task to be undertake
2. Input data into computer
3. Access information using computer
4. Produce/output data using computer system
5. Maintain computer equipment and systems

Learning Activities/ Tasks 1. Read Information Sheet

2. Answer Self-Check
3. Perform Task Sheet
Training Period / Training Duration Week 9
Training Method Blended Learning (Online & Modular - Print)
Method of Assessment Written test, Practical/ Performance Test & Interview
Learning/Training Resources CBLM
Learning Management System (LMS)

Lesson 8 What is Storage?

Storage refers to the media and methods used to keep information available for later use. Some things will be
needed right away while other won't be needed for extended periods of time. So different methods are appropriate for
different uses.

Earlier when learning about processing, we saw all the kinds of things that are stored in Main Memory.

Main Memory = Primary Storage

Main memory keeps track of what is currently being processed. It's volatile, meaning that turning the power off
erases all of the data.

For Main Memory, computers use RAM, or Random Access Memory. These memory chips are the fastest, but most expensive, type of storage.

Auxiliary Storage = Secondary Storage

Auxiliary storage holds what is not currently being processed. This is the stuff that is "filed away", but is ready to be pulled out when needed.

It is nonvolatile, meaning that turning the power off does not erase it.

Auxiliary Storage is used for:

• Input - data and programs
• Output - saving the results of processing

So, Auxiliary Storage is where you put last year's tax info, addresses for old customers, programs you may or may not ever use, data you entered
yesterday - everything that is not being used right now.

Magnetic Disks
Of the various types of Auxiliary Storage, the types used most often involve some type of magnetic disk. These come in various sizes and
materials, as we shall see. This method uses magnetism to store the data on a magnetic surface.
high storage capacity
Advantages: reliable gives direct access to data

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A drive spins the disk very quickly underneath a read/write head, which does what its name says. It reads data from a disk and writes data to a disk. (A
name that actually makes sense!)

Types of Magnetic Disks

Hard Disks
These consist of 1 or more metal platters which are sealed inside a case. The metal is one which is magnetic. The hard
disk is usually installed inside the computer's case, though there are removable and cartridge types, also.

Technically the hard drive is what controls the motion of the hard disks which contain the data. But most people use
"hard disk" and "hard drive" interchangeably. They don't make that mistake for floppy disks and floppy drives, described
below. It is clearer with floppies that the drive and the disk are separate things.

Diskette / Floppy Disk (nearly extinct!) Sizes:

5¼" 3½"
(really old stuff) (pretty much gone now)

Both sizes are made of mylar with an oxide coating. The oxide provides the magnetic quality for the disk. The "floppy" part is what is inside the
diskette covers - a very floppy piece of plastic (i.e. the mylar).

These disks are rapidly vanished. New computers often come without a floppy disk drive at all unless you ask for one.

Other Removable Magnetic Media

Several other kinds of removable magnetic media are in use, such as the Zip disk. All of these have a much higher
capacity than floppy disks.

Each type of media requires its own drive. The drives and disks are much more expensive than floppy drives and
disks, but then, you are getting much larger capacities.

There are other kinds of storage devices that are not magnetic, such as flash drives, or are not disks, such as magnetic tape. These will be
discussed later.
Disk Format

All magnetic disks are similarly formatted, or divided into areas, called tracks
sectors cylinders

The formatting process sets up a method of assigning addresses to the different areas. It also sets up an area for keeping the list of addresses.
Without formatting there would be no way to know what data went with what. It would be like a library where the pages were not in books, but were
scattered around on the shelves and tables and floors. You'd have a hard time getting a book together. A formatting method allows you to efficiently use the
space while still being able to find things.

Tracks
A track is a circular ring on one side of the disk. Each track has a number. The diagram
shows 3 tracks.

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Sectors
A disk sector is a wedge-shape piece of the disk, shown in yellow. Each sector is numbered.
On a 5�" disk there are 40 tracks with 9 sectors each.
On a 3�" disk there are 80 tracks with 9 sectors each.

So a 3�" disk has twice as many named places on it as a 5�" disk.

A track sector is the area of intersection of a track and a sector, shown in yellow.

Clusters
A cluster is a set of track sectors, ranging from 2 to 32 or more, depending on the formatting scheme in use.
The most common formatting scheme for PCs sets the number of track sectors in a cluster based on the capacity of
the disk. A 1.2 gig hard drive will have clusters twice as large as a 500 MB hard drive. 1 cluster is the minimum
space used by any read or write. So
there is often a lot of slack space, unused space, in the cluster beyond the data stored there.
There are some new schemes out that reduce this problem, but it will never go away entirely.
The only way to reduce the amount of slack space is to reduce the size of a cluster by changing the
method of formatting. You could have more tracks on the disk, or else more sectors on a track, or you
could reduce the number of track sectors in a cluster.

Cylinders
A cylinder is a set of matched tracks.
On a double-sided floppy, a track from the top surface and the same # track from the bottom
surface of the disk make up a cylinder. The concept is not particularly useful for floppies.
On a hard disk, a cylinder is made of all the tracks of the same # from all the metal disks that
make up the "hard disk".
If you put these all together on top of each
other, you'd have something that looks like a tin can with no top or bottom - a cylinder.

The computer keeps track of what it has put where on a disk by remembering the addresses of
all the sectors used, which would mean remembering some combination of the cylinder, track,
and sector. Thank goodness we don't have to remember all these numbers!

Where the difference between addressing methods shows up is in the time it takes for the
read/write head to get into the right position. The cylinder method writes data down the disks on the same cylinder. This works
faster because each metal platter has a read/write head for each side and they all move together. So for one position of the
read/write heads, the computer can put some data on all the platters before having to move the heads to a new position.

What happens when a disk is formatted?

1. All data is erased.
Don't forget this!!

2. Surfaces are checked for physical and magnetic defects.

3. A root directory is created to list where things are on the disk.

Disk Capacity

The capacity of a magnetic disk depends on several factors.

We always want the highest amount of data stored in the least possible space. (People are so
greedy this way!) So the capacities of storage media keep increasing while cost keeps decreasing. It's a lovely situation for the user!

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Capacity of a Disk depends on:

1. # of sides used:
single-sided double-sided

2. Recording density -
how close together the bits can be on a track sector of the innermost track

3. # of tracks on the disk

Capacity of Disks
5¼" floppy - 360 KB or 1.2 MB
3½" floppy - 720 KB or 1.44 MB
Hard disk early ones = 20 MB currently
up to 3 TB Internal hard drive (July 2010)
where 1 TB = 1 terabyte = 1000 GB

The future???

Advances in technology for the read/write

head and for the densities on the disks are bringing larger and
larger disk capacities for about the same price. In fact, you cannot
find a small capacity drive to buy, even if you wanted one! 2
TB drives are plentiful (July 2010) and for the same price that we used to buy 1 Gig drives (under $200). It's enough to make you cry to think of what we
paid over the years and what we could get for those dollars today. Ah, well. That's the way the computer world works!

Accessing Data

The process of accessing data has 4 steps.

1. Seek
2. Rotate
3. Settle
4. Data transfer
Step Measured as: Click to start and stop animations
1. seek seek time
move the head to proper track (ms)
2. rotate rotational delay
rotate disk under the head to the correct (ms) sector

3. settle settling time

head lowers to disk; (ms)
wait for vibrations from moving to stop (actually touches only on floppies)

4. data transfer data transfer

rate
copy data to main memory (kbs)
where ms stands for millisecond = .001 second and kbs is kilobytes per second. Total time to transfer a kilobyte:
for floppies, 175 - 300 ms for hard drive, 15 - 80 ms new hard drives,
.0032 ms (300 MB per sec). (Jun. 2009) This is seriously fast!!
Clearly, getting data from a hard disk is immensely faster than from a floppy.
Caring for Disks
To keep your storage media happy and healthy you must observe certain precautions.
Each medium has its own particular weaknesses and hazards to avoid. Be careful or suffer the consequences - lost data, which means, at best, lots of lost
time and effort! This section is about floppy disks and hard disks only. Other storage media are discussed later.

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Care of Hard Disks

There are fewer precautions for hard disks since they are more protected by being sealed in air-tight cases. But when damage does occur, it is a
more serious matter. Larger amounts of data can be lost and hard disks are much, much more expensive that floppy disks.

Hard disks can have problems from magnetic fields and heat like floppies do, but these are very rare.

Most problems occur when the read/write head (looks like a pointer in the photo) damages the metal disk by hitting or even just touching it. This is
called a head crash.

When the computer is on, the hard disk is spinning extremely fast. Any contact at all can cause pits or scratches.
Every scratch or pit is lost data. Damage in the root directory turns the whole hard disk into a lovely doorstop! It's completely
dead.

So the goal here is to keep that read/write head where it belongs, just barely above the hard disk, but never, ever touching it.

Don't

Jar the computer while the Turn the computer off and quickly back on disk is spinning. before spinning has stopped. Drop
it - ever.

Caring for Data

Besides protecting the physical medium you are using to store data, you must also consider what you can do to
safeguard the data itself. If the disk is kept from physical harm, but the data gets erased, you still have a major problem.
So what can you do to safeguard the data on which you rely??
Write protect This keeps your files from being overwritten with new ones.
Removable media including USB drives:
Look for a tiny write-protect switch on the device.
Hard disks and devices without a switch:
• Make files Read-Only and/or Hidden to keep them from being overwritten. This is done by changing the file
attributes using whatever system you have for managing files.
• Assign a password to each file, which can be done with some programs and some USB drives.
• Encrypt the files. This will require special software and remembering the decryption key.
Backup Make multiple copies of important data often.
The more important the files are, the more copies in more places you need.
Anti- Use a set of programs that continuously look for an attack by a virus, trojan, or worm malware .

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Computer viruses/trojans/worms are sneaky computer programs that can erase your data and even your whole system. Many are
merely annoying and are created as practical jokes. But there are a number of very damaging malware programs out there, plus
others that are out to steal your passwords or use your computer to damage or annoy others.
Your computer gets one of these nasties by downloading an infected file from the internet (sometimes without your knowledge!) or
your office network, or by first using a removable disk in an infected computer and then accessing a file on that removable disk with
your own computer. This makes it difficult to keep them from spreading.
Once you have disinfected your computer, it can get re-infected from a removable disk that was used between the time you were
infected with the malware and when you disinfected it. A number of nasty viruses hide for quite a while before doing their nasty
things. So you can infect a lot of your own backups and other disks and spread the infection, all unknowingly, to others. So run an
antimalware program that actively looks for infections all the time. Don't wait until you have symptoms. A lot of damage can be done
before you figure out that you have a problem.

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic tape uses a method similar to that of VCR tape for storing data.
The speed of access can be quite slow, however, when the tape is long and what you want is not near the start. So this method is used primarily for major
backups of large amounts of data.
Businesses especially might do a backup of the day's transactions every day and a backup of the whole system once a week or so. Keeping sets of
backups like this minimizes the amount of data loss when the computer system goes down.

Types of Tape
Each different tape storage system has its own requirements as to the size, the container type, and the magnetic characteristics of the tape.
Older systems designed for networks use reel-to-reel tapes. Newer systems use cassettes. Some of these are even smaller than an audio cassette but hold
more data than the huge reels. Even if they look alike, the magnetic characteristics of tapes can vary. It is important to use the tape that is right for the
system.

Tape Reel Tape Cassette

Optical Disks

An entirely different method of recording data is used for optical disks. These include the various kinds of CD and DVD discs.

You may guess from the word "optical" that it has to do with light. You'd be exactly right!
Laser light, in fact.
Optical disks come in several varieties which are made in somewhat different ways for different purposes.

How optical disks are similar

• Formed of layers
• Data in a spiral groove on starting from the center of the disk
• Digital data (1's and 0's)
• 1's and 0's are formed by how the disk absorbs or reflects light from a tiny laser.
The different types of optical disks use different materials and methods to absorb and reflect the light.

How It Works (a simple version)

An optical disc is made mainly of polycarbonate (a plastic). The data is stored on a layer inside the polycarbonate. A metal layer reflects the laser light back
to a sensor.
To read the data on a disk, laser light shines through the polycarbonate and hits the data layer. How the laser light is reflected or absorbed is read as a 1
or a 0 by the computer.

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In a CD the data layer is near the top of the disc, the label side.
In a DVD the data layer is in the middle of the disc. A DVD can actually have data in two layers. It can access the data from one side or from both sides.
This is how a double-sided, double-layered DVD can hold 4 times the data that a single-sided, single-layered DVD can.

Materials
The materials used for the data (recording) and metal (reflecting) layers are different for different kinds of optical disks.
CD- DVD- Type Data Layer Metal Layer
CD-ROM DVD-ROM Read Only Molded Aluminum
(Also silicon, silver, or gold in double-
(Audio/video PC (Video/audio, layered DVDs)
software) PC use)
CD-R DVD-R DVD+R Recordable (once!) Organic dye Silver, gold, silver alloy
CD-RW DVD-RW Rewritable Phase-changing metal Aluminum
DVD+RW (write, erase, write again) alloy film
DVD+RAM
Read Only:
The most common type of optical disk is the CD-ROM, which stands for Compact Disc –

Read Only Memory. It looks just like an audio CD but the recording format is quite different. CD-ROM discs are used for computer software.

DVD used to stand for Digital Video Device or Digital Versatile Device, but now it doesn't really stand for anything at all! DVDs are used for recording
movies and large amounts of data.

The CDs and DVDs that are commercially produced are of the Write Once Read Many (WORM) variety.
They can't be changed once they are created.
The data layer is physically molded into the polycarbonate. Pits (depressions) and lands (surfaces) form the digital data. A metal coating (usually
aluminum) reflects the laser light back to the sensor. Oxygen can seep into the disk, especially in high temperatures and high humidity. This corrodes the
aluminum, making it too dull to reflect the laser correctly.
CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks should be readable for many, many years (100? 200?), but only if you treat them with respect.

Write Once:
The optical disks that you can record on your own computer are CD-R, DVD-R, and DVD+R discs, called writable or recordable disks.
The metal and data layers are separate. The metal layer can be gold, silver, or a silver alloy.

Go for the Gold: Gold layers are best because gold does not corrode. Naturally, the best is more expensive.
Sulfur dioxide from the air can seep in and corrode silver over time.
The data layer is an organic dye that the writing laser changes. Once the laser modifies the dye, it cannot be changed again. Write Once! Ultraviolet light
and heat can degrade the organic dye.

Manufacturers say that these disks have a shelf-life of 5 - 10 years before they are used for recording. There is no testing yet about how long the data will
last after you record it. Humph!
A writable disk is useful as a backup medium when you need long-term storage of your data. It is less efficient for data that changes often since you must
make a new recording each time you save your data. Pricing of the disks will be important to your decision to use writable disks.

Rewrite:
An option for backup storage of changing data is rewritable disks, CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD+RAM.

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The data layer for these disks uses a phase-changing metal alloy film. This film can be melted by the laser's heat to level out the marks made by the laser
and then lasered again to record new data.

In theory you can erase and write on these disks as many as 1000 times, for CD-RW, and even 100,000 times for the DVD-RW types.

Advantages of Optical Disks

1. Physical: An optical disk is much sturdier than tape or a floppy disk. It is physically harder to break or melt or warp. It's somewhat harder to lose
than a USB flash drive.
2. Delicacy: It is not sensitive to being touched, though it can get too dirty or scratched to be read. It can be cleaned!
3. Magnetic: It is entirely unaffected by magnetic fields.
4. Capacity: Optical disks hold a lot of data, especial the double-sided DVDs.

Plus, the non-data side of the disk can have a pretty label!
For software providers, an optical disk is a great way to store the software and data that they want to distribute or sell.

Disadvantages of Optical Disks

• Cost: The main disadvantage has been cost.
The cost of a CD-RW drive has dropped drastically and quickly. In 1995 such a drive was around $3000. In the summer of 1997 CD-
RW drives were down to just under $1000. In March 2003 a CD-RW that will read at 40X speed, write on CD-R media at 40X speed,
and write on re-writable media at 12X, could be bought for under $100 US. In July 2010 you could get an internal DVD�RW drive
for under $50!
The cost of disks can add up, too. Recordable disks (one time only) cost about $.30 US each (March 2003) In July 2010 you can find
these in packs of 100 for less than $.03 each. Rewritable disks cost about $1 each. (July 2010) You have to be careful about the
capacity and maximum recording speed. The boxes all look a lot alike!
So for commercial use, the read/write drives are quite cost effective. For personal use, they are available and are cheap enough to use
for data storage for everyone.

• Duplication: It is not quite as easy or as fast to copy an optical disk as it isto copy files to a USB flash drive. You need the software and
hardware for writing disks! (This is an advantage as far as commercial software providers are concerned!) But discs are easy to label and to
store.

Care of Optical Disks (CDs, DVDs)

Your CDs and DVDs are not going to last forever. They certainly store data longer than other storage media! Mis-handling your optical disk can quickly
make your data unreadable. Even fingerprints can do damage over time.

Data loss comes from:

• Physical damage - breaking, melting, scratching...
• Blocking of laser light by dirt, paint, ink, glue...
• Corrosion of the reflecting layer

Here are some do's and don'ts for keeping your CDs and DVDs healthy.
• Cleaning:
 Keep it clean!
 Handle by the edges or center hole.
 Put it back in its case as soon as you are finished with it. No laying around on the desktop!!
 Remove dirt and smudges with a clean cotton cloth by wiping from the center to the outer edge, NOT by wiping around the
disk. Wiping in a circle can create a curved scratch, which can confuse the laser.
 For stubborn dirt, use isopropyl alcohol or methanol or CD/DVD cleaning detergent.
• Labeling:
 Don't use an adhesive label. The adhesive can corrupt your data in just a few months!
 Don't write on or scratch the data side of the disk - ever!
 Don't scratch the label side.
 Don't write on the label side with a pencil or pen (scratches!)
 Don't write on the label side with a fine-point marker or with any solvent-based marker. Use markers for CDs. (Solvent may
dissolve the protective layer.) Storage:
 Store optical disks upright on edge, like a book, in a plastic case designed specifically for them. Not flat for long periods!
 Store in a cool, dark environment where the air is clean and dry. NO SMOKE! Low humidity.
• How you treat it:

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 Keep away from high heat and high humidity which accelerate corrosion.
 Keep out of sunlight or other sources of ultraviolet light.
 Keep away from smoke or other air pollution.
 Don't bend it!
 Don't use a disk as a coaster or a frisbee or a bookmarker! Recording
• Check disk for flaws and dirt BEFORE recording on it.
• Only open a recordable disk just before you plan to record on it.
• After recording, make sure the disk works as you expect: Read data; run programs.

Other Devices
Invention springs eternal in the computer industry. So more and different devices are brought out all the time, especially for special uses.
The history of computing suggests that some new technology will take over the market in the near future. Guessing which one will win the race is what
makes fortunes in the stock market!

Flash Memory Several different brands of removable storage cards, also called memory cards, are now available. These are solid-
state devices (no moving parts) that read and write data electrically, instead of magnetically.
Devices like digital cameras, digital camcorders, and cell phones may use CompactFlash, SmartMedia,
Memory Stick, or another flash memory card.
Laptop computers use PCMCIA cards, another type of flash memory, as solid-state hard disks.
USB drive This new type of flash memory storage device does not yet have a generally accepted name.
Each company calls it something different, including flash drive, jump drive, flash pen, thumb
drive, key drive, and mini-USB drive.
All are small, about the size of your thumb or a large car key, and plug into a USB port on the
computer. No drivers are needed for recent versions of Windows. Plug it in and the computer reports a new drive!
Such small flash drives can have storage capacities from 8 MB to 128 GB or more! Some flash drives include password
protection and the ability to run software right off the USB drive. So cool!

Removable Several types of special drives that compress data are available. An hard drives external
hard drive can be used for backup, too.
The image at the right is of an external Zip drive with a disk sticking out.

Mass storage Businesses with very large sets of data that need easy access use sets of cartridges with robot arms
to pull out the right one on command.

Smart cards A chip on the card itself tracks changes, like deducting purchases
from the amount entered originally on the card. Smart cards are already used in Europe and at
colleges instead of using a handful of coins at vending machines and at laundromats.
Another use involves a new sensor technology which lets a smart card read your fingerprint right
on the card. The digital image of the fingerprint is then transmitted to a database to compare it
with the one on file for that card. You can prove you are really you!!

Optical cards A chip on the card holds information like health records and auto repair records. They can hold more data than the smart cards since
they don't need to do any processing.

DO NOT RETURN THIS MODULE.

KEEP IT AS NOTES FOR FUTURE TOPICS & ASSESSMENTS.

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Lesson 8 Storage Assessment

Name: Date:
Section: Score:

IDENTIFICATION: Identify the word/term that is defined or described by the following statements/examples. (10 Points)

1. ____________________, Make multiple copies of important data often.

2. ____________________, A set of track sectors, ranging from 2 to 32 or more, depending on the formatting scheme in use.
3. ____________________, These consist of 1 or more metal platters which are sealed inside a case. The metal is one which is magnetic.
The hard disk is usually installed inside the computer's case, though there are removable and cartridge types, also.
4. ____________________, A circular ring on one side of the disk.
5. ____________________, This keeps your files from being overwritten with new ones.
6. ____________________, All are small, about the size of your thumb or a large car key, and plug into a USB port on the computer.
7. ____________________, Refers to the media and methods used to keep information available for later use.
8. ____________________, Devices like digital cameras, digital camcorders, and cell phones may use CompactFlash, Smart Media,
Memory Stick, or another flash memory card.
9. ____________________, These include the various kinds of CD and DVD discs.
10. ____________________, Use a set of programs that continuously look for an attack by a virus, Trojan, or worm.

ESSAY: Discuss briefly and give or enumerate examples. (10 Points).

 How to take care of Hard Disks and Data?

PLEASE RETURN THIS ACTIVITY SHEET TO YOUR TEACHER

FOR CHECKING AND RECORDING PURPOSES.

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