the soil quartz is contributed by
Trace Evidence: SOIL, DUST and
DIRT
SOIL (Petrography as Applied to
Crime Detection)
Petrography – is the branch of
geology that deals withthe systematic
classification and identification of
rocks, rocks forming minerals and
soils.
Criminalist regards soil as top layer
of the earth. It may include any
substance on the earth that may stick
a person’s clothing or shoes.
Types of Soil
1. Alluvial soil – formed from soil
particles that were washed, blown, or
moved by gravity to the lowlands.
Earth, sand gravel, etc. are
deposited by moving water
and wind.
2. Colluvial soil – formed from the
decomposition of igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary rocks,
the decomposed particles moved by
gravity.
3. Sedentary soil – inactive, not
migratory soil.
Collection and Submission of
Soil
1. Soil usually in form of mud is
usually recovered
from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires,
tools and
furniture.
2. If found on the above the soil
should remain in
place and the whole submitted to the
laboratory.
3. Should be wrapped in a clean
paper or filter paper and placed in a
box.
4. Known soil samples should be
taken at different places around the
point or reference.
Constituents of Soil:
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Minerals
3. Organic constituents
Primary Minerals – includes
undecomposed
rock fragments ranging from stone
down
thru pebbles, sand and silt
IMPORTANT MINERALS
1. Quartz – a form of silica.
Crystalline mineral usually colorless
and transparent. Also called quarts
sands. It originates primarily from
igneous rock but much of
metamorphic and sedimentary rock.
- common mineral and an almost
universal component of soil
2. Calcite (limestone-Ca2CO3) –
color white and reacts with acid with
evolution of carbon dioxide.
Occurs widely particularly in
calcareous soil.
3. Feldspar (silicate of aluminum or
sodium, or barium, calcium,
potassium) – their composition
gives rise to clay along with more or
less soluble salts of the metals
named.
4. Dolomite – white mineral obtained
from sedimentary rock. Similar to
limestone.
5. Mica – a mineral that crystalline in
thin, flexible layers, resistant to heat.
6. Other primary minerals:
gypsum, talc, limonite,magnetite
Clay minerals – a product of
decomposition of primary minerals.
Found nearly all soils and is the
major constituents of most heavy
soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness
and plasticity and becomeshard and
a dherent on heating.
3. Organic constituents – one of
the most variable of all soil
constituents and is peculiar
importance in the identification of
soil.
- peat and muck
soils formed from constant decay of
organic matter and contain only a
small amount of residual mineral
-humus constituents are the most
black coloring matter of soil.
ANALYSIS OF SOIL
 DENSITY GRADIENT
APPARATUS = use in
crime laboratory
 - a simple procedure of
determining the identity
or non-identity of soil samples based
on the
density distribution.
 OTHER METHODS
1. X-ray diffraction
2. Spectrographic analysis
 Thermal analysiS
Application of soil analysis to
scientific crime
detection
The value of soils as evidence
depends
wholly upon the fact that soils differ
in various characteristics over the
surface of the
earth. This difference makes possible 1. Examine the sample under the
to ultraviolet
establish the identity where about of light.
a person under investigation 2. Treat a small quantity with a drop
DUST and DIRT - Described as of water
“matter in the wrong place”. Dust – on a spot plate
matter which is dry and in finely a. Observe color of aqueous drop
divided form Mud – dust mixed with with handlens.
water Grime – (heavy dirt) – when b. Note the proportion of the solid
dust is mixed with the sweat and matter which
grease of the human body remains in suspension and
CLASSIFICATION OF DUST Can proportion which
be classified from their source: settles rapidly.
1. Dust deposited from the air – c. Note the reaction with litmus
extremely fine dust particles present paper.
in the air everywhere. Settle very 3. Treat a small quantity with a drop
slowly and ultimately deposited on of 0.1N hydrochloric
any exposed surface. Its value in acid
crime detection is insignificant. a. Note the evolution of gas
2. Road and footpath dust – b. Note the formation of precipitate
produced by the wear and tear of the c. Note change in color
road surface by vehicular and d. Note materials dissolved by acid
pedestrian traffic together with 4. Treat a small quantity with ethanol
particles of soil carried by the wind or a. Note color of alcohol drop
rain from adjoining regions b. Note the difference between the
3Industrial dust – industries like color of an
cement, powdered gypsum and aqueous solution in procedure 2 and
plaster of paris factories, flour milling that in color
paint pigments, involves industrial solution.
processes impart a pronounce local c. Note other changes.
character to the dust on the
neighboring roads and buildings. Trace Evidence: GLASS
4. Occupational dust – some of the
finely powdered material maybe
found on the clothing and footwear of GLASS
employers engaged in such  Is a super cooled liquid which
industries. Ex. Coal miners will have possesses
coal dust on his clothes high viscosity and rigidity. It is a
4. Collection and Submission of noncrystalline inorganic substance.
Dust and Dirt  Composition ofGlass
1. The whole article is packed in a  Composed of oxides like SiO
clean box with proper protection and (silica), B2O3
shipped to the laboratory. (boric oxide, phosphorus pentoxide
2. If the object is immovable or too (P2O5).
big to submit as a specimen like  Oxide is for fluxing, durability and
sofa, piano, dresser, the specimen reduction of
maybe removed by the used of viscosity.
vacuum cleaner is not available the Common Oxides Used in Glass
clothes maybe placed in a clean Manufacture
paper bag and beaten to remove OXIDES FUNCTION
dust and dirt. 1. Silica (SiO2) ------- base of
commercial glass
Analysis of dust and dirt 2. Soda (Na2O) ------ acts as flux for
-identification of dust/dirt is usually silica
made for 3. Lime (CaO) --------gives the glass
the purpose of determining the chemical
occupation of durability which it otherwise lack
the suspect or finding evidence that because of
maybe the water-soluble Na2O.
similar or identical with that found at 4. Magnesia ----------present as
the impurity or
scene of crime. substitute for CaO
5. Alumina (Al2O3) –gives the glass 1. Glass always breaks under
greater tension,
chemical durability lower coefficient not compression. It will bend, until
of the tensile strength is exceeded,
expansion, and greater freedom from and then break.
devitrification. 2. Glass first bend on the direction
6. Potash (K2O) – for chemical where force is applied causing the
durability and opposite side to stretch.
resistance to devitrificatioN 3. Glass can withstand more bending
rather than stretching causing the
Analysis of Glass opposite side to start breaking.
1. Spectrographic Test – determine THE STRENGHT OF GLASS AND
the GLASS
presence of trace elements. Shows FRACTURES
the  It is important to remember that the
constituent elements of glass. strength of glass is in its surface. As
2. X-ray diffraction test – it soon
determines the as the surface is penetrated or
type of pattern of glass. The type of scratched,
pattern for example, using a diamond tip
depends upon the composition of pencil,
glass. glass will tend to break along that
3. Physical properties examination – scratch
(specific line. Once the surface is damaged,
gravity, density, refractive index) the
4. Ultraviolet light examination – remainder of the material is easily
determines cracked
the differences in the appearance of or fragmented
the
fluorescent thus indication of physical Types of Glass Fracture:
and 1. Radial fracture or primary fracture
chemical differences. –
5. Polish marks – optical glass and resembles the spoke of a wheel
other fine wherein the
glasswares are usually polished. In radiating rod originates at a common
the point.
polishing of glass fine marks are 2. Concentric fracture or secondary
often left on fracture –
the surface which can sometimes wherein the radiating rod is being
served as connected
basis of comparison to one another and has a cob-web
appearance.
Glass as Evidence of Crime Fractures
1. Automobile glass in case of hit and Concentric
run. Radial
2. Broken windows cause by bsapp.com
pressure, blow or Cause of Fracture
bullet in case of robbery. 1. Due to natural means – exhibits a
3. Broken bottles, drinking glasses, plain wavy
spectacles lines.
found at the scene of an assault or 1. Due to mechanical means –
other exhibits a
crimes of violence, which would regular pattern of radial/concentric
suggest fracture.
examination of the soles and heels of Direction
the of
suspect for imbedded glass Penetration
fragments  A projectile hole is
inevitably wider at the exit
How Glass side
Breaks? Direction of
Penetration
Radial
Concentric
Successive Penetrations
 A fracture always terminates at an
existing
line of fracture
Factors to be determined in
Glass fracture
I. Point of Impact:
Entrance Side Exit Side
1. Radial Fracture 1. Concentric
fracture
2. Clear cut edges 2. Rugged edges
3. Absence of depression 3. With
depression
4. Absence of flaking 4. With flakings
II. Position of the firer
1. Perpendicular shot – exhibit an
even
distribution of chippings on the exit
side of
the glass.
2. Angle from the right – heavy
flaking or
chipping on the left side of the glass.
3. Angle from the left – heavy flaking
on the
right side of the glass
III. Age of Fracture
1. Fresh fracture – exhibits a regular
pattern of
radial concentric fracture.
2. Old Fracture – presence of a short
extension
lines at the end of the radial tracking.
Collection/Preservation of
Glass Specimen
1. Glass and glass fragments must
be
photograph, their location noted and
sketched before they are touched
and
moved.
2. In the collection of glass
specimen, the
investigator must be careful to
prevent
smudging any fingerprints or any
other
substances present on the glass.
3. Rubber and fabrics, gloves must
be worn and
rubber tipped tweezers must be used
for
handling.
4. All available fragments must be
collected for
future reassembly.
5. Glass and glass fragments must
be wrapped
in a clean, soft paper or tissue or
similar
material to prevent breakage and
placed in a
suitable container and marked
“fragile”.
6. Properly tag and receipt are
prepared
together with the letter of transmittal
and
request for laboratory examination.
Trace Evidence: Toolmarks
Tool mark
A tool is an instrument or object
capable of
making a mark on another object.
While a
tool mark is
compression,
defined as any impression,
cut, gouge, scratch,
indentation, or any other marking left
in an
object by another harder object or
instrument.
Application o f t o o l mark:
▪ Knife marks onbone
▪ Fractured knife blades
▪ Homemade explosive devises
▪ Crimp marks ondetonators
▪ Cut marks onwire
▪ Pry marks on awindow or door
What information that tool
mark can provide?
▪ The type oftool
▪ Shape of the cutting edge of ablade
▪ Blade width
▪ Color of the tool (based on the paint
transfer
from thetool)
▪ Class characteristics ofthe tool
▪ Unique identifying marks
Tool marks are the Identifying
Charact eri st i cs of a Speci f i c Tool
▪ Tool mark impressions are usually
microscopic
and are the result of the
imperfections found on
the cutting surface of a tool. These
marks are the
"signature" or identifying
characteristics of a
specific tool.
▪ Laboratory examinations and
comparisons of
tool marks from a “suspect tool“ with
tool marks
recovered from a crime scene can
often prove
conclusive evidence to link a suspect tool marks
to a specific tools
crime and wrap up the criminal
investigation. Striations, minutescratches
Creating a Link Between the Impressed marksare
Tool mark and the Tool also tool marks
▪ In a criminal investigation, the goal Tool marks
is to establish Chipped axblade
a link between a tool mark and the Chip fromscene
tool that Fracture
created it at the crime scene. Such Comparison
links are Types o f Tool Marks
crucial in forensic sciences, as tools 1. Embossed/impression Marks –
are often produced by
used in criminal activities, particularly perpendicular force acting against an
in object.
burglaries, and can help to identify a Example: punches, hammers, and
criminal. some
For example, when someone uses a gripping tools.
screw driver 2. Striated scrape marks – made by
to force a window open, the marks moving the
left by the tool laterally across the object.
tool on the window frame are direct Example: flatbladed tools such as
evidence of crowbars, pry bars and
the presence of that tool for that screwdrivers.
particular use 3. Shearing or pinching marks –
at the crime scene. (Then the tool occur when the
needs to be object is caught between opposing
matched toits owner). forces of
How Tool marks are Created two cutting actions. Example:
1. Compression - is a static scissors cause
identification shearing, pliers and bolt cutters
made by blows using atool (e.g., cause pinching.
hammer
marks-sledge, ball pen, claw; Embossed tool marks
screwdriver Hammer toolmark
pry marks; opposed jaw marks made Pliers tool mark
by
pliers, bolt cutters, pipe wrench.) ScrapeMarks
2. Friction –is adynamic mark, most ▪ Are made by moving tool laterally
often across
leaving striations made by the unique another object
edge irregularities of a particular tool
(e.g. shears, screwdrivers, knives, Shearing or PinchingMarks
axes, ▪ Occur when object is caught
etc.) between
3. Repetition- is the repeated opposing forces of two cutting
dynamic marks left by actions
tools such as files or saws. These Examples are
are very ▪ Scissors
difficult to identify because of the ▪ Bolt cutters
great -
number of teeth and the confusion of Tool mark examination involves the
marks comparison of
left.  Classcharacteristics
4. Combination – often tool can leave  Individual characteristics
a Class characteristics are those
combination and frictionmarks characteristics that are common to
group
tools of similarobjects
Apair of scissorscan leave tool marks They are those characteristics that
Each screwdriver will leave a unique are
determined bymanufacturer  Striated
Each of these screwdrivers  Shearing
has different general class ▪ Measurement of lengths and widths
characteristics of tool
Each o f these pliers has and tool marks
different general class ▪ Create test marks with tool
Characteristic  Testmarks are created in similar
manner to the
Even similar tools canhave different way questioned tool mark was
class created
characteristics ▪ Test marks are compared to each
Example: other to
▪ Two flathead screwdrivers have look for unique marks that are
different blade consistently
widths repeated
Individual Characteristics ▪ Best test mark is compared to
▪Are accidental or questioned
unintentional marks or tool mark
defects thatoccur naturally ▪ Microscopic comparison is done
through use of the tool with
Collection o f Tool Mark comparison microscope
Evidence ▪ Criteria for making identification is
▪ Best method is to collect entire based on
object presence of well-defined repetitive
bearing tool mark marks
▪ Surface of tool mark should be between evidence andtestS
protected
▪ Tool and object bearing tool mark HAIR
should be
packaged separately HAIR
If object bearing tool mark is too big  A hair can be defined as a slender,
to collect thread-like
(such as door orwall) outgrowth from a follicle in the skin of
▪ Cut around tool mark and remove it mammals.
from  Occur everywhere on the human
object body except on
▪ If it is not possible to cut out tool the palm of the hands and the sole of
mark, the feet.
silicone cast of mark canbe made Two kinds of Hair
As final option, tool mark can be 1. Real Hair –generally long and stiff
photographed 2. Fuzz Hair – generally short, fine at
▪ Scale must be placed next to mark times curly
▪ Camera with detachable flash and wooly
should be used Parts of the Hair
and held off to side to create 1. Root – portion embedded in the
shadows in skin
mark 2. Shaft – portion above the surface
How Tool Mark Comparisons of the
Are Conducted skin. It is the most distinctive part of
▪ Tool mark comparison begins at the
crime scene hair.
when tool and tool mark are collected 3. Tip – sometimes termed point. The
▪ They are then submitted to tool distal
mark end of uncut hair shaft.
examiner for comparison
Tool mark examiners Hair Root
performsexaminations  Responsible for hair production
by: and growth
▪ Visual exam of tool  Three development stage of hair
▪ Visual exam of tool mark growth:
▪ Determine howmark was created anagen, catagen and telogen
 Embossed
1. Anagen phase – (cyclical growth) under compound microscope and
last up to six stereoscope.
years, the root is attached to the
follicle for Cuticle
continued growth, giving the root There are three basic scale
bulb a flameshaped. When pulled, structures that
anagen hairs contain make up the cuticle—coronal (crown-
follicular tag, a translucent tissue like),
surrounding spinous (petal-like), and imbricate
the hair shaft near the root. Follicular (flattened).
tag was The coronal, or crown-like scale
used for individualization using DNA. pattern is found in hairs
2. Catagen Phase – (transition stage) of very fine diameter and resemble a
typically stack of paper cups.
have an elongated appearance as Coronal scales are commonly found
the root in the hairs of small
bulb shrinks in size and being rodents and bats but rarely in human
pushed out hairs.
from the follicle. On this phase, hair Spinous or petal-like scales are
continue triangular in
to grow at decreasing rate which can shape and protrude from the hair
last shaft. They are
from two to three weeks. found at the proximal region of mink
3. Telogen Phase – (resting stage) hairs and
begins when on the fur hairs of seals, cats, and
hair growth ends, the root takes on a some other
club animals. They are never found in
shaped appearance. During six to human hairs.
two months The imbricate or flattened scales
period, the hair will pushed out of the type consists
follicle of overlapping scales with narrow
causing the hair to be naturally shed. margins. They
Photomicrograph of are commonly found in human hairs
Anagen Hair Root and many
Photomicrograph of Catagen animal hairs
Hair Root 2. Medulla
Photomicrograph of Telogen  Is the central canal of the hair that
Hair Root may be
Stages empty or may contain various sorts
of of cells
hair more or less pigmented and begins
growth more or
Hair Shaft Cuticle, cortex and less near the root.
medulla  The shape of the medulla can help
1. Cuticle – is a protective coating identify a
made of species. Ex. Most animals and
overlapping scales that always point humans:
toward the cylindrical, cats ; pearl shape, Deer;
hair tip. spherical
 It has a characteristic pattern occupying whole hair shaft
giving the hair Four Classification:
resistance to chemical  Continuous (Mongoloid head hair)
decomposition and  Interrupted (discontinous)
retains its structural features over a  Fragmented (trace)
long time.  Absent
 Not useful in individualizing human Medullary index
hair but can  Measures diameter of medulla
be used for species identification. relative to the
 It is composed primarily of protein diameter of the hair shaft expressed
called in
keratin different from every animals. fraction.
Examined
 Its determination is performed  Shaft diameter: moderate with
under a minimal variation
microscope provided with micrometer (mean diameter for human head
eyepiece. hairs - 80um)
 Human medullary index = less  Pigment granules: sparse to
than 1/3 moderately dense
 Animal medullary index = ½ or with fairly even distribution
greater  Cross-sectional shape: oval
3. cortex Caucasian hair
 Made of spindle-shaped cells Negroid
aligned in a  Shaft diameter: moderate to fine
regular array, parallel to the length of with
the considerable variation
hair.  Pigment granules: densely
 Embedded with pigment granules distributed (hair
that give shaft may be opaque) and arranged
hair its color. in
 The color, shape and distribution prominent clumps
of the  Shaft: prominent twist and curl
granules provide points for forensic  Cross-sectional shape: flattened
comparison. Negroid hair
 Use to categorize human race. 2. Body parts: pubic hairs are short
TYPES OF ANIMAL HAIR and curly
 Guard hairs that form the outer with varying shaft diameter and
coat of an continuous
animal and provide protection medulla. Beard are coarse and
 Fur or wool hairs that form the triangular in
inner coat of cross section with blunt tips acquired
an animal and provide insulation from
 Tactile hairs (whiskers) that are cutting or shaving.
found on the Pubic Hair Beard Hair
head of animals provide sensory 3. Hair forcibly removed may suggest
functions a violent
Comparison between human and confrontation. Presence of hair
animal hair follicular
HUMAN ANIMAL tissue suggest that hair has been
1. Medullary index is pulled our
less than 0.5 quickly.
1. Medullary index is 4. Age: infant hair are fine, short and
more than 0.5 fine
2. Medulla may not be pigment.
present 5. Sex: thickness of a hair
2. Medulla always -male hair is generally larger in
present diameter,
3. Scale pattern is fine shorter in length, more wiry in texture
and each one overlaps than
the other more than 4/5 that of a female
3. Scale is coarse and 6. Environmental alterations can
overlaps less than ½ result from
4. Pigment granules are exposure to excessive sunlight, wind
fine dryness,
4. Pigment granules are and other conditions.
coarse Source of collecting hair
IDENTIFICATION and standards
COMPARISON OF HAIR a. Suspect
Standard – considered samples from b. Suspect’s clothing
a known c. Suspect’s environment
source. d. Crime scene
Questioned – samples from unknown e. Victim
source. f. Victim’s clothing
1. Racial origin: g. Victim’s environment
 Caucasian Process of collecting hair
standards is always difficult and in most cases
1. Hairs should be pulled one at a impossible. If a number of strands
time including are taken
the roots of the hair. from a known source and compared
2. Place the hair in paper envelope with
and tape all the another specimen, it is impossible to
seams and label the container with say with
the absolute certainty that they are
following: identical in
a. name of the person where origin no matter how similar they may
samples taken be in
b. Date and time of sampling appearance.
c. Case number Negatively, the test has value to
d. Name of collector exclude an
e. Initials and date across the individual if hairs were found different
envelope seal by from
collector the questioned sample.
 Hair Standards: 20 to 50 head FIBER
hairs from  A fiber is the smallest unit of a
various areas of the scalp(crown, textile material
sides, front that has a length many times greater
and back) to ensure all colors and than its
shades of diameter. Fibers can occur naturally
the hair were collected. as plant
 Pubic hair standards: at least 20- and animal fibers, but they can also
25 pubic be manmade.
hairs by pulling individual hairs from  Fiber evidence can be transferred
various in manner
areas around the pubic region. similar to hair evidence
 Facial hair standards: collect at  When fibers are matched to
least 20 specific source, a
facials hairs by pulling individual value is placed on that association
hairs from This value is dependant on:
various regions of the face to assure  Type of fiber
a good  Color variation in fiber
Sampling  Number of fibers
Process of collecting  Location of fibers
Questioned Hair Scene or on victim
Pubic hair combings: usually
collected in sexual The number of different fibers at the
assault cases and from homicide crime scene or on the victim that
victims. match the clothing of the suspect
Place a piece of white paper under Whether fiber is transferred depends
the pubic on:
region and using a new comb, comb  Nature and duration of contact
through  Ability of fiber to cling after transfer
the entire pubic area and dislodge  Types of fabrics involved
any foreign Fiber Color
materials that may be present.  Color influences value of fiber
Other questioned hairs: the hair  How color is applied and absorbed
should be is
placed on a piece of white paper and important
carefully  Color fading and discoloration can
folded around the hair. increase
Can we say value of fiber association
definitely that hair Fiber Number
came from a certain  Number of fibers on the clothing of
individual? a victim is
The identification of a specimen of important in determining actual
hair as contact
having been derived from a certain  The greater the number, the more
individual likely there
was actual contact Wool fibers
Fiber Location Wool can be woven into fine cloth for
 Where fibers are found also affects suits or
value coarse fabric for carpet
placed on association Type of fabric increases its value as
 Location on different areas of the evidence
body or on Man-made fibers
specific items at a crime scene could  More than half of all fibers used in
make production
them more or less important of textile materials are man-made
Classification of textile fiber  Some man-made fibers originate
Textile fiber from
Natural fiber natural fibers
Vegetable  Cotton
Seed fibers  Wood
Woody fibers Polyester and nylon fibers
Bast fibers are most common,
Leaf fibers followed by
Fruit or nut  Acrylics
Animal  Rayons
Wool Hair silk and extracted  Acetates
animal fibers Cross section of man-made
Mineral fibers
Asbesto Test for Textile Fiber
Synthetic Fibers/Artificial  1. Burning or Ignition Test – It is
Organic preliminary
Cellulosic ex Rayon macroscopic examination. A test that
Non-Cellulosic ex. Nylon, casein determines whether fiber is mineral,
fibers and resin fibers animal or
Inorganic vegetable fiber.
Mineral ex. Glass fiber, wool,  A single fiber is applied with flame
slag, wool at one end
Metallic ex. Finewire filament, and the following are noted:
steel wool, tinsel thread  Manner of burning
Classes of Fibers  Odor of fumes
1. Natural Fibers  Color of ash
Plant fiber  Action of fumes on moisten red
 Cotton fibers are plant fibers most and blue litmus paper
commonly used in  Effect of litmus on a piece of filter
textile materials paper moistened
 Processing techniques and color with lead acetate
applications influence Animal fiber – burn slowly and give
cotton fiber identifications odor like
Other plant fibers produced into that of burning feather
textiles are: - when removed from the flame they
 Flax (Linen) do not continue to burn readily
 Ramie - fumes turn red litmus to blue
 Sisal Wool – odor strong, disagreeable;
 Jute fumes turn
 Hemp lead acetate paper black or brown
Cotton fiber Silk – odor not so pungent, fumes
Identification of less common plants have no
increases its value as evidence effect on lead acetate paper
Animal fiber Vegetable fiber – burns rapidly with a
Wool from sheep is the most flame and
common animal give off but little smoke or fumes
fiber - fumes turn blue litmus red
Other types of wool include 2. Fluorescent Test – (UV)
 Camel Material Color under UV Daylight
 Alpaca color
 Cashmere 1. Unbleached
 Mohair wool
Brilliant light hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or
blue dilute
Light yellow potassium hydroxide.
2. Bleached wool Bluish-white to  Reagents:
bluish yellow 1. 10% Sodium hydroxide
White 2. 5% oxalic acid
3. Bleached 3. Concentrated sulfuric acid
cotton 4. Conc.And diluteAmmonium
Light-yellow White hydroxide
4. Mercerized 5. Conc. Nitric acid
cotton Results:
Light-yellow White 10% NaOH + wool = dissolved
5. Bleached linen Brilliant 10% NaOH + cultivated silk =
yellowish-white dissolved
White 10% NaOH + cotton linen, wild silk,
Material Color under UV Daylight cellulose
color silk = undissolved
6. Cuprate silk Reddish white with Conclusions
blue-violet shadow 1. The questioned hair/fiber exhibits
Brownish-white the same
7.Viscose silk Sulfur yellow with characteristics as the know sample
blue shadow and is
Brownish-white consistent with the known source
8. Nitro silk Brilliant flesh 2. Inconclusive – there were
yellow similarities and
Yellowish slight differences
9. Acetate silk Bluish violet White 3. Eliminated – there were no
10. Natural silk Very bright light similarities
blue, much between the known and questioned
brighter and sampleS
whiter than
acetate silk ARSON INVESTIGATION AND FIRE
White PRINCIPLE
3. Microscopic Examination – most
reliable and ARSON -is the crime of setting a
best means of identifying fiber. fire with intent to
4. Chemical Analysis of fibers cause damage.
A. Staining test – the fiber is stained Elements of arson
with 1. Malice: required that the person
picric acid, Millon’s reagent, stannic responsible
chloride for the burning must have intended
or iodine solution the
Test Result structure to be damaged by fire, or
Picric acid + silk Dyed must
Picric acid + wool Dyed have known that there was an
Picric acid + cellulosic obvious risk
fibers that the structure would be damaged
Unchanged and
Millon’s reagent + silk Brown shown reckless disregard for this
Millon’s reagent + wool Brown risk.
Millon’s reagent +  2. Burning: required that the fire
cellulosic reagent cause
No reaction actual damage to the property.
Stannic chloride +  3. Dwelling – a place where
cellulose another
Black person regularly slept (even if the
 B. Dissolution test – if the fiber is structure was also used as a
white or business,
light colored it is treated with the or was temporarily abandoned at the
following time).
chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first  4. The fourth element required that
decolorized by boiling in either 1% the dwelling be the property of
Another 1. Incipient stage (preheating)
2. Smoldering stage (fully
FIRE INVESTIGATION developed pyrolysis
Is a comprehensive analytical with initial stage of combustion)
approach of understanding 3. Flaming stage (rapid reaction
fundamental property of fire by from radiation
determining the chemistry of and convection from the flame)
fires, fuels and combustion.
CLASSES OF FIRE
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS  Class A fires – are fires involving
OF ARSON organic
solids like paper, wood, (ordinary
Incendiary devices - Materials used combustible)
to start a  Class B fires – are fires involving
fire such as initiators, timing flammable
devices, liquids
candles, or electronic timers  Class C fires – are fires involving
flammable
Accelerants –any combustible gases
material that  Class D fires – are fires involving
can cause burning ex. Gasoline, Metals
lighter fluid, (magnesium, potassium…)
or mixture of the two  Class B/K fires – cooking oils
. Pyrolysis – comes from the greek
FIRE AND COMBUSTION word pyro
(fire) and lysis (decompose) .
Fire – is an exothermic reaction that Process of
proceeds decomposition of material to simpler
at such a rate that it generates compounds brought by heat from
detectable fire.
heat and light. Flame is a gaseous reaction where
- is a combustion (process of plume of
converting hot gases rises by convection when
fuel to gas) air and its
- is a process of involving rapid oxygen maintain by solid (soot) or
oxidation liquid
at elevated temperatures (aerosol) in a closed room.
accompanied by the
evolution of heated gaseous TWO TYPES OF COMBUSTION
products of
combustion, and the emission of Flaming - destructive, gaseous
visible and combustion
invisible radiation. where both the fuel and oxidizer are
gases.
THREE KEY ELEMENTS TO HAVE Flaming fire will achieve when gas
FIRE or vapor
is continuously burning.
 FUEL – something to burn, such 2. Glowing – absence of fire but
as wood, paper, presence of
grass, or clothing. very hot materials on surface of
 AIR – actually oxygen is needed. which
 HEAT – a catalyst to start the fuel combustion is proceeding,
and oxygen
combustion. TWO PROCESS OF
FIRE TETRAHEDRON ( A COMBUSTION
PYRAMID)  Complete combustion – all of the
 FUEL reactants
 HEAT are consumed
 OXYGEN c + O2 CO2
 CHEMICAL CHAIN REACTION Incomplete combustion – only some
reactant
STAGES OF FIRE were consumed
 C +O2 CO + O
COLOR TEMPERATURE
 Red flame – 500 to 1000 0C
indicates
petroleum is burning
 Yellow flame – 1200 to 13000C
 Blue flame – 1300 to 14000C
indicates
alcohol is burning
 White flame – 1400 to 1600 0C
COLOR OF SMOKE
1.White- humid materials
2. Light gray – hay and vegetable
matter
3. Black – lack f air with huge flames
usually
petroleum based
4. Reddish brown.thick
yellow/brownish yellow
– nitrocellulose fires, sulfur and
sulfuric,
nitric or other chemicals
BASIC COMBUSTION CONDITION
Presence of Combustible Fuel
 Oxidizer
 Energy of Ignition (heat)
 Interaction of fuel and oxidizer to
sustain
chain reaction
FLAMMABLE SUBSTANCE/FUEL
1. Arson Chemicals – are incendiary
materials
often used by arsonist as
accelerants.
Possess excellent incendiary
properties. Ex.
Alcohol, benzene, b petroleum ether,
gasoline, kerosene, naphtha,
turpentine
2. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO,
ethylene,
hydrogen, natural gas, and propane
– these
when mixed with air possess
excellent
ignition properties and when present
in an
enclosed area can lead to explosion.
3. Solids as chlorates, perchlorates,
chromates, bichromates, nitrates and
permanganates – families of
oxidizing
agents that give off oxygen on
decomposition thus aiding in
combustion.
COLLECTION AND
PRESERVATION OF ARSON
EVIDENCE
1. Two to three quartz of ash and
soot debris must
be collected at the point of origin of a
fire.
2. Specimens should be immediately
packed in an
airtight container.
3. Plastic polyethylene bags are not
suitable for
packing.
4. Fluids found in open bottles or
cans must be
collected and sealed.
5. Thorough search should be
undertaken for
ignitors.
6. Collect clothing of the suspect and
place in a
separate airtight container.
DETERMINATION OF ARSON IN
CHEMICAL DEBRIS
1.Preliminary test – the debris is
reacted with
rhodokrit powder for the presence of
inflammable substance such as
gasoline,
kerosene, turpentine, alcohol, etc.
2. The debris is steam distilled and
the
distillate collected.
3. The distillate is analyzed in one of
the
following instrument for confirmation:
a. Gas Chromatography-Mass
Spectroscopy
(GC-MS)
b. Gas-liquid Chromatography (GCL)
c. High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC)
TRACE EVIDENCE: PAINT
PAINT
▪ When one thinks of paint, the first
identifying
characteristics that comes to mind is
usually
color. Color is determined by the use
of
various dyes or granules of pigment
in the
paint. Aside from color, paint also
has a wide
variety of other distinguishing
characteristics.
These include its general characteristics of toughness,
composition, i.e. oilbased, acrylic, durability, dry time
water-based (latex), etc., as c. Solvent – evaporates once paint is
well as its texture and finish, such as dry
flat, d. Additive – enhance the properties
semi-gloss or gloss. All of these of paint
characteristics combined create a
very unique COMMON ADDITIVES
paint signature.
▪ ▪ Suspending agents – used to
PAINT prevent
Are applied for protective value settling of pigments. (bentones,
and/or Aluminum
aesthetic purposes. It is a liquid stearate).
suspension ▪ Driers – used in alkyds and oils to
in a solvent carrier into which white make
or them dry faster. (6% Cobalt solution,
colored pigments and a polymeric 24%
resin Lead solution)
binder have been combined. alkyds to prevent surface skinning
▪ Anti-skinning agents – used in oils
VALUE OF PAINT AS EVIDENCE and in containers
▪ Paint evidence may be in the form Wetting agents – to promote pigment
of a chip from a wetting and
dried paint surface, trace, smear, or ease of grinding
intact on some ▪ Anti-foaming agent – used in water
object. Paint as physical evidence is paint systems to
most frequently minimize foaming and air
involved in burglary and hit-and-run entrapment.
accident case. ▪ Coalescing agent – used in
▪ Whenever a suspect tries to force emulsion systems to
entry into a building, insure proper coalescing of latex
some type of instrument is likely to particles upon
be used. If the drying.
object being forced is painted, chips ▪ Thickeners – used in water paints
of that paint may to increase the
cling to the instrument being used, viscosity of paints.
and may also fall ▪ Viscosity control agents – for
onto the suspect’s clothing. Also, if solvent paints used to
the instrument increase viscosity
being used is painted, some of the ▪ Other additives – additives that
paint may be contribute various
transferred to the object being forced properties to paint such as non-
open. Transfers sagging, antifreeze,
of paint chips, or traces, are equally wet edge, etc.
probable in PAINT FORMULATION
automobile collisions. PigmentVolumeConcentration (PVC)
TYPES OF PAINT: – the
▪ Water system paint – water soluble concentration of pigment by volume
paint, in a dry
usually diluted to water. coating. Gloss will normally
▪ Emulsion system paint – oil soluble decreases as the
paint, PVC increases and vice versa.
usually diluted with thinner. 1. High gloss enamel – 15-25% PVC
Component of Paints: 2. Semi-gloss enamel – 30-45% PVC
▪ Pigments and additives suspended 3. Flat paints – 50-65% PVC
in a binder with the aid
of a solvent. Methods of application in
a. Pigment – color portion surface/substrate:
b. Binder – support medium, film Brush, Spray (conventional, airless,
former which imparts electrostatic),Dip, Flow coat, Roller
coat
▪ Drying conditions:Air dry, force dry, identify single source or common
bake origin.
▪ Common Paint Evidence B. Chemical Properties – Look at
 Automobile, from hit-and –run and binder
collisions, chemically using gas
auto mobile paint can be distinctive chromatography or
because it has infrared radiation spectrum.
multiple layers/coats. (Acrylic COLLECTION/ANALYSIS OF
lacquers & enamels PAINT EVIDENCE:
and alkyd enamels). ▪ Use of tweezers, scalpel or paper to
Modern automotive finishing consist obtain paint
of at least evidence. Store it in paper, glass, or
four coatings: plastic vials. If
▪ Electrocoat Primer- first layer, in/on a garment, submit whole
electroplated to garment. DO NOT
the car – provides corrosion TRY TO REMOVE.
resistance – color ▪ Comparison – need control sample
from black to gray for area near
▪ Primer Surface – second layer, damaged area. Approximately ½ inch
smoothes out and square area.
hides any seams on the car – color ▪ If a tool, package whole tool with
pigments are control samples.
used to minimize contrast between Do Not collect paint from an
primer and impression, only
topcoats. adjacent areas.
▪ Basecoat – third layer, provides the ▪ Paint analysis was used to help
basic color, convict British serial
aesthetics and appearance of the car rapist Malcolm Fairley, also known
▪ Clearcoat – final coat, provides as "The Fox," in
great 1985. After one attack, investigators
appearance(glossiness) and found minute
protection for the specks of yellow paint on a tree
car branch around 45
▪ Questioned inches (114.3 cm) from the ground.
composed The paint was
specimens are analyzed and identified as a type of
a car paint used on
stereomicroscope a single model, the Austin Allegro,
and known between 1973 and
side by side under 1975. Other evidence accumulated
for color, surface and the police
texture, and color layer sequence. went to an address in North London
▪ Note: layer sequence is very to interview a
important suspect. A young man was cleaning
evidence: forensic scientists will try a yellow Austin
to match Allegro outside. Examination
layers with respect to number and revealed scratches on
sequence the paintwork about 45 inches from
of color. Layer structure alone will not the ground that
provide matched the paint flakes found at the
enough information to be scene of the
individualized to a crime. On this, and other evidence,
single source Fairley was
HOWTOEXAMINE PAINT: convicted on several accounts of
A. Microscope most common tool. indecent assault,
Look at: rape, and burglary and given six life
color, surface, texture, and layer sentences
sequence
when identifying relatedness/origin. Trace Evidence: Ultraviolet
Problem: If layering is not complex, Examination
cannot

Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet (UV) light is
electromagnetic radiation
with a wavelength shorter than that
of visible
light, but longer than X-rays, in the
range 10 nm
to 400 nm.
200-400nm for drug identification in
urine
Although ultraviolet is invisible to the
human eye,
most people are aware of the effects
of UV
through the painful condition of
sunburn, but the
UV spectrum has many other effects,
both
beneficial and damaging, to human
health.
Ultraviolet examination
 Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and
occurs in
the wavelengths just below the
visible blueviolet end of the
spectrum. The invisible rays
react on some substances so that
visible light
is emitted, a phenomenon known as
ultraviolet fluorescence. Thus,
ultraviolet
examination may be made visually or
photographically by recording either
the
reflected ultraviolet or visible
radiation.
 a complainant is trying to prove
Ultraviolet examination
 Is the examination for the
presence of
ultraviolet fluorescent powder with
the aid of
UV lamp to a person involved a buy-
bust or
entrapment operations
UV light has many other applications
outside
of the party scene. It is frequently
used in
security. For instance, sensitive
documents,
such as currency, driver's licenses,
credit cards
or passports, have invisible symbols
on them
that light up only in the presence of
UV light.
These are difficult for counterfeiters
to copy.
 Common fluorescent lamps are
powered by UV
light. UV light is produced by ionizing
lowpressure mercury vapor, which is
then
absorbed by a special fluorescent
coating,
which in turn produces visible light.
Fluorescent lights are more energy-
efficient
than conventional light bulbs.
UV Powder
Longwave Lamp
Portable and lightweight. For
identifying fluorescent
powders, Also for verifying inks,
colors, forgeries, and
repairs.
WEEK 16:
OTHER FUNCTION OF A
FORENSIC CHEMIST
FORENSIC CHEMIST
COMPLETE ATTIRE OF A
FORENSIC
CHEMIST
THE FOUR FUNCTION AND
PURPOSE
OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST
1. Examine Evidence
• Forensic chemists examine a wide
variety of materials, such as paint,
gases, poisons and chemicals.
These materials may be part of a
criminal case, such as accelerants in
an arson investigation; or they
might be part of a civil lawsuit, where
a defendant's liability for damages.
Their work is particularly
important in determining the
presence of controlled substances,
such
as cocaine or marijuana, and finding
the origin of a particular batch of
drugs.
THE FOUR FUNCTION AND
PURPOSE
OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST
2. Characterize the Evidence
• Identifying the nature of the
evidence brought from a crime scene
is
only the beginning. Forensic
chemists must also characterize the
results and determine how they fit
the big picture of solving a crime
or providing a solid defense. For
instance, a forensic chemist not only
needs to identify the type of paint
found at a crime scene -- such as
the paint traces in a hit-and-run
accident -- but she also must
determine how the paint traces
arrived at the scene and whether
they can be linked to the defendant.
THE FOUR FUNCTION AND
PURPOSE
OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST
3. Expert Witness
• If a case goes to trial, forensic
chemists are often asked to give
testimony as expert witnesses. They
must then explain the results of
their research and help juries -- or
the judge, if it is a bench trial --
understand how their research sheds
light on the case as a whole. In
these cases, the judge or the jury is
responsible for determining a
verdict, but the forensic chemist
provides an impartial explanation of
the facts in evidence to help these
determiners of fact make a
decision.
THE FOUR FUNCTION AND
PURPOSE
OF A FORENSIC CHEMIST
4. Materials Science
• Forensic chemists also use their
skills outside the courtroom to detect
why materials and processes fail and
to provide practical
recommendations for resolving these
problems. For example, a
corporation may hire a forensic
chemist to investigate the causes of
an industrial accident and to write a
technical report on the findings.
The forensic chemist must identify
the source of the problem,
anything that contributed to the
accident and how a similar accident
can be avoided in the future.
THE SCENE OF THE CRIME
OPERATION
INDEX TERMS:
• A. CHAIN OF CUSTODY – non-
observance of proper documentation
in the turnover of evidence from one
officer to another or one office to
another.
• B. CRIME SCENE - A venue or
place where the alleged
crime/incident/event has
been committed;
• C. CRIME SCENE
INVESTIGATION (CSI) - Is a
comprehensive inquiry of a crime by
conducting systematic procedure of
various investigative methodologies
which
involves recovery of physical and
testimonial evidence for the purpose
of
identifying the witnesses, and arrest
of perpetrator(s) for prosecution. CSI
shall
technically commence upon the
arrival of the FRs and conclude with
the lifting of
the security cordon and release of
the crime scene by the IOC;
• D. FIRST RESPONDER (FR) – Are
members of the PNP or other law
enforcement
agencies who are mandated and
expected to be the first to respond to
calls for
assistance in cases of incidents of
crime. They generally refer to police
officers
who have jurisdiction of the area
where the incident or crime has
taken place and
will proceed to the crime scene to
render assistance to the victim and to
protect
and secure the incident scene; 3
INDEX TERMS:
• E. CRIMINAL INVESTIGATOR – A
Police Officer who is tasked to
conduct the
investigation of all criminal cases as
provided for and embodied under the
Revised Penal Code/Criminal Laws
and Special Laws. A well-trained,
disciplined
and experienced professional in the
field of criminal investigation duties
and
responsibilities;
• F. INVESTIGATOR-ON-CASE
(IOC)/ DUTY INVESTIGATOR –
Shall refer to any PNP
personnel who is duly designated or
assigned to conduct the inquiry of the
crime
by following a systematic set of
procedures and methodologies for
the purpose of
identifying witnesses, recovering
evidence and arresting and
prosecuting the
perpetrators. The IOC shall assume
full responsibility over the crime
scene during
the conduct of CSI;
• G. SCENE OF THE CRIME
OPERATION (SOCO) – A forensic
procedure performed
by the trained personnel of the PNP
Crime Laboratory SOCO Team
through
scientific methods of investigation for
the purpose of preserving the crime
scene,
gathering information,
documentation, collection, and
examination of all physical
and other forensic evidence;
INDEX TERMS:
• H. AFTER SOCO REPORT – It is a
report rendered and prepared by the
Team Leader of the PNP
Crime Laboratory SOCO Team
which conducted the scene of the
crime operations;
• I. CRIME SCENE SEARCH – Is a
systematic method employed by the
SOCO Team, if the nature of
the case is sensational or sensitive,
and the IOC in the conduct of search
in the crime scene and in
the surrounding areas where the
alleged crime/incident/event has
taken place for the purpose of
finding and recovering evidence.
There are several methods of crime
scene search which can be
employed such as strip search,
double strip search, spiral search,
zone or quadrant search, wheel
method, etc.;
• J. EVIDENCE – The means
sanctioned by the Rules of Court, of
ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a
matter of fact. These include but are
not limited to
documentary, testimonial, electronic
and object evidence, gathered in the
course of the
investigation;
• K. PHYSICAL EVIDENCE -
Evidence addressed to the senses of
the court that are capable of being
exhibited, examined, or viewed by
the court. This includes but not
limited to fingerprints, body
fluids, explosives, hazardous
chemicals, soil/burned debris,
bombs, electronic parts used in the
commission of the crime;
• L. FORENSIC EVIDENCE - A form
of legal evidence that can be used in
a court of law to convict a
person of a crime and as a category
of public presentation; and l.
Jurisdiction – The word
“jurisdiction” as used in the
Constitution and statutes means
jurisdiction over the subject matter
only, unless an exception arises by
reasons of its employment in a
broader sense.
SOCO OBJECTIVES
• IV.1. To conduct forensic
investigations through the methodical
means of
collection, examination, preservation,
and presentation of all evidence for
the final disposition of criminal cases.
• IV.2. To enable the police
investigating/line units to
expeditiously identify
and arrest the criminal perpetrators
through the collected and examined
physical evidence.
• IV.3. To establish the facts before
the competent courts based on
collected
and examined physical evidence.
• IV.4. To strictly adhere to the
protocols governing forensic science.
• IV.5. To progressively acquire new
technology and human skills to
ensure
that the operational capabilities shall
be consistent with the continuous
and evolving threats to public safety.
DISASTER VICTIM
INVESTIGATION
• Disaster victim identification- An
emergency or major incident may
result in fatalities. Disaster victim
identification ( DVI ) is the
internationally accepted term for the
processes and procedures for
recovering and identifying deceased
people and human remains in
multiple fatality incidents.
• Why is disaster victim identification
important?
• A coordinated effort by the
international community can
significantly
speed up the recovery and
identification process, helping
victims'
families to begin the healing process
and societies to rebuild.
Following a terrorism incident, DVI
procedures can also help
investigators identify possible
attackers.
WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING ARE
METHODS OF IDENTIFYING
HUMAN
REMAINS?
• When human remains are
recovered, three primary
scientific methods are traditionally
used to identify who they belong
to: fingerprint analysis, which looks at
the skin patterns on the tips of
fingers. dental analysis, which looks
at the teeth and any dental work,
such as crowns and fillings or It can
use DNA testing to identify
human personalities.
HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO
IDENTIFY A BODY?
• DNA testing typically takes the
longest, Gin said. Although the state
laboratory makes such cases a
priority out of deference to families
anxiously awaiting the results, it can
take six to eight weeks for a
routine case.
END OF THE
POWERPOINT LESSON