DRUŠTVO ZA ISPITIVANJE I ISTRAŽIVANJE MATERIJALA I KONSTRUKCIJA SRBIJE

SOCIETY FOR MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES TESTING OF SERBIA

XXVI KONGRES – Vrnjačka Banja 29-31. oktobar 2014.

DIMK XXVI CONGRESS – Vrnjacka Banja October 29-31, 2014.

Milena Jovanovic1

EARTH ARCHITECTURE-
METHODS AND MANNER OF CONSTRUCTION, FEATURES OF CLIMATE

Abstract:. This paper will present the method and manner of earth building structures, which are
still in use, mostly in Africa, but also in Australia, South America, Spain, India. The characteristics
of each building will be displayed, according to the climate, and some modernized methods, the use
of compressed blocks in African countries, as well as the earth bags in Australia, the objects of
rammed earth in New Mexico, and Germany. In our area throughout Serbia earth made housing
have been built in several ways; on the south and central part, half-timbered system-supporting
timber structure with loam infill, residential buildings with earthen blocks, mainly in Vojvodina,
residental buildins of rammed earth. Each of the presented method of construction is a feature of
the climate, used building materials from the present environment.
Key words: earthen architecture, rammed earth, unbaked brick, stabilized blocks, wattle&doub
houses, sustainable architecture.

ZEMLJANA ARHITEKTURA-
METOD I NAČIN GRADNJE, ODLIKE PODNEBLJA

Rezime: U radu će biti prikazani metode i načini gradnje objekata od zemlje, koji se još uvek
koriste, najviše u Africi, ali u Australiji, Južnoj Americi, Španiji, Indiji. Biće prikazane
karakteristike svake gradnje, prema podneblju, i neke osavremenjene metode, primena
kompresovanog bloka u Afričkim zemljama, kao i zemljanih vreća u Australiji, objekti od nabijene
zemlje u Novom Meksiku, i Nemačkoj. Na našem podneblju na teritoriji cele Srbije zemljom su
rađeni stambeni objekti na nekoliko načina; na jugu i ucentaralnom delu, bondruk sistem-noseća
drvena konstrukcija sa zemljanom ispunom, stambeni objekti od čerpića, u Vojvodini pretežno
kuće od nabijene zemlje. Svaka od prikazanih metoda izgradnje je odlika podneblja, upotrebljen
građevinski materijal uz okruženja.
Ključne reči: zemlljana arhitektura, nabijena zemlja, čepići, stabilizovana zemlja, kuće
bondručare, održiva arhitektura

1
Milena Jovanovic, PhD student of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Nis, st. Cara
Dusana 6/33, 18000 Niš, +38118243792 +381643313886, e-mail: mikacika79@gmail.com

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1. INTRODUCTION

With the knowledge of civilization, from the earliest times of Sumer and Egypt,
the fertile land was used as a place for growing plants of which depended the survival, as
well as the material for building houses, temples-ziggurat, defensive walls, pipeses. [16]
Climate conditions, with dry summers and wet winters, no large forests and minerals, led
also to that the clay loam is used as the main building material. The emergence of the
brick arch is tied to the Sumerian civilization, home of rammed earth, as well as the
growing of the first cities. Of the land, its properties, from what it gave, depended the
survival of the people, during many centuries since the fourth millennium BC untill the
Roman civilization where Vitruvius with no praise wrote: "As far as the walls of plaiting
goes, I'd like them not even invented". [21] Residential houses in the Roman Empire,
except only from loam, were built in conjunction with a wooden frame plastered with
mud. In the cities they were made for higher floors and, affected by the fire, were easy to
burn.
Many years later, in the early nineteenth century, Serbian researcher Cvijic J.
visiting Balkan Peninsula, noted the different types of houses, including the house of
adobe and wattle in the Morava-Vardar area „... stands out a new type of house,
associated with rapid economic and cultural development of our age - Moravian type."
[6] That days still undeveloped Serbian method of construction, in wood and loam, did
not change, but the appearance of the Moravian-style study is visible throughout the
whole eastern and southern Serbia. Areas across the Sava and Danube rivers at that time
under Austro-Hungarian were closer to Central European architectural traditions [10]
rammed earth domes prevailed. During the many years of the conquest of the Romans,
the Turks, by settling the North America, New Zealand and Australia, earthen
architecture was also "moving" and is accepted in relation to climatic conditions, but in
Africa, the tradition of clay building construction never stopped. "That's how the earthen
architecture as civilization itself, migrated in all directions until it encompassed the whole
world". [8]
The rapid development of civilization, population growth, technology
development, the use of machinery, expansion of the cities, were some of the reasons for
abandoning the construction of earth buildings. Some of the techniques existing on the
territory of Serbia, are impossible to be found anymore, because of the land vulnerability
to changing weather conditions, the impact of rain and snow, or were created as
temporary, "Bouchard". These are smaller buildings of circular base, used for shepherds
housing. Stuck into the pile - bark of trees in the country, consisted the roof and the wall
piled with layers of ferns, then in rows, starting from the ground to the top, land punches.
The top was intended for the chimney opening. [7] The roof covering, which is also the
wall was retrieved by the technique of cutting the surface of the land, while the building
of other techniques that will be discussed later, was used loam soil from deeper layers.
Depending on the site where the loam is dug out, it will be composed of differing
amounts of types of clay, sand and silt and aggregates. Its characteristics, therefore, may
differ to site to site, and the preparation of the correct mix for a specific application may
also differ. [17]

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 1.1. Wattle and daub

Method of construction wattle and daub houses in Serbian "čatmare," "kovanice"

is composed of the skeletal roof structure plaiting and with loam filling. In English-
speaking areas are referred to as "" in exact translation "wattle and coatings," in German
"fachwerk". This method of building construction in Serbian heritage is mostly
widespread in eastern and southern Serbia, most probably transferred through the
Ottoman conquest of the Orient and accepted in our area. This method is typical also for
European countries, especially the construction in the nineteenth century of: Germany,
France, England, Bulgaria, but also in Australia, New Zeland.
Timbered system of wooden beams thickness 15cm-30cm, mounted vertically and
horizontally, and at the corners of the hive smaller section, firming the construction.
Vertically positioned wooden elements are sharing the wooden frame on the smaller
fields. Posted in such way they form frame box wooden planks, sticks or unbaked brick,
coated with a mixture of clay and straw to cover the entire structure or just clay if the
unbaked brick infill. Later, as the characteristics of Normandy, Flanders and England
vertical bars take over the constructive role, become larger and numerous, are left visible
on the facade. [16] Housing objects half timbered were made of local materials, with
plenty of earthen and wood, in urban and rural areas. The advantage is a fast and
inexpensive construction. There are several ways to fill between the vertical pillars: 1. by
setting plaiting and seal with taped clay and straw 2. forging horizontal slats of vertical
columns and filling the clay and straw, 3. filling the space with adobe blocks. Timbered
system is accepted in seismic areas and is resistant to earthquake because of wood
flexibility as a supporting structure, but because of the relatively thin walls, which does
not fulfill thermal properties. [18] The roof always leaves left to 50-80 cm or more, as the
best rain protection of the wall.

Figure 1. House in Alsace, France, sourse http://www.earth-

auroville.com/wattle_and_daub_en.php

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 1.2. Rammed earth

In Serbian literature this technique is called "naboj" while in foreign rather use
the word English "rammed earth" French "pisé de terra", in Spanish "tapial". [17]
Rammed earth foundations found in Assyria date back as far as 5000 BC, and traditional
technique in Tibet, the Himalayas, China, and also Morocco, France, Spain. [2] In Serbia,
rammed earth dome constructions are characteristic for part of Vojvodina, largely
because the loam is dominated by the construction material.
The traditional construction of monolithic wall of rammed earth is done by
filling and compacting land between the mold (today, formwork for concrete filling) at a
distance of 45-50 cm [11], up to 90 cm for the building made in 1836 year in Germany,
which still exist. Both sides of the formwork of 30cm-1.5m hight and 3-5m length,
depending on the length of the wall are placed between the vertical beams of the prepared
foundations to a height of 50 cm above the ground. Formwork is interconnected by
dowels, which is being removed and reinstalling on the end of the lower layers, at an
interval of 75 cm, depending on its width. Soil compaction is done manually, wooden
padfoot or mechanical tire. After drying of the whole of the wall, which can be up to two
years, the rigidity of the wall can be compared with stone firmness. The door oppenings
and those for windows are left empty previously preset stops with boards. Monolithic
earthen wall, in a constructive sense, represents the support structure, on which rests the
roof and ceiling-mounted structures. High wall firmness of rammed earth is achieved by a
small amount of silt, clay optimal amount of 12% -18%. [18] In order to improve loam
characteristics, strength increasment and reducing of erosion, cement, lime, sand and
gravel are added. By adding these materials to the earthen, stabilization is carried out, and
the obtained name of the stabilizers, which are of animal origin: urine, faeces, blood, [17]
or bitumen [1] used way back in Babylon. Researches conducted in France on the twenty
year old walls, unstabilized, stabilized with lime, and adding fine clay, showed that the
wall with the addition of 5% of hydraulic lime showed the best characteristics in
comparison to other tested walls, [4] while for the rehabilitation of the old walls Morocco
as recommended [5] can be used a mixture of 3 parts land, 2 parts sand and 1 part clay.

Figure 2. The Ricola Herb Centre in Laufen (Basel), Switzerland was designed in 2012 by
renowned architects Herzog & de Mueron with a facade constructed by master clay builder Martin
Rauch

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 Monolithic rammed earth wall toward its construction is stiff, is of high specific
weight, may cause damage in seismic zones, cracking walls and even demolition, it is
recommended ideal shape- circular or rectangle in which the ratio of wall thickness does
not exceed one eighth of the height of the wall. [17] It also recommended corner
strengthening by placing vertical reinforcement and placing horizontal beams under the
roof. Researches were conducted by adding bamboo trees inside the formwork at a
certain distance and connectivity with a horizontal beam. Ensuring enough heat inside
buildings, because the country does not have good thermal properties and, depending on
climate zone, is done by adding thermal insulation to the outside of its protection or
increasing the thickness of the wall. [17]
The Great Wall of China was built of rammed earth, The Moroccan city of Aït
Benhaddou is one of the most well-known earthen city in the world, at it is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site [2], also in Spain - Castillo Baños de la Encina built in 10th century,
India Ladakh, Leh – Castle, France, Dauphiné - Château, 19th century. Many building
built in 20th centuri in Germany like modern rammede earth.

1.3. Adobe

Adobe block originated in Mesopotamia, but existed also in Syria, and later
transferred to the south of Turkey. Built in Egypt, thence to North Africa. With the
advent of cones, a flat roof is replaced by a dome, with a succession of mud-brick
dropping out upper layers of the closed inner postor. Bases are circular base and at the
top was left a hole. In Serbia, the mud-brick houses were built in the south under the
influence of the Orient, but the greater stability of house was achieved by adding wooden
beams every 1-1,5m height. [7] Adobe block is the name of unbaked clay dried block
obtained in a mold produced by hand. In English speaking area is called "adobe" or "mud
brick".

Figure 3. Adobe blocks, Egypt, New Gourna - Mosque by Hassan Fathy, Egipat, sourse
http://www.earth-auroville.com/adobe_buildings_en.php

Obtained by drying the molded clay in the mold, of standardized measures, for
Germany are 71x115x240 mm [17], or they may be of other dimensions,
recommendation is [11] 30x14,5x10 mm. The average weight of adobe ranges between

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13-22 kg [13] Drying must be gradual to avoid breaking in a period of fourteen days,
after which it can be used for construction. Additional stabilization is obtained by adding
chopped straw, as well as bitumen and fly ash, which provides additional firmness. [13]
The construction of the walls of unbaked brick starts from the prepared foundation, while
as a binder is used mud plaster- densely prepared clay and water. Masonry is wraped with
stringing layers of adobe per syllable, so that the vertical links muddy plaster rdo not
coincide with the lower layer. Due to the seismic stability and lower and upper layer
placed wooden beams, but it is increased usage reinforcement placed vertically and
horizontally. [13]
Today, adobe is still being used all over the world and it has been widely
promoted in Western USA, through building codes and standards. In 1992,the Spanish
Ministry of Transport and Public Works published a document entitled “Bases for design
and construction with rammed Earth” to support not only rammed Earth but also adobe-
based buildings. [19]

1.4. Compressed CEB block

Compressed CEB in English "Compressed Earth Block" originated in nineteenth-

century France by architect Francois Cointeraux, who designed a mechanical device that
earthy adobe under pressure compresses, accelerates preparing of adobe- block drying.
Features of the block are improved, and gets quick acceptance in Africa and Australia.
Best accepted hand press was designed in Chile, engineers Ramirez Cinva Ram,
pressureing the block of 5-25 kg / cm2, daily produces 150-200 blocks [17], also be used
and hydraulic and electric press. Compressing blocks to the block immediately use,
similar to the process rammed earth. Error! Reference source not found. If the CEB
block was added with stabilizers, cement, then is renamed as Stabilized compressed
earthen block, but good characteristic according to a study were achieved by the addition
of lime, oil or natrium hydroxide. [9], by the addition of cement and plaster, successfully
were built residential and public buildings as well as cheap houses - "low cost housing".
[22]

Figure 4. Primary School Tanouan Ibi, Afrika, used compressed earth blocks sourse
http://www.eartharchitecture.org/

506
 For a brew CEB blocks need to land use in the dry matter, maximum sieve
particles of 6mm height, later adding water or some stabilizer. For the construction of low
cost houses in Zimbabwe, were used after shaping blocks were kept in conditions of 7
days moisture, then gradually dry out for 21 days. [23]

1.5. Earthbag

Californian architect Naader Khalili devised the idea of bag-filling the earthen,
although this method of construction resulted in the army, from making and backfilling of
the trench. [15] It was brought in the nineteenth century, but it still did not take root in
areas with cold climates. In the English-speaking area is known for the term "Earthbag",
which becam common in our country.
Short or longer bags are filled with earthen or sand. An unbroken series of bags,
according to Khalil called "Superadobe" or tubes, are filled mechanically in course of 3m
per minute [15], a of over 1.8 km length, when they are filled to 25 cm height, they are
formed along in the row, closing the space toward the top, staggered array forming the
domes The bags can be made of plastic polypropylene or natural, hemp. Substance or
mixture of earthen, sand and clay can be similar to as in the construction of buildings of
rammed earth, in the ratio of 30% clay and 70% sand, so the ratio may be variable in
composition depending on local soil.

Figure 5. Sandbag Shelter Prototypes made for sourse, Error! Reference source not found.

Experimental models in Mexico were made in areas with stronger seismic activity,
strengthening the walls is performed by adding vertically ring beams and roof of the
semi-circular concrete shell. Tubes are strengthening by placing the wires that are
connected to each other horizontally and vertically, surface wire is further reinforcing
angles and lintels, or placing the wooden bams. At the same objects earthen sacks were
placed on a prepared foundation and the floor, the lower part of the walls to a height of
60cm coated with bitumen. External and internal walls in dry areas after construction

507
coated with mud mortar, while for the colder climate with plenty of rain is also possible
to set the roof, which will protect the exterior walls.

2. CONCLUSION

Each of the presented method represents the characteristic of time and space that
was emerged from. Buildings constructed with earthen techniques sustainable to this very
day, and are the proof that it is possible to build fom whatever the environment provides.
The places with dry climate, without timber are characterized by the use rammed earth
and adobes blocks, but places with continental climate climate are characterized by the
use wattle and daube method. Way to preseve traditional techniqus earth buildingsa is to
continue to foster, no matter of the rapid productions of construction. In urban and
densely populated place it is difficult to make relationship with the natural environment.
It is need to come back to earth like unfailing source of treasures.

3. REFERENCES

[1] Baker L. Hadbook- Mud (preuzeto septembra 2014 sa

http://www.eartharchitecture.org/uploads/mud_english.pdf )
[2] Bilten, Earth architecture in the word, (preuzeto sa sajta http://www.earth-
auroville.com/maintenance/uploaded_pics/5-rammed-earth-tradition-en.pdf )
[3] Bilten, Stari zanati, urednik Milošević S.,
[4] Bui Q.B.1, Morel J.S.2, Venkatarama Reddy B.V., W. Ghayad, Durability of rammed
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(2009) 912–919.
[5] CRAttere, Conservation manual For Earth Architecture Heritage in the pre-Saharan valleys
of Morocco, 2005, CERKAS/UNESCO World Heritage Centre / CRATerre-EAGDe
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[6] Cvijić J., Balkansko poluostrvo, Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, Beograd, 1991. str.
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[7] Deroko A., Narodno neimarstvo 1, SANU, Beograd, 1968. str. 12,29,30.
[8] Easton D., The Rammed earth house, Chelsea Green Publishing Company, United States,
2007.
[9] Eires R., Camões A., Jalali S., Earth architecture: ancient and new methods for
durabilityImprovement, Structures and Architecture: Concepts, Applications and
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[11] Hellwing F., Građenje ilovačom, Naklada Rad D.S.O. J., Zagreb, 1946. str. 14,
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[13] Kabir K., Mass Housing Through Earth Construction Technology in Nigeria, Pakistan
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[14] Kazeli Đ., Velike civilizacije antičkog sveta, IKP-Evro Đanti, Beograd, 2010. str. 10-12.
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[17] Minke G., Building with Earth Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture
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