2018-19 Linear Programming

EduSure School
Economics PG Entrance
Maths &Stats: Co-Ordinate Geometry, Conics, Differential Equations, Vectors
Learning under: Ankit Banthia

Co-Ordinate Geometry General Results

If A (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 ) and B(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), then

distance d, from A to B =

midpoint, M, of AB =

slope, m, of

Following is a list of the equations of lines:

Standard form: Ax + By = C
A, B, and C are real numbers
A and B are not both zero
Point-slope form: y − 𝑦1 = m ( x − 𝑥1)
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) is a point on the line and m is the slope of the line
Slope-intercept form: y = mx + b
m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept value

Distance from a point to a line

The distance from a point to a line is the shortest distance between them - the length of a
perpendicular line segment from the line to the point.

There are many ways to calculate this distance. In this volume, two methods are described:

Method 1. When the line is horizontal or vertical

If you are lucky and the line is either exactly horizontal or vertical (parallel to the x or y axis),
then the distance is very easy to calculate.

Method 2. By formula
Given the equation of the line in slope - intercept form, and the coordinates of the point, a
formula yields the distance between them. (Does not work for vertical lines.)

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In the case of a line in the plane given by the equation ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real
constants with a and b not both zero, the distance from the line to a point (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) is

Area of a Triangle by formula (Coordinate Geometry)

Given the coordinates of the three vertices of a triangle ABC, the area is given by

where Ax and Ay are the x and y coordinates of the point A etc.

If the area comes out to be zero, it means the three points are collinear. They lie in a straight line
and do not form a triangle.

Area of a polygon (Coordinate Geometry)

A method for finding the area of any polygon when the coordinates of its vertices are known.

First, number the vertices in order, going either clockwise or counter-clockwise, starting at any
vertex.

The area is then given by the formula

Trapezoid (Coordinate Geometry)

A quadrilateral that has one pair of parallel sides, and where the vertices have known
coordinates.

The area of a trapezoid is calculated by multiplying the average width by the altitude. See
Trapezoid definition (coordinate geometry) to see how the side lengths and altitude are found.
(Note too that the median length is the same as the average width.)
As a formula:

where
b1, b2 are the lengths of the two bases (BC and AD)
a is the altitude of the trapezoid

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Parallelogram (Coordinate Geometry)

A quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel and congruent, and whose
location on the coordinate plane is determined by the coordinates of the four vertices
(corners).

Conic Sections

Introduction to conics: A conic is the intersection of a plane and a right circular cone. The four basic types
of conics are parabolas, ellipses, circles, and hyperbolas.

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Steps to get an equation from general from to standard form:

1. Group x-terms and y-terms together, move constant term to other side.
2. Complete the square twice. (1st for the x-term, 2nd for the y-term). Make sure that “a” is one in
order to complete the square. Also what you add to one side you must add to the other side of an
equation.
3. Factor the two perfect square trinomials to binomial squares.
4. Divide by constant term to get equal to 1.
5. If there is a number in front of the binomial you must multiply top and bottom of fraction by
reciprocal of that number to get into standard form.

Graphing Hyperbolas:
1. Locate the vertices.
2. Use dashed lines to draw the rectangle centered at (h, k) with sides parallel to the axes moving
±a and ±b from (h, k).

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3. Use dashed lines to draw the diagonals of this rectangle and extending them to obtain the
asymptotes.
4. Draw the two branches of the hyperbola starting at each vertex and approaching the asymptotes.

In order to graph a hyperbola the equation must be in standard form.

Steps to get an equation from general from to standard form:

1. Group x-terms and y-terms together, move constant term to other side.
2. Complete the square twice. (1st for the x-term, 2nd for the y-term). Make sure that “a” is one in
order to complete the square. Also what you add to one side you must add to the other side of an
equation.
3. Factor the two perfect square trinomials to binomial squares.
4. Divide by constant term to get equal to 1.
5. If there is a number in front of the binomial you must multiply top and bottom of fraction by
reciprocal of that number to get into standard form.

Cl assifying Conic Sections:

Determine whether the equation is a parabola, ellipse, hyperbola or circle.
General second degree equation: Ax2 + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Characteristics in the general equation Ty pe of Conic

If only one square term, either x2 or y 2 Parabola

Two squared terms with a plus sign between them with the same Circle
coefficient in front of each squared term
(x2 & y 2 have the exact same number and sign)

Two squared terms with a plus sign between them with different Ellipse
coefficients in front of each squared term
(x2 & y 2 have different numbers but the same sign)

Two squared terms with a minus sign between them. (They can Hyperbola
have the same coefficient in front of each squared term or be
different.)
(x2 & y 2 have different signs)

D i fferential Equations

Homogeneous Equations

A homogeneous differential equation is an equation which can be written in the form

P(x, y )dx + Q(x, y )dy = 0 3.2

where P and Q are homogeneous functions of the same degree. Equations of this type can be transformed
into separable equations by means of substitutions

y = xv, where v = v(x ) 3.3

and

dy = vdx + xdv

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Thus, substitution of xv for y in (3.2) yields

P(x, xv )dx + Q(x, xv )(vdx + xdv ) = 0

If P and Q are homogeneous functions of degree n, then

P(x, xv )dx = x n P(1,v ) and Q(x, xv ) = x n Q(1,v )

Substituting in the preceding differential equation and dividing both sides by x n we obtain

P(1,v )dx + Q(1,v )(vdx + xdv ) = 0

This equation can be written in the separable form

1 Q(1,v )
dx + dv = 0
x P(1,v ) + vQ(1,v ) 3.4

provided non-zero denominators occur. We have proved that if y=xv is a solution of (3.2), then v is a
solution of (3.4). Conversely, if v is a solution of (3.4), then reversing our argument shows that y=vx is a
solution of (3.2). It is not advisable to memorize the final form of (3.4). Instead, remember the
substitution y=xv which is used to simplify the homogeneous equation.

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER

A fi rst-order linear differential equation is an equation of the form

y'+ P( x) y = Q( x) 3.5

where P and Q are continuous functions. If Q(x)=0 for all x, then equation (3.5) is separable and we may
write

y'
= − P( x)
y
provided y≠0. Integrating, we obtain

ln y = −  P( x)dx + ln C .

We have expressed the constant of integration as ln|C| in order to change the form of the last equation as
follows:

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ln y − ln C = −  P( x)dx
y
ln = −  P( x)dx
C

=e 
y − P ( x ) dx

ye 
P ( x ) dx
=C
We next observe that

d   P ( x ) dx   P ( x ) dx + P( x) ye  P ( x ) dx
ye = y ' e
dx  

= e y'+ yP ( x).
P ( x ) dx

Consequently, if we multiply both sides of (3.5) by e ∫P(x)dx, then the resulting equation may be written as

d   P ( x ) dx 
= Q ( x )e 
P ( x ) dx
 ye  .
dx  
This gives us the following (implicit) solution of (3.5)

ye =  Q ( x )e 
P ( x ) dx P ( x ) dx
+ D. 3.6

Solving this equation for y leads to an explicit solution. The expression e∫P(x)dx is called an integrating
factor of (3.5). We have shown that multiplications of both sides if (3.5) by this expression leads to an
equation which has the solution (3.6).

Vectors

Finding the Vector between Two Points in Three Space

As in two space,

OA + AB = OB
AB = OB − OA
AB = ( xB − xA , yB − yA , zB − z A )
O In fact, vector addition, subtraction, and scalar
multiplication is identical in three space as it is
in two space, both algebraically and
geometrically.
Length of a Vector

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The general point P (a, b, c) is shown

on the 3D graph. The point N is
directly below P on the x-y plane.

From Pythagoras’ Theorem, we have

2
ON = a 2 + b2 ,

NP = c
2 2 2
OP = ON + NP
= a 2 + b2 + c2
 The distance from (0,0,0) to the
point P(a,b,c)

is given by OP = a 2 + b2 + c 2

Ex: If A(3,-1,4) and B(6,-1,8) are points in space, calculate:

a) OA b) AB c) AC = OA + OB
How do we Describe the Direction of a Vector in R3

For a vector d = (d1 , d2 , d3 ) , the direction numbers are d1, d2, d3.
The direction angles are the angles formed between the vector d and each of the positive axis.

 d and the x-axis (red),

is the angle between
 is the angle between d and the y -axis (green)
 is the angle between d and the z-axis (pink),

where 0   ,  ,   180

Consider the dot product between d and each of the

axis…or more specifically, the unit vectors
iˆ = (1, 0, 0) , ˆj = (0,1, 0) , and kˆ = (0, 0,1) .

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d • iˆ = d iˆ cos  Describe unit vector using direction cosines

d • iˆ d
cos  =
d iˆ dˆ =
d
(d1 , d 2 , d 3 ) • (1,0,0)
=
d (d1 , d 2 , d3 )
=
d1 d
=
d
Similarily, we have d d d 
cos  =
d2
cos  =
d3
= 1 , 2 , 3 
d
,
d d d d 
These are the direction cosines.
 
= (cos  , cos  , cos  )
note that d = cos  + cos  + cos  = 1
2 2 2

Properties of vectors:
1) Vector addition is commutative
   
a +b = b +a
2) Vector addition is associative.
  
(   
a + b +c = a +b +c ) ( )
3) The zero vector exists.
  
a+0 = a

4) The negative vector exists.

  
a + (− a ) = 0

5) Scalar multiplication is distributive.

(
 
)
 
k a + b = ka + kb , k   and (c + d )a = ca + da , c  , d  
6) Scalar multiplication is associative.

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(cd )a = c(da ) , c  , d   and (− c)a = −(ca ) , c  

7) The identity element for scalar multiplication exists.
 
1a = a

8) Scalar multiplication of zero.

 
0a = 0

9) Scalar multiplication of the zero vector.

 
c0 = 0 , c  

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