WEEK 3:

CELLULAR ORGANIZATION OF THE BODY

LYLLE ANGELICA F. PIANSAY, RMT, MD, FPCP

LECTURER
 WHAT IS A CELL?

• A cell is the basic, living, structural and functional unit of the

body.

• Cell biology (or Cytology) is the scientific study of cellular

structure and function.
PARTS OF A CELL

Principal Parts
of a Cell:

• Plasma
membrane

• Cytoplasm

• Nucleus
PLASMA MEMBRANE
• The plasma membrane, which
surrounds and contains the
cytoplasm of a cell, is composed
of proteins and lipids.

• According to the fluid mosaic

model, the membrane is a
mosaic of proteins floating like
icebergs in a lipid bilayer sea.
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Acts as a barrier separating inside and
outside of the cell

• Controls the flow of substances into

and out of the cell (selectively
permeable)

• Helps identify the cell to other cells

(e.g., immune cells)

• Participates in intercellular signaling

STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
• The Lipid Bilayer
• Phospholipids – 75%
• Cholesterol – 20%
• Glycolipids – 5%
• In phospholipids
• Polar part: phosphate-containing “head”; hydrophilic
• Nonpolar part: fatty acid “tails”; hydrophobic
• Cholesterol → weakly amphipathic
• Glycolipids
• Carbohydrate group form a polar “head”
• Fatty acid “tails” are nonpolar
• Appear only in the layer that faces the extracellular fluid
ARRANGEMENT OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS
• Membrane proteins: integral or
peripheral
• Integral proteins → amphipathic
• Extend into or through the lipid bilayer
and are firmly embedded in it
• Transmembrane protein
• Glycoprotein
• Peripheral proteins
• Not firmly embedded in the membrane
• Attached to polar head of membrane
lipids or to integral proteins
 FUNCTIONS OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS

Ion channel (integral) Carrier (integral) Receptor (integral)

Enzyme (integral and peripheral) Linker (integral and peripheral) Cell identity marker (glycoprotein)
MEMBRANE FLUIDITY
• Membranes are fluid structures.

• Membrane fluidity depends on both the number of double bonds in

the fatty acid tails of the lipids that make up the bilayer, and on the
amount of cholesterol present.

• Membrane fluidity is an excellent compromise for the cell.

• Membrane fluidity allows interactions to occur within the plasma

membrane.
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
• Selective permeability
• Property of plasma membranes to permit some substances to pass more
readily than others.

• Lipid bilayer portion

• Highly permeable to: Nonpolar molecules oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroids
• Moderately permeable to: small, uncharged polar molecules (water, urea)
• Impermeable to: ions and large, uncharged polar molecules (glucose)

• Other functions of transmembrane proteins, channels and carriers.

GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
• Concentration gradient
• Difference in the concentration of a chemical from
the inside to the outside of the plasma membrane
• Electrical gradient
• Difference in electrical charges between two
regions
• If it occurs across the plasma membrane, this
charge difference is termed membrane potential
• Electrochemical gradient
• Combined influence of the concentration gradient
and the electrical gradient on movement of a
particular ion.
 TRANSPORT ACROSS THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
• Transport of materials across the plasma membrane is essential to the
life of a cell.
• Certain substances must move into the cell to support metabolic reactions.
• Cellular waste products must move out of the cell.

• Mechanisms:
• Passive processes → a substance moves down its concentration or electrical
gradient to cross the membrane using only its own kinetic energy (energy of
motion)
• Active processes → cellular energy is used to drive the substance “uphill”
against its concentration or electrical gradient
 PASSIVE PROCESSES
• The Principle of Diffusion
• In diffusion, a substance moves
down its concentration gradient.
• Factors that influence diffusion
rate of substances across plasma
membranes:
• Steepness of the concentration
gradient
• Temperature
• Mass of the diffusing substance
• Surface area
• Diffusion distance
 PASSIVE PROCESS
• SIMPLE DIFFUSION • A passive process in which
substances move freely through the
lipid bilayer of the plasma
membranes of cells without the
help of membrane transport
proteins.

• Molecules that move across the

lipid bilayer through simple
diffusion: oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen gases, fatty acids, steroids,
fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K),
water urea, and small alcohols
 PASSIVE PROCESS
FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Allows passage of solutes that are too polar or highly charged to

move through the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion.

• An integral membrane protein assists a specific substance across the

membrane
• Channel
• Carrier
 PASSIVE PROCESS: FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• CHANNEL-MEDIATED • A solute moves down its
FACILITATED DIFFUSION concentration gradient across the
lipid bilayer through a membrane
channel

• Most membrane channels are ion

channels
• Most numerous: selective for K+ or Cl-
• Fewer channels for: Na+ or Ca2+

• Diffusion is slower.
 PASSIVE PROCESS: FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• CHANNEL-MEDIATED FACILITATED • A gated channel is one in which a
DIFFUSION OF POTASSIUM IONS portion of the channel protein acts
THROUGH A GATED K+ CHANNEL as a gate to open or close the
channel’s pore to the passage of
ions.

• Channels are integral membrane

proteins that allow specific, small,
inorganic ions to pass across the
membrane by facilitated diffusion.
 PASSIVE PROCESS: FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• A carrier (also called a transporter)
• CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED moves a solute down its concentration
DIFFUSION gradient across the plasma membrane.
• No cellular energy is required.

• The solute binds more often to the

carrier on the side of the membrane
with a higher concentration of solute.

• Transport maximum → number of

carriers available places an upper limit
• Once all of the carriers are occupied →
SATURATION
 PASSIVE PROCESS: FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• CARRIER-MEDIATED FACILITATED • The carrier protein binds to glucose in the
DIFFUSION OF GLUCOSE ACROSS A extracellular fluid and releases it into the
PLASMA MEMBRANE cytosol.

• Carriers are integral membrane proteins

that undergo changes in shape in order to
move substances across the membrane
by facilitated diffusion.

• Substances that move by carrier-

mediated facilitated diffusion: glucose,
fructose, galactose, some vitamins
 PASSIVE PROCESS
OSMOSIS
• Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane.
 PASSIVE PROCESS
TONICITY AND ITS EFFECTS ON RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs)
• The arrows indicate the direction and degree of water movement into and out of the cells.
• A solution’s tonicity is a measure of the solution’s ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content.
 ACTIVE PROCESSES
• Active Transport
• Primary Active Transport → energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the
shape of a carrier protein (called pumps), moves a substance across the plasma
membrane against its concentration gradient
• Cyanide → chemicals that turn off ATP production; shut down active transport in cells
throughout the body
• Secondary Active Transport → energy stored in a Na+ or H+ gradient is used to drive
other substance across the membrane against their own concentration gradients

• Transport in Vesicles
• Endocytosis
• Phagocytosis
• Exocytosis
• Transcytosis
 PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Na+-K+ ATPase (Sodium-Potassium Pump)

SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Secondary active transport indirectly
uses energy obtained from the
hydrolysis of ATP

• Symporters → transporters that

move two substances in the same
direction

• Antiporters → transporters that

move two substances in opposite
directions across the membrane
 TRANSPORT IN VESICLES
• Vesicle → small spherical sac; transports substances from one
structure to another within cells; or imports materials from and
release into extracellular fluid
• Endocytosis → materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma
membrane
• Exocytosis → materials move out of a cell by the fusion with the plasma
membrane of vesicles formed inside the cell

• Require energy supplied by ATP

ENDOCYTOSIS
• 3 types: receptor-mediated
endocytosis, phagocytosis, and bulk-
phase endocytosis

• Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Highly selective type of endocytosis, by
which cells take up specific ligands
• Examples: cholesterol-containing LDLs,
transferrin, some vitamins, antibodies,
and certain hormones
PHAGOCYTOSIS
• “Cell eating”

• Form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large

solid particles, such as worn-out cells, whole
bacteria, or viruses

• Vital defense mechanism that helps protect the

body from disease

• Phagocytes → carry out phagocytosis

• Macrophages
• Neutrophils
BULK-PHASE ENDOCYTOSIS
• Also called pinocytosis or “cell drinking”

• Form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets

of extracellular fluid are taken up; non-
selective

• No receptor proteins are involved

• The plasma membrane folds inward,

forming a vesicle.
 TRANSPORT IN VESICLES
EXOCYTOSIS
• Exocytosis releases materials from a
cell.
• Important in the following:
• Secretory cells that liberate digestive
enzymes, hormones, mucus, or other
secretions
• Nerve cells that release substances called
neurotransmitters
TRANSCYTOSIS
• Transport in vesicles may also be used
to move a substance into, across, and
out of a cell.
• Vesicles undergo endocytosis on one
side of a cell, move across the cell, and
then undergo exocytosis on the
opposite side.
• Most often across the endothelial cells
that line blood vessels
 CYTOPLASM
• Consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus

• Two components:
• Cytosol → intracellular fluid; fluid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds
organelles; 55% of total cell volume
• Composed of water, solutes, suspended particles, lipid droplets, and glycogen granules
• Site of many chemical reactions required for a cell’s existence
• Organelles → tiny structures that perform different functions in the cell
CYTOSKELETON
• Network of protein filaments that
extends throughout the cytosol

• 3 types of filaments:
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
• Microtubules

• Functions:
• Serves as a scaffold that helps determine
a cell’s shape and organize the cellular
contents
• Aids movement of organelles within the
cell, of chromosomes during cell division,
and of whole cells such as phagocytes
 ORGANELLES
Centrosome → pair of centrioles plus
pericentriolar matrix
Pericentriolar matrix contains tubulins,
which are used for growth of the mitotic
spindle and microtubule formation
• Centrosome (or microtubule organizing
center) → located near the nucleus
• These tubulin complexes are the
organizing centers for growth of the
mitotic spindle, which plays a critical role
in cell division, and for microtubule
formation in nondividing cells.
• During cell division, centrosomes
replicate so that succeeding generations
of cells have the capacity for cell division.

Functions of the cilia and flagella:
1. Cilia move fluids along a cell’s
surface
2. A flagellum moves an entire
cell
ORGANELLES
CILIA
• Numerous, short, hairlike projections
that extend from the surface of the cell
• Each cilium contains a core of 20
microtubules surrounded by a plasma
membrane
FLAGELLA
• Similar in structure to cilia but are
typically much longer
• Generates forward motion along its
axis by rapidly wiggling in a wavelike
pattern
ORGANELLES
RIBOSOMES
• Sites of protein synthesis
• High content of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)

• Functions of Ribosomes:
• Ribosomes associated with endoplasmic
reticulum synthesize proteins destined
for insertion in the plasma membrane or
secretion from the cell
• Free ribosomes synthesize proteins used
in the cytosol
 ORGANELLES
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Network of membrane-enclosed sacs or
tubules that extend throughout the
cytoplasm and connect to the nuclear
envelope.

Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum:

• Rough ER synthesizes glycoproteins and
phospholipids that are transferred into
cellular organelles, inserted into the
plasma membrane, or secreted during
exocytosis
• Smooth ER synthesizes fatty acids and
steroids, such as estrogens and
testosterone; inactivates or detoxifies
drugs and other potentially harmful
substances; removes the phosphate
group from glucose-6-phosphate; and
stores and releases calcium ions that
trigger contraction in muscle cells.
 ORGANELLES
GOLGI COMPLEX
• The opposite faces of a Golgi complex
differ in size, shape, content, and
enzymatic activities.

Functions of the Golgi complex:

• Modifies, sorts, packages, ad transports
proteins received from the rough ER
• Forms secretory vesicles that discharge
processed proteins via exocytosis into
Functions of the Golgi complex: extracellular fluid; forms membrane
1. Modifies, sorts, packages, ad vesicles that ferry new molecules to the
transports proteins received from plasma membrane; forms transport
the rough ER vesicles that carry molecules to other
2. Forms secretory vesicles that organelles, such as lysosomes.
discharge processed proteins via
exocytosis
 ORGANELLES: THE GOLGI COMPLEX

Processing and packaging of proteins by the Golgi complex.

ORGANELLES
LYSOSOMES
• Membrane-enclose vesicles that form
from the Golgi complex
• Contain several types of powerful
digestive enzymes

• Autophagy → process by which entire

worn-out organelles are digested
• Autophagosome → derived from the
membrane, enclosing the organelle to be
digested
• Autolysis → when lysosomal enzymes
destroy the entire cell that contains
them
 ORGANELLES

PEROXISOMES
• Also called microbodies, contain several
oxidases, enzymes that can oxidize
(remove hydrogen atoms from) various
organic substances.
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) → by-product
of the oxidation reactions
• Catalases → enzyme which decomposes
H2O2; also present in the peroxisomes
• Similar in structure to lysosomes, but
smaller
PROTEASOMES
• Tiny barrel-shaped structures consisting
of four stacked rings of proteins around a
central core
• Function: continuous destruction of
unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins
• Contain proteases → enzymes that cut
proteins into small peptides
ORGANELLES
MITOCHONDRIA
• Referred to as “powerhouses” of the
cell, because they generate most of
the ATP through aerobic respiration.

Functions of the Mitochondria:

• Generate ATP through reactions of
aerobic cellular respiration
• Play an important early role in
apoptosis

• The nucleus contains most of
the cell’s genes, which are
located on chromosomes.
• Functions of the nucleus:
• Controls cellular
structure
• Directs cellular activities
• Produces ribosomes in
nucleoli
NUCLEUS
• A spherical or oval-shaped structure that
is usually the most prominent feature of a
cell.
• Nuclear envelope → double membrane
that separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm
• Nucleoli → one or more spherical bodies
inside the nucleus that function in
producing ribosomes
• Chromatin → complex of DNA, proteins,
and some RNA
• Total genetic information carries in a cell or an
organism is its genome
 NUCLEUS
• Chromatin → complex of DNA,
proteins, and some RNA
• Total genetic information carries in
a cell or an organism is its genome
• Each chromatin bead is a
nucleosome that consists of
double-stranded DNA wrapped
twice around a core of 8 proteins
called histones
 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Objectives:
Describe the sequence of events in protein synthesis.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Proteome → all of an organism’s proteins
• Gene expression → a process wherein a gene’s DNA is used as a template for
synthesis of a specific protein
• DNA and RNA store genetic information as sets of three nucleotides.
• Base triplet → a sequence of three such nucleotides in DNA
• Codon → complementary sequence of three nucleotides transcribed by each DNA
base triplet
• A given codon specifies a particular amino acid.
• Genetic code → set of rules that relate the base triplet sequence of DNA to the
corresponding codons of RNA and the amino acids they specify.
OVERVIEW OF GENE EXPRESSION
• Synthesis of a specific protein
requires transcription of a gene’s
DNA into RNA and translation of RNA
into a corresponding sequence of
amino acids.

• Transcription occurs in the nucleus.

• Translation occurs in the cytoplasm.

 TRANSCRIPTION
• The genetic information represented by the
sequence of base triplets in DNA serves as a
template for copying the information into a
complementary sequence of codons.

• 3 types of RNA are made from the DNA

template:
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)
 TRANSCRIPTION
• RNA polymerase → enzyme that catalyzes
transcription of DNA

• Promoter → segment of DNA where

transcription begins, a special nucleotide
sequence; located near the beginning of a
gene
• This is where RNA polymerase attaches to the
DNA.

• Terminator → specifies the end of the gene;

another special nucleotide sequence.
 TRANSCRIPTION
• During transcription, bases pair in a
complementary manner
• Bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T)
in the DNA template pair with guanine,
cytosine, and adenine (A), respectively, in the
RNA strand.
• Adenine in the DNA template pairs with uracil
(U), not thymine, in RNA
• Not all parts of a gene actually code for
parts of a protein.
• Introns → regions within a gene do not code for
parts of proteins
• Exons → located between regions code for
segments of a protein
• Immediately after transcription:
• Pre-mRNA → transcript includes information
from both introns and exons
• Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins → removes
introns from pre-mRNA; enzymes that cut out
the introns and splice together the exons
• Alternative splicing of mRNA → process in
which the pre-mRNA transcribed from a
gene is spliced in different ways to produce
several different mRNAs.
 TRANSLATION
• In the process of translation, the • During translation, an mRNA
nucleotide sequence in an mRNA molecule binds to a ribosome. Then,
molecule specifies the amino acid the mRNA nucleotide sequence
sequence of a protein. specifies the amino acid sequence of
a protein.
• Ribosomes in the cytoplasm carry out
translation.
• Small unit has a binding site for mRNA
• Larger subunit has 3 binding sites for
tRNA molecules:
• P (peptidyl) site
• A (aminoacyl) site
• E (exit) site
 CELL DIVISION
Objectives:
• Discuss the stages, events, and significance of somatic and reproductive cell division
• Describe the signals that induce somatic cell division
 CELL DIVISION
• Most cells of the human body undergo cell division, the process by which cells
reproduce themselves.

• Two types of cell division:

• Somatic cell division → a cell undergoes a nuclear division called mitosis, and a
cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis to produce two genetically identical cells, each
with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the original cell
• Somatic cell → any cell of the body other than a germ cell
• Germ cell → gamete (sperm or oocyte) or any precursor cell destined to become a gamete
• Reproductive cell division → mechanism that produces gametes, the cells needed to
form the next generation of sexually producing organisms
 SOMATIC CELL DIVISION
• Cell cycle → orderly sequence of • In a complete cell cycle, a starting cell
events in which a somatic cell duplicates its contents and divides into two
duplicates its contents and divides in identical cells.
two. • Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
usually occurs during late anaphase
• Human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes, for a total of 46.
• One member of each pair is
inherited from each parent.
• Homologous chromosomes → two
chromosomes that make up each
pair
• Contain similar genes
• Exception: sex chromosomes (XX, XY)
 INTERPHASE
• Interphase → period when the cell is • G2 phase → interval between the S
not actively dividing phase and the mitotic phase
• State of high metabolic activity • Lasts 4-6 hours
• 3 phases: G1, S, G2 • Cell growth continues, enzymes and other
proteins are synthesized in preparation for
cell division, and replication of centrosomes
• G1 phase → interval between the is completed
mitotic phase and the S phase
• Replicates most of its organelles and
cytosolic components but not its DNA
• G0 phase → cells that remain in G1 for a
very long time, destined never to divide
again
• S phase → interval between G1 and G2
• DNA replication occurs
• Lasts about 8 hours
 INTERPHASE

• When DNA replicates during the S phase, its

helical partially uncoil, and the two strands
separate at the points where hydrogen bonds
connect base pairs.

• The original DNA molecule has become two

identical DNA molecules.
 MITOTIC PHASE
• Results in the formation of two identical cells, consists of a nuclear division
(mitosis) and cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) to form two identical cells

• Nuclear division (Mitosis) → distribution of two sets of chromosomes into

two separate nuclei; it has 4 stages:
• Prophase → Early prophase: chromatin fibers condense and shorten into
chromosomes. Late prophase: tubulins in the pericentriolar material of the
centrosomes start to form the mitotic spindle
• Metaphase → the microtubules of the mitotic spindle align the centromeres of the
chromatid pairs at the exact center of the mitotic spindle
• Anaphase → centromeres split, separating the two members of each chromatid pair,
which move toward opposite poles of the cell
• Telophase → final stage of mitosis; begins after chromosomal movement stops
 MITOTIC PHASE
• Cytoplasmic Division: Cytokinesis
• This process usually begins in late anaphase with the formation of a cleavage furrow, a
slight indentation of the plasma membrane, and is completed after telophase
• Cleavage furrow usually appears midway between the centrosomes and extends
around the periphery of the cell.
• Because he plane of the cleavage furrow is always perpendicular to the mitotic spindle,
the two sets of chromosomes end up in separate cells.
• When cytokinesis is complete, interphase begins.

• The sequence of events can be summarized as:

• G1 → S phase → G2 phase → mitosis → cytokinesis
 CONTROL OF CELL DESTINY
• A cell has 3 possible destinies:
• To remain alive and functioning without dividing
• To grow and divide
• To die

• Homeostasis is maintained when cell proliferation = cell death.

• Cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdk’s) → enzymes that can transfer a phosphate

group from ATP to a protein
• Cyclins → responsible for switching the Cdk’s on and off; levels rise and fall during the cell cycle

• Cellular death is also regulated.

• Apoptosis → an orderly genetically programmed cell death; normal type of cell death
• Necrosis → pathological type of cell death that results from tissue injury
 REPRODUCTIVE CELL DIVISION
• Sexual reproduction → a process wherein each new organism is the result of
the union of two different gametes (fertilization), one produced by each
parent.

• Meiosis → the reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries
and testes) produces gametes in which the number of chromosomes is
reduced by half
• Gametes contain a single set of 23 chromosomes and thus are haploid (n) cells
• Two successive stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II
 MEIOSIS I
• Begins once chromosomal replication is
complete.

• 4 phases:
• Prophase I → extended phase in which the
chromosomes shorten and thicken
• Synapsis → two sister chromatids of each pair
of homologous chromosomes pair off; resulting
4 chromatids form a tetrad
• Crossing-over → exchange between parts of
nonsister chromatids
• Metaphase I → tetrads line up along the
metaphase plate of the cell
• Anaphase I → members of each homologous
pair of chromosomes separate as they are
pulled to opposite poles
• Telophase I → similar to telophase and
cytokinesis of mitosis
 MEIOSIS II
• Also consists of 4 phases:
• Prophase II
• Metaphase II
• Anaphase II
• Telophase II
• These phases are similar to those that occur
during mitosis; the centromeres split, and the
sister chromatids separate and move toward
opposite poles of the cell.

• In summary:
• Meiosis I begins with a diploid starting cell and
ends with 2 cells, each with the haploid number of
chromosomes.
• During Meiosis II, each of the 2 haploid cells
formed during meiosis I divides; the net result is 4
haploid gametes that are genetically different
from the original diploid starting cell.
 CELLULAR DIVERSITY
• Cells vary considerably in size.
• Macroscopic
• Microscopic

• The shapes of cells also vary

considerably.
• Round, oval, flat, cube-shaped, column-
shaped, elongated, star-shaped, cylindrical,
or disc-shaped
• Related to body function
 AGING AND CELLS
• Aging → normal process accompanied by a progressive alteration of the body’s
homeostatic adaptive responses

• Geriatrics → specialized branch of medicine that deals with the medical problems
and care of elderly persons
• Gerontology → scientific study of the process and problems associated with aging

• Telomeres → specific DNA sequences found only at the tips of each chromosome
• Protect the tips of chromosomes from erosion and from sticking to one another
• Shorten in most normal body cells after many cycles of cell division; eventually, telomeres can
be completely gone and some of the functional chromosomal material may be lost

• Glucose → haphazardly added to proteins inside and outside cells, forming

irreversible cross-links between protein molecules
• With advancing age, more cross-links form, which contributes to the stiffening and loss of
elasticity in aging tissues
 CANCER
• A group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled or abnormal cell
division
• Tumor or neoplasm → the excess tissue that develops when a part of the
body divide without control

• Oncology → study of tumors

• Malignant tumor (or malignancy) → a cancerous neoplasm; has the ability to
undergo metastasis, the spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body
• Benign tumor → neoplasm that does not metastasize
 TYPES OF CANCER
• The name of a cancer is derived from the type of tissue in which it develops.

• Carcinomas → malignant tumors that arise from epithelial cells

• Melanomas → cancerous growths of melanocytes, skin epithelial cells that
produce the pigment melanin
• Sarcoma → general term for any cancer arising from muscle cells or
connective tissues
• Osteogenic sarcoma → most frequent type of childhood cancer, which destroys normal
bone tissue
• Leukemia → cancer of blood-forming organs characterized by rapid growth of
abnormal leukocytes (white blood cells)
• Lymphoma → malignant disease of lymphatic tissue (ie: lymph nodes)
 GROWTH AND SPREAD OF CANCER
• Cells of malignant tumors duplicate • Malignant cells may detach from the
rapidly and continuously. primary tumor and invade a body cavity
or enter the blood or lymph, then
circulate to and invade other body
• Angiogenesis → growth of new tissues, establishing secondary tumors.
networks of blood vessels, as malignant
cells invade surrounding tissues
• Tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs) → • Malignant cells resist antitumor
proteins that stimulate angiogenesis in defenses of he body.
tumors
• Can occur either by overproduction of TAFs
or by the lack of naturally occurring • Pain associated with cancer develops
angiogenesis inhibitors when the tumor presses on nerves or
blocks a passageway in an organ.
• As the cancer grows, it begins to
compete with normal tissues for space
and nutrients. Eventually, normal tissue
decrease in size and dies.
 CAUSES OF CANCER
• Carcinogens → a chemical agent or radiation that produces cancer
• Induce mutations, permanent changes in the DNA base sequence of a gene.
• Examples: hydrocarbons in cigarette tar, radon gas from the earth, and UV radiation

• Oncogenes → cancer-causing genes; have the ability to transform a normal

cell into a cancerous cell
• Derive from normal genes called proto-oncogene that regulate growth and
development
• Excessive production of growth factors, chemicals that stimulate cell growth; the
growth pattern of the cell becomes abnormal

• Oncogenic Viruses→ example: human papillomavirus (HPV) causes cervical

cancers in women
 CARCINOGENESIS: A MULTISTEP PROCESS
• Carcinogenesis → a multistep process of cancer development in which as
many as 10 distinct mutations may have to accumulate in a cell before it
becomes cancerous.
• Colorectal cancer, breast and lung cancers take years or decades to develop.

• Development of colon cancer:

• Tumor begins as an area of increased cell proliferation → adenomas → carcinoma
develops
 TREATMENT OF CANCER
• Surgical removal
• Chemotherapy and radiation therapy
• Chemotherapy → administering drugs that cause death of cancerous cells
• Radiation therapy → breaks chromosomes, thus blocking cell division
• Side effects: hair loss due to death of hair follicle cells, vomiting and nausea due to death of
cells lining the stomach and intestines, and susceptibility to infection
• Or, a combination of surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy

• Virotherapy → use of viruses to kill cancer cells

• Specifically target cancer cells without affecting the healthy cells of the body

• Metastasis regulatory genes → control the ability of cancer cells to undergo

metastasis
• Under investigation
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