TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

Ma. Theresa Fedoc – Minguito, MD, DPSP-CP

 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. MUSCULAR TISSUE
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
MUSCULAR TISSUE
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
NERVOUS TISSUE
 How are cells held together to form tissues?
• CELL JUNCTIONS:
• Tight Junctions

• Adherens Junctions

• Desmosomes

• Hemidesmosomes

• Gap Junctions
 How are cells held together to form tissues?
Tight Junctions
 How are cells held together to form tissues?
Adherens Junctions
 How are cells held together to form tissues?
Desmosomes
 How are cells held together to form tissues?
Hemidesmosomes
 How are cells held together to form tissues?
Gap Junctions
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. MUSCULAR TISSUE
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF TISSUES
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
3. MUSCULAR TISSUE
4. NERVOUS TISSUE
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Parts:
• Apical Surface / Free Surface
• Lateral Surface
• Basal Surface
• Basement Membrane
• Basal Lamina
• Reticular Lamina
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Arrangement of cells in layers:
a. Simple epithelium - single layer of cells
functions: diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption
b. Pseudostratified epithelium (pseudo- = false)
appears to have multiple layers of cells because the cell nuclei lie at
different levels and not all cells reach the apical surface;
it is actually a simple epithelium because all its cells rest on the
basement membrane
c. Stratified epithelium (stratum = layer)
consists of two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues
in locations where there is considerable wear and tear
 CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
• Cell Shapes:
a. Squamous cells (flat)
Thin cells which allows for the rapid passage of substances through them
b. Cuboidal cells
as tall as they are wide and are shaped like cubes or hexagons
may have microvilli at their apical surface and function in either secretion or
absorption
c. Columnar cells
much taller than they are wide, like columns, and protect underlying tissues
apical surfaces may have cilia or microvilli
often are specialized for secretion and absorption
d. Transitional cells
change shape, from squamous to cuboidal and back, as organs stretch
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Connective Tissue (CT)
Characteristics
• Mesodermal in origin
• Composed of cells and extracellular substances or matrix
• Cells are apart from each other
• Abundant extracellular or intercellular substances which form the main bulk of
the CT
• Presence of CT fibers embedded in the extracellular matrix
• Has both blood and nerve supplies except cartilage and mucous CT
* Epithelium is avascular but with nerve supply
Connective Tissue (CT)
Types
• Connective tissue proper
• Adipose tissue
• Cartilage
• Bone
• Blood
Connective Tissue Proper
• 3 major components
– Ground substance
– Fibers
– Cells
• Types
– Loose CT
– Dense CT
Connective Tissue
Ground Substance
• Also known as extracellular
matrix
• Translucent, gel-like material in
which CT cells and fibers are
embedded
• Aqueous phase
• the medium through which all
nutrients and waste products
must pass in transit between the
blood and the parenchymal cells
of the organs
Connective Tissue
Fibers
• Types
• Collagen fibers
• Reticular fibers
• Elastic fibers
• Principal producers of
collagen and elastin are
fibroblasts
Collagen Fibers
• In fresh or unstained preparation
• colorless strands of indefinite length
• Non-branching
• Inelastic but flexible
• May occur in solitary strands or in bundles
Collagen Fibers
• Proteins known as tropocollagen
• E/M: each collagen fiber consists of parallel fibrils
which show cross-striations
• Denatured by boiling, soluble in strong acids and alkali
• Easily digested by gastric juice
• Easily takes up ordinary stains and is acidophilic
 Collagen: Types
Type Distribution

Skin, Bone, Tendon, Fascia, Capsules

I of organs

II Hyaline & elastic cartilage

III Blood vessels, Spleen, Kidney, Uterus

IV Basal lamina of epithelia

VII Dermo-epidermal junction

VIII Endothelium, Descemet’s membrane

Collagen Fibers
Reticular Fibers
• Consist mainly of collagen type III
• Extremely thin, 0.5-2 u in diameter
• Argyrophilic (affinity to silver stain)
• Abundant in
• Smooth muscle
• Endoneurium
• Framework of organs: spleen, lymph node, bone marrow
• Constitute network around parenchymal cells like liver,
endocrine glands
Reticular Fibers
Elastic Fibers
• Appear yellowish in fresh preparation
• Occur in bundles
• Tendency to branch which may rejoin to form a loose
network
• Consists of a core of elastin surrounded by the
microfibril fibrillin (protein in nature)
Elastic Fibers
• Resistant to boiling, acids and alkali
• Not digested by gastric juice but digestible by
pancreatic juice due to the enzyme elastase
• Stains poorly with ordinary stains
• Found in CT of alveolar septa, the aorta, large arteries
Elastic Fibers
Connective Tissue
Cells
• Mesenchymal cells
• Fibroblasts
• Adipose cells or fat cells
• Macrophages
• Neutrophils
• Eosinophils
• Lymphocytes
• Plasma cells
• Mast cells
 Mesenchymal Cells
• CT develop from the
embryonic tissue called
mesenchyme
• Mesenchymal cells are small
fusiform or stellate cells
• Pluripotential cells which give
rise to other cell types as
need arises
Fibroblasts
• Fusiform cells with long tapering ends or they
may be flattened, stellate cells with several
slender processes
• Nucleus is large, elongated, pale staining with 1
or 2 nucleoli
• Found along bundles of collagen fibers
• Function: production of CT fibers and ground
substance
Fibroblasts
Adipose Cells or Fat Cells
• Fixed cells of the CT specialized for
the synthesis and storage of lipids
• Cell contains a single large lipid
droplet or fat vacuole that pushes
the nucleus towards the periphery
(signet-ring appearance)
Macrophages
• Principal cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system
• Arise from monocytes, circulate in the blood, migrate
to the tissues and differentiate into macrophages
• Nucleus is oval or kidney-shaped, dark-staining
• Cytoplasm contains numerous granules and storage
vacuoles
Macrophages
in different locations

• Blood – monocytes
• CT – histiocytes
• Liver – Kupffer cells
• Lung – alveolar macrophages
• Bone – osteoclasts
• Glomerulus – mesangial cells
• CNS – microglial cells
• Skin – Langerhans cells
• Lymph node – Dendritic cells
Macrophages
Function

• Phagocytosis
• Antigen processing
and antigen
presentation
• Secretory cells
Neutrophils
• Rarely found in normal CT but they are found in great
numbers at sites of inflammation
• Most predominant phagocytic cells in the peripheral
blood
Eosinophils
• Normal constituents of the CT, more numerous in the
CT of the nasal cavity, lungs, skin and lamina propria of
the intestine
• Attracted to site of histamine release and are more
responsive to parasitic infestation
• EBP toxic to parasites
Lymphocytes
• Small numbers in the CT throughout the body but
they are more abundant in the stroma of lymphoid
organs and lymphoid nodules
• Principal cells of the lymphoid system
• T and B lymphocytes
Plasma Cells
• Widely distributed in CT
• Arise from proliferation of B lymphocytes
• Spherical or ovoid cells with eccentrically
located nucleus in which chromatin are
arranged in a spokes of a wheel pattern
• Synthesize antibodies
Mast Cells
• Largest of the free cells of the CT
• Oval to spherical; nucleus is pale and small;
cytoplasm with numerous basophilic granules
• Numerous along the course of blood vessels and
beneath the epithelium of RT and GIT
Mast Cells and Basophils
• Cytoplasmic granules contain important vasoactive
amines like histamine
• Effects of histamine
• vasodilation
• increased vascular permeability
• smooth muscle contraction
MUSCULAR TISSUE – SKELETAL MUSCLE
MUSCULAR TISSUE – CARDIAC MUSCLE
MUSCULAR TISSUE – SMOOTH MUSCLE
General Characteristics of Muscle Fiber
• Elongated and oriented parallel to its
direction of action
• Cell membrane is known as sarcolemma
• Nucleus is elongated and is parallel to the
long axis of the muscle fiber
• Cytoplasm is known as sarcoplasm
• strongly acidophilic due to its myoglobin
pigment
• Contractility is its fundamental property
• contraction generates heat
 Functions of Muscles
• Movements
• Locomotion
• Maintenance of body posture
 Functional Classification
• Voluntary
• under the control of the CNS

• Involuntary
• contract in response to stimulation of the
autonomic nervous system
 Structural Classification
• Striated
• presence of transverse or cross-striations known as
dark and light bands

• Smooth
• no cross-striations but with longitudinal striations
 Skeletal Muscle
Connective Tissue Covering
• Epimysium
• the dense CT surrounding the whole muscle
• Perimysium
• the thin septa that extend to surround each fascicle
• Endomysium
• the delicate reticulum surrounding individual fibers
NERVOUS TISSUE
• The most complex system in the body histologically and
physiologically
• Network of billion neurons and many more supporting glial cells
• Process information and generate various responses
 Origin
• Derived from the ectoderm
• In the embryo, it arises from
• Neural tube: where brain and spinal cord are
derived
• Neural crest: nervous tissue outside of CNS like
the ganglia, capsular cells, Schwann cells
Properties/Functions
• Irritability
• Capacity to react in a gradual manner to physical or
chemical stimuli
• Conductivity
• Transmit excitation rapidly from one place to
another
• Integrates and coordinates functions of the
organs
• Synthesize chemical compound
• Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators
Structural Classification
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Brain and Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Nerves and the Ganglions
Functional Classification
• Somatic Nervous System
• Consists of pathways that regulate voluntary
motor control
• Ex. Skeletal muscles

• Autonomic Nervous System

• Involuntary control of organ system (viscera)
• Sympathetic Nervous System: mobilize energy in
times of need (fight or flight)
• Parasympathetic Nervous System: conserve and
restore energy
Cells

• Neurons or Nerve Cells

• Structural and functional unit of the nervous tissue

• Non-neural or Supporting Cells

Parts of a Neuron

• Cell body
• Covered by cell membrane
• Vary in size and shape and the mode
of branching of its processes
• In the CNS the cell body is typically
angular or polygonal with slightly
concave surfaces between the
processes
Parts of a Neuron

• Cell body (Soma)

• Generally in the PNS, the body is rounded

• Axon hillock is the conical extension in the

cell body where the axon arises
Neurons
• Nucleus
• Large, spherical or ovoid with conspicuous
nucleolus, pale staining or vesicular
• Perikaryon
• Cytoplasm: Chromatophilic substance or Nissl
bodies (equivalent to RER), mitochondria, Golgi
complex, cytoskeleton
• Cell processes
• Dendrites
• Axons
 Basis Axon Dendrites
Number of Processes 1 to a neuron Several or none

Length Generally longer Shorter, terminate in the

vicinity of neuron

Size and shape Small, cylindrical & Broad-based & taper off
uniform in diameter as it branches

Nissl bodies Absent Present

Contour or outline Smooth Rough due to presence

of fine spines which are
sites of synaptic contact
Presence of myelin Present Absent
sheath
Direction of impulses Away from neurons Toward neurons
Types of Neurons: (Based on the
size and shape of their processes)

Most neurons
Retina, olfactory
mucosa, cochlear and
vestibular ganglia
Spinal and cranial ganglia
Synapse
• Sites of functional contact
between neurons or between
neurons and other effector cells
(muscle and gland cells)

• Responsible for the

unidirectional transmission of
nerve impulses
Synapse
• Converts an electrical signal
(impulse) from the pre-
synaptic cell into a chemical
signal that acts on the post-
synaptic cell

• Transmits information by
releasing neurotransmitters
during signaling process
Supporting Cells
CNS
• Neuroglial cells
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes
• Microglial cells

• Ependymal cells
 MEMBRANES
- flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body

A. EPITHELIAL MEMBRANE
1. Mucous Membrane
2. Serous Membrane
3. Cutaneous Membrane
B. SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE
 - END –

Thank you. Study Well.